lecture 4 - aalborg universitethomes.nano.aau.dk/lg/biosensors2008_files/biosensors4_2008a.pdf ·...
TRANSCRIPT
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Lecture 4
SPR: immobilization strategiesKinetics
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Surface plasmon sensor• Principle of affinity SP biosensor
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The Aim of the Lecture• How to make our SPR sensor selective?• What type of a signal we expect to measure?
How to process it and what information we extract from there.
specific for a particular sensor type
Quantitative parameters of a binding reaction: concentrationof an analyte, reaction rates, affinity etc.
specific for a particular reaction and geometry
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Immobilization techniques
• successful label-free measurement of a specific binding event requires the best possible activity of the ligand
• conformation and orientation should be close to the in vivosituation
• non-specific binding should be kept low
Different applications might require specific binding techniques, however there are general requirements:
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Surface modification• physisorption:
– (partial) unfolding of a protein on the surface– uncontrolled exchange of molecules between the surface
and the solution
• Self-Assembled Monolayers (SAM)+ densely packed and stable
structure,+ flexibility of the end-group
chemistry (usually carboxyl but other can be used
– still fairly rigid– doesn’t use the whole volume
penetrated by the field
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Surface modification• Dextran hydrogel: thin
hydrophilic (hydrogel) layer based on highly flexible mainly unbranched dextranmolecules
• Advantages:+ highly hydrophilic environment with non-cross-linked
structure (keeps molecules in a solution-like state)+ increased binding capacity+ thickness of the layer can match the penetration depth+ can be tailored using various molecular weight (10k – 1M)
and different chemistry• Other chemistries: Polyvinyl alcohol, polyacrylic acid, poly-L-
lysine
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Immobilisation strategies
covalent capture Hydrophobic (supported bilayer)
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Covalent immobilisation
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Amine coupling• Coupling to carboxylic groups: the most widely used strategy
• Typical protocol:– injection of EDC mixed with NHS in water, pH=4-6 (natural buffering)– injection of a protein in acetate buffer pH=4-6. Positively charged protein
will be attracted to the negatively charged hydrogel (“pre-concentration”), 1-10min.
• Protein concentration up to 50 ng/mm2 (several monolayers) can be obtained
• Coupling under mild conditions, very few immobilization points, activity is largely preserved (e.g. IgG usually retains of approx. 75% of activity)
surface modification with amino groups
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Amine coupling
• typical sensogram for amine coupling
Proteins with pI>3.5 can be effectively pre-concentrated at pH~5. However acidic proteins will be repelled from the layer
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Amine coupling
• micelle mediated immobilization of negatively charged proteins
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Covalent immobilization
coupling to thiol-modified surface
coupling to pyridyl disulfide surface
• Coupling to thiol groups– mainly used in the situations when the ligand lacks amino groups or they are located close
to the active center– can be introduced on the sensor surface or on the molecule– very specific– disulfide bond can be cleaved by reactive thiols (e.g. mercaptoethanol)
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Covalent immobilization• coupling thiolated binding partner to maleimide-
modified sensor surface
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Covalent immobilization• coupling to aldehyde groups
– based on the generation of aldehyde functionality by oxidation of carbohydrate residues
– normally not located near the active site, therefore activity is well preserved– antibodies are particularly well suited for this type of immobilizaation
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Capture-based coupling
• can be indispensable when– covalent immobilization might impair activity of the binding
site– particular molecule should be captured from e.g. cell lysate
• analyte can be removed• requirement: affinity should be high
• Commonly used pairs:– avidin-biotin bond: very robust, as strong as covalent bond– His-tagged protein – nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA)+Ni2+. Can
be easily broken by a chelating agent e.g. EDTA– Antibody – antigen
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Coupling via Lipid layer• Important for
– targeting membrane protein with drugs (drug screening)
– targeting lipid membranes (e.g. AMPs)
• bilayer capture:– phospholipids modified with a thiol group– histidine modified lipids– oligonucleotide modified lipids
– hydrophobic groups attached to CM dextran– membrane protein attached to CM dextran
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Coupling via Lipid layer• adsorption of lipid vesicles
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Coupling via Lipid layer
• lipid-detergent method
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Protein modification in solution
• can be considered:– to create functional groups for
immobilisation in a particular region of protein
– to tune pI of the protein
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Protein immobilization• choice of pH might affect a conformation of protein during
binding
• it might be beneficial to protect the active site of the protein by having analyte present during immobilisation
• additional partial EDC/NHS cross-linking might be important to prevent a complex protein from dissociation into monomers
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Immobilization of other molecules
• Oligonucleotides: – use of biotinylated derivatives, binding at neutral pH– EDC/NHS crosslinking of amino-modified nucleotide in the
presence of CTAB
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Biochip Kinetics
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Modeling Molecular Interaction in SPR
• The aim: design a model kinetic equation that describes how amount of ligand-analytedepends on time, concentration of analyte and amount of free binding sites left.
Aconst Mξ γ= ⋅ ⋅The signal:
The maximal signal:
/ /S A
S
const Mξ βξ ξ γ β
= ⋅ ⋅
=
1:1 binding
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General biosensor modelKinetics
Reactionkinetics
Mass transport
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Rates of chemical reactions
Consider reaction:A+2B -> 3C+DThe rates are:
dtBd
dtAd
dtCd
dtDd ][
21][][
31][
−=−==
We can define rate of reaction:0 -> 3C+D-A-2B
ξνξ ddndt
dv jj == ,][
jν
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Rate laws
• Rate of reaction is often proportional to the concentration raised to some power, e.g.
• Overall order of the reaction: a+b+...order of the reaction with respect to A: a
• Reactions of zero order
ba BAkv ][][=
kv =
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Integrated rate law
• First order reaction: A->B
[ ] [ ] kteAAktAA
AkdtAd
−=⇒−=
−=
00 )/ln(
][][
• Half live time
2ln)21ln()/
21ln( 002/1 =−=−= AAkt
Half live time is independent of initial concentration for 1st order reaction
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Integrated rate law (contd)
• Second order reaction: A->B
[ ] [ ][ ]0
0
0
2
1][1
][1
][][
AktAAkt
AA
AkdtAd
+=⇒−=−
−=
• Half live time
02/1
1kA
t =
Half live time varies with the initial concentration for 2nd order reaction
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First order reaction close to equilibrium
• Consider reactions:
• At equilibrium forward and reverse rates are the same
eq
eqeqeq A
BkkKBkAk
dtBd
dtAd
][][
,][][
,][][
'' ===
=
ABBA
→→
Equilibrium constant
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Pseudo-first order Kinetics• For an analyte A (in solution) and a receptor R (immobilized)
a
d
k
kA R AR⎯⎯→+ ←⎯⎯
• Association rate:
( ) [ ]aa
d k Adtγ α β γ α= − =
• Dissociation rate:
dd
d kdtγ γ= −
( )a dd k kdtγ α β γ γ= − −
• Summing:
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Pseudo-first order Kinetics• Let’s consider a situation when a high concentration of analyte
a0 is injected into volume V with surface S.
0V S V constα γ α+ = =
( )0a dd Sk kdt Vγ α γ β γ γ⎛ ⎞= − − −⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
• At longer time:
( )0
0 eqa
deq eq
kd KSdt kV
γγ
α γ β γ= = =
⎛ ⎞− −⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠
ka2<ka1K=const
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Pseudo-first order Kinetics
• if the concentration of analyte is high:
( )0a dd Sk kdt Vγ α γ β γ γ⎛ ⎞= − − −⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
( ) ( )00
; eqaa d
d eq
kd k k Kdt k
γγ α β γ γα β γ
= − − = =−
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Pseudo-first order Kinetics• Equilibrium analysis (not affected by mass transport)
0
0(1 )EQ K
Kξ αξ α
=+
binding isotherm
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Other kinetic models• Zero-order reaction following initial binding (conformational
change in AR complex that blocks dissociation)
1 2
1 2*a a
d d
k k
k kA R AR AR⎯⎯→ ⎯⎯→+ ←⎯⎯ ←⎯⎯
22 1 2 2
11 0 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 2( )
a d
a d a d
d k kdt
d k k k kdt
γ γ γ
γ α β γ γ γ γ γ
= −
= − − − − +
• As the total mass is measured by the sensor
1 2/ ( ) /Sξ ξ γ γ β= +
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Other kinetic models• Parallel pseudo first-order reactions (e.g. two different
receptors or two different analytes)
1
1
2
2
1 1
2 2
a
d
a
d
k
k
k
k
A R AR
A R AR
⎯⎯→+ ←⎯⎯
⎯⎯→+ ←⎯⎯
1 1 2 2
21 0 1 1 1 1
12 0 2 2 2 2
1 2
[ ] [ ] (1 )
( )
( )
/ ( ) /
a d
a d
S
R p R pd k kdt
d k kdt
β β β βγ α β γ γ
γ α β γ γ
ξ ξ γ γ β
= = = = −
= − −
= − −
= +
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Other kinetic models• Multivalent receptor binding:
single receptor binds more than one molecule (e.g. streptavidin, antibodies, triplex formation)
1
1
2
2
a
d
a
d
k
k
k
k
A R AR
AR A ARA
⎯⎯→+ ←⎯⎯
⎯⎯→+ ←⎯⎯
1 1 2 2
22 0 1 2 2
11 0 1 2 1 1 2 0 1 2 2
1 2
[ ] [ ] (1 )
( )
/ ( 2 ) /
a d
a d a d
S
R p R pd k kdt
d k k k kdt
β β β βγ α γ γ
γ α β γ γ γ α γ γ
ξ ξ γ γ β
= = = = −
= −
= − − − − +
= +
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Thermodynamics in SPR• change in Gibbs energy can be found from equilibrium
constant:0 lnG RT K∆ = −
• Enthalpy and entropy of the reaction can be found from temperature dependence (van’t Hoff equation)
G H T S∆ = ∆ − ∆
• Activation energy can be found from Arrhenius equation:
exp( / )actk P E RT= −
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Association/Dissociation in an experiment
Plateau
Plateau + Span
Dissociation:
Response = Span * e-kd* t + PlateauAssociation:
Response = Req * (1 - e -kobs * t)
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SPR case: Mass transfer+Reaction
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Data processing
• Processing steps:– zero response to the base line before analyte
injection– align all responses so that injection starts at the
same point– subtract the reference cell response – subtract the averaged response to buffer injection
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Data processingmeasured response:
measured response:
data, ready to be analyzed
data, ready to be analyzed
receptorreceptor
referencereference
receptor and reference aligned, base line subtracted
receptor and reference aligned, base line subtracted
reference subtracted
reference subtracted
4 injections averaged + buffer injection
4 injections averaged + buffer injection
buffer injection subtracted
buffer injection subtracted
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Data processing• Software:
– Scrubber2, (Biosensor Tools http://www.cores.utah.edu/Interaction/scrubber.html)
– BiaEvaluation (Biacore AB, Sweden)
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Data processing
• Global analysis:
– All responses within the data set are fitted to the same values of kA and kD.
– Chi-squared is calculated for all curves
A
D
k
kA B AB⎯⎯→+ ←⎯⎯
m A
m D
k k
k kA A B AB⎯⎯→ ⎯⎯→+←⎯⎯ ←⎯⎯mass transfer limited
– conditions to reduce mass transfer effect: low liganddensity, high flow rate.
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Data processing• Protein-antibody interaction
Best fit using bimolecular model
Best fit using mass-transport model
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Thermodynamics for drug discovery
Shuman et al, J.Biomol.Rec.17, p.106 (2004)
even contribution
entropy driven
enthalpy driven
G H T S∆ = ∆ − ∆
large entropy: affinity increases w. temperature
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How to improve signal for small analytes
• Competition or inhibition analysis can be used for interaction that are difficult to analyse directly (e.g. due to low molecular mass of analyte).
Competition Inhibition
peptide 12p1 inhibition of gp120 YU2 binding to MoAb
• Sandwich assay
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Other possibilities
• Qualitative analysis (e.g. screening of several analyte)
• Determining stoichiometry of a reaction• Epitope mapping (checking secondary
antibodies)• Binding to lipid membranes
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SPR detection for continous measurements• Molecular detection format: continuous detection with weak affinity antibodies.
• Example: maltose detection using anti-maltose ab.
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SPR Biosensors for Medical diagnostics
• diagnostic methods based on monitoring of concentration of disease biomarkers (e.g. PSA) are gaining popularity
• Desirable:– test directly on bodily fluid– sufficient throughput– continuous monitoring
• SPR has a potential to meet those requirements
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SPR Biosensors for Medical diagnostics
• cancer biomarker (12 approved by FDA)– PSA– carcinoembrionic antigen (CEA): colorectal& breast cancer– cancer antigen CA15-3 (breast cancer)– CA125 (ovarian cancer)– carbohydrate antigen CA19-9 (pancreas, colon, stomach
cancer)– alpha-fetoprotein AFP (liver&testicular cancer)
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SPR Biosensors for Medical diagnostics
• PSA detection: – current clinical assays: ELISA (enzyme-linked
immunosorbent), 0.1ng/mL– SPR sandwiched assay: 0.15 ng/mL on planar surfaces,
2.4ng/mL on hydrogel
1. mouse monoclonal anti-PSA immobilized2. sample injection3. amplification with polyclonal rabbit anti-PSA4. amplification with biotinylated anti-rabbit 5. streptavidin coated latex spheres
or4. anti-rabbit coated colloidal gold
Besselink et al, Anal. Biochem 333, p. 165 (2004)
Why planar surfaces are better for this assay?
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SPR Biosensors for Medical diagnostics
• Heart attack markers: Troponin I (TnI), troponin T (TnT), Troponin C (TnC), myoglobin, fatty acid binding protein
SPR experiment:1. biotinylated cTnI antibodies immobilized on avidin layer on SAM2. direct measurement (2.5-40ng/mL)
or sandwiched assaywith detection limit 0.25ng/mL and range 0.5-20ng/mL
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SPR Biosensors for Medical diagnostics• Antibody based assays
– type I diabetes diagnostics using anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase ab(GAD) (GAD immobilized on the surface)
– detection of antibodies against cholera toxin (cholera toxin immobilized on the surface)
– hepatitus C– anti-adenoviral antibodies
• Hormone based assays– direct detection of hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin, pregnance
marker) using anti-hCG immobilized with biotinylated oligos. Detection limit below 0.5ng/mL
– detection of estrone and estradiol using inhibition format
• Drug detection– coumarin (anticoagulant, 7-OHC): competition assay with 7-OHc on the
surface and antibodies injected in a mixture with serum– warfarin (anticoagulant)– morphine and morphine metabolites
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SPR for food safety
• Bacteria:– difficult to detect due to large size. Most of the time have to
be destroyed by heat, ethanol or detergents
• E. coli O157:H7– direct detection using immobilized antibodies. Detection
limit down to 100 cells/mL– detection of PCR products of E.coli genome– detection of enterotoxin
• Salmonella• Listeria• Campylobacter Jejuni (leading cause of diarrea)
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SPR for food safety
• Proteins:– secreted by infectious bacteria, toxic in low doses,
have low molecular weight 5kDa- 150kDa
• Staphylococcal enterotoxins– direct detection using immobilized antibodies. Detection
limit down to 0.5ng/mL with secondary antibody amplification
• Botulinum neurotoxins– Detection limit down to 0.5ng/mL with sandwich assay with
polyclonal antibodies.
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SPR for food safety
• Low molecular weight compounds– large diffusion rate but low molecular weight doesn’t
produce significant change in refractive index
• Domoic acid: neurotoxin originated from algae– detection using molecularly imprinted polymer. Detection
range 2ng/mL – 3.3 ug/mL– inhibition assay. Detection limit 0.1 ng/mL
• Mycotoxins (produced by Aspergillus, Penicillum and Fusarium)– Detection limit down to 0.5ng/mL with sandwich assay with
polyclonal antibodies.
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Problem
• Derive equations for parallel pseudo first-order reaction kinetics with a single receptor and two different analytes.