Lecture 9 on

Worldwide Development of

Unmanned Aviation – Research

Programmes and Critical

Technologies – part 2

Zdobyslaw Goraj

Warsaw, 7 May, 2020

2/50

Automation versus Autonomy

Automated System

A system that in response to inputs from its

sensors, logically follows a predetermined set

of rules to provide a predictable outcome, with

little or no human control.

Autonomous System

A system capable of sensing its environment,

making decision, and taking actions to bring

about an optimal state, without human control. NATO terminology, AUVSI, TelAviv, March 2012

3/50

Automation, autonomy,

advanced technologies

Remotely controlled

by operator

Autonomously controlled

Independently on operator

Remotely supervised

by operator

4/50

Drivers for autonomy in systems after Colonel Dubi Lavi, AUVSI, TelAviv, March 2012

5/50

Are we ready for autonomy?

• Current systems include advanced level of

automation;

• Technology and ethics are significant

drivers to achieve autonomy. They act

in opposite directions;

• We are not ready for autonomy yet!

6/50

NESHER Diesel benchmarking

0

200

400

600

800

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Type of engine

SF

C@

full t

hro

ttle

(g

r/H

P*h

) &

Po

wer/

weig

ht

(HP

/kg

*100)

Comparison between the NESHER VD0007 engines

and other commercial engines available on the market

1 4NA spark ignition

2 4 turbo spark ignition

3 16 V60 turbo spark ignition

4 Lycoming 320

5 Rotax 914

6 Mazda 16B Wankel

7 1400 jtd

8 VD007 hybrid (take off)

9 VD007 hybrid (cruise)

10 VD007 turbo

11 Thielert 2.0

12 Diesel jet 1900

13 RR AE210003 turboshaft

14 RR AE210003 Limits

NESHER

Rotax 914

SFC

Power/weight

7/50

Progress in batteries technologies

0

50

100

150

200

1940 1955 1985 1990 2010 2012

LA Ni-Cd

Ni-MH

Li-ion

8/50

Volume and weight for several type of

energy storage systems

9/50

Lithium-ion technology is now the limiting factor

• A kilogram of petrol contains about

13,000 Watt-hours of chemical energy –

of which about 4,500 Watt-hours might be

captured by an internal combustion engine.

• But a kilogram of today’s lithium-ion battery

stores only 100 Watt-hours of electricity.

• Cost a part, for the same amount energy,

today’s lithium-ion batteries are 45 times

heavier (and 16 times bigger) than petrol.

10/50

Safety aspects of Li-ion batteries • Li-ion cell has a very high energy content –

12,6 Wh (3Ah 4,2V), can bring to heat

development of >600oC, in less than 1 sec.

The phenomenon is called „Thermal runaway”).

• Failures happened during normal operation

with cells that have been passed UL testing.

Inner short in the cell can’t be predicted or

prevented’.

• Protection against overcharging is critical

for safety reasons.

• Safety incidents may never be completely

eliminated (today 1 from 5 millions cells).

• Severity of damage is dependent on cell size.

11/50

Electro Optical Payloads (1/2)

12/50

Głowice dzienne i termowizyjne (2/2)

13/50

Pico & Mini SAR - Progress

Weight 21 lbs

40 inch resolution

Modes:

Strip SAR

Spotlight SAR

GMTI

14/50

Safety factors

UAV system must be viewed in its entirety – Air vehicle,

ground control station / MMI and communications data link.

The safety approach should be based on existing

airworthiness and safety design criteria for manned aircraft,

modified and tailored to UAV specific features and types of

operation.

1.0

10.

100.

1000

100 1,000 10,000

Accid

en

t R

ate

(p

er

100,0

00 h

ou

rs)

Maximum Take-Off Weight [kg]

Legend

Design

Today status

Searcher

Hunter

Heron

Heron TP

Pioneer

F-16 approx.

15/50

Flight Safety Evolution

Ac

cid

en

t ra

te

General Aviation safety level

1988

Pioneer

Single channel analog FCS

Single customized engine

1992

Searcher

Dual channel digital FCS

Single customized engine

Redundant Comms

1996

Hunter

Dual channel digital FCS

Dual automotive engine

Redundant power systems

Redundant Comms

2000 2004

Dual/Triple channel digital FCS

FAR33 certified engine

Redundant power systems

Redundant comm. channels

Automatic emergency landing

Automatic takeoff & landing Heron

Heron TP

16/50

Human Error

0

2

4

6

8

10

Taxi TO Enroute Landing

Num

ber

of M

ishapes

Predator class A mishapes

LOGISTICS

MAINTENANCE

OPERATION

17/50

Safety Features

Safety equipments for airspace

integration:

Strobe light

Forward looking camera,

IFF mode (IDENTIFICATION FRIEND-FOE)

ATC radio relay (option)

TCAS (future growth)

See Around Capability

IDENTIFICATION

FRIEND-FOE

18/50

What about the future?

Will present solutions stand the upcoming requirements?

A-NPA – notices of Proposed Amendments; EDA – European Defence Agency

19/50

Status in Israel

• The oversight of the majority of the sky is done by Israeli

Air Force (IAR)

• Prior to 2006 all UAS flew under the jurisdiction of the IAF

• Since 2007 the UAS that are not direct IAF interest (mission

or development) have to fly under the jurisdiction of CAAI

(CAAI – Civil Aviation Authority – International)

Since 1/2/2007 any new development of UAS should be

developed under set of procedures that are issued by CAAI

20/50

An Example of Certification by ELBIT: WK450 Watchkeeper – a derivative of HERMES 450

• Fully Redundant Avionic suite & Flight Control System (redundancja)

• Flight & Mission separation (rozdział warunków lotu od realizacji misji)

• Software certified based on DO-178 (RTCA S.C.-167ASTM F38)

• Electronics certified based on DO-254 (RTCA S.C.-167ASTM F38)

• UAV flight procedures certified based on STANAG 4671-B

• Structure certified based on STANAG 4671-C

• Design certified based on STANAG 4671-D

• Equipment certified based on STANAG 4671-F

• ACAS (TCAS) certified based on AMC 1309

(Acceptable Means of Compliance)

• Certified capabilities of ATOLS, De-icing

RTCA – Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics

ASTM – American Society for Testing and Materials

21/50

Airworthiness Requirements

• There will probably not be dedicated airworthiness

codes (like FAR, CS – 23, 25, ...) for UAS

EASA policy requires tailoring of manned standards

• NATO STANAG 4671 & 4703 are accepted as the most

comprehensive airworthiness codes for UAS

4671

Recognised by EASA as a legitimate tailoring of CS23

Required by CAAI for permanent permits

4703

Light UAS bellow 150 kg

Based on VLA and ASTM for Sport Aviation

In process of approval by NATO

• Restricted Type Certificate is appropriate and expected

to be the first step towards certification

22/50

Guidelines – 1

• Public & un-involved safety

• No disturbance to the air traffic

• Prioritise manned aircraft to avoid

antagonism toward UAS

• Legislation / regulation / Standardisation

in accordance with FAA / EASA / ICAO

• Encouraging and promoting UAS industry

innovation

• Support UAS industry R&D, marketing and

training needs

• bezpieczeństwo dla niezaangażowanych

• nie zakłócać „załogowym”

• pierwszeństwo dla załogowych

• zgodnie z FAA,EASA,ICAO

• zachęcać przemysł do innowacji

• wspierać R&D, szkolenie, wytwórstwo

23/50

Guidelines – 2

• Absolute traceability from early design stage:

Policy > Legislation > Regulation >

Standardisation > Requirement > Design >

Production > Trials > Maintenance

• Full and equal applicability to all UAS companies

• Regulation subject to pre-publicity to all

UAS community in order to get feedback

• transparętność

• równe zasady dla „małych” i „dużych”

• konsultacje ze środowiskiem UAV

24/50

Guidelines – 3

• UAS prime contractor is responsible for all

sub-contractors

• Operators must have internal safety board

• Permits / Licenses to:

• Design and Production

• Operation and maintenance

• Individual UAS operators

• Plan to certify UAS training schools

• producent odpowiada za podwykonawców

• operator musi mieć „radę bezpieczeństwa”

• licencjonowane: projektowanie, produkcja,

użytkowanie, obsługa, operatorzy, szkolenia

25/50

Guidelines – 4

• Air-fields / strips for UAV must get special

permit

• Lessons learnt from on-going experience

were adopted by methodological

formalising of Special Procedures

• Instrumented Flight Rules and Visual

Flight Rules (IFR/VFR) in all flight stages –

sense and avoid

• Bottom line: Individual responsibility and

liability in case of accident

• zezwolenia dla pasów startowych

• zebrane doświadczenia formalizacja procedur

• S&A stosowane dla lotów IFR i VFR

• indywidualna odpowiedzialność za wypadki