British Monarchy: British Monarchy: From the Anglo-Saxon From the Anglo-Saxon Kings to the Twenty-Kings to the Twenty-

first Century House of first Century House of Windsor (2)Windsor (2)

The StuartsThe Stuarts The first kings of the United Kingdom, combining the thrones of The first kings of the United Kingdom, combining the thrones of

England and Scotland for the first time. England and Scotland for the first time. James I (1603-25):James I (1603-25):

– Queen Elizabeth I’s nephew and son of Mary, Queen of the Scots; he had been Queen Elizabeth I’s nephew and son of Mary, Queen of the Scots; he had been king of Scotland (James VI) for 36 years when he became King of England.king of Scotland (James VI) for 36 years when he became King of England.

– a theologian and an arts patron → the new translation of the Bible known as the a theologian and an arts patron → the new translation of the Bible known as the Authorised King James’s version of the Bible; the flourishing of the theatre. Authorised King James’s version of the Bible; the flourishing of the theatre.

– He mismanaged, on the one hand, the Roman Catholic question, and, on the He mismanaged, on the one hand, the Roman Catholic question, and, on the other hand, the relation with the Parliament.other hand, the relation with the Parliament.

↓↓1. 1. The Gunpowder PlotThe Gunpowder Plot (November 5, 1605): an attempt of a group of Catholic (November 5, 1605): an attempt of a group of Catholic

gentlemen of the Jesuit Party to blow up the king and the Houses of Parliament. gentlemen of the Jesuit Party to blow up the king and the Houses of Parliament. The leader, Guy Fawkes, was arrested on November 4. (His effigy is still merrily The leader, Guy Fawkes, was arrested on November 4. (His effigy is still merrily burnt by the English each November 4.) → the reimposition of strict penalties burnt by the English each November 4.) → the reimposition of strict penalties on Roman Catholics.on Roman Catholics.

2. Strongly believing, like Elizabeth I, in the divine right of kings, he tried to rule 2. Strongly believing, like Elizabeth I, in the divine right of kings, he tried to rule without the Parliament as much as possible. To cover the huge debt he without the Parliament as much as possible. To cover the huge debt he ‘inherited’ from Elizabeth I, he had to ask the Parliament to raise a tax, which ‘inherited’ from Elizabeth I, he had to ask the Parliament to raise a tax, which the Parliament agreed with on condition James would discuss his home and the Parliament agreed with on condition James would discuss his home and foreign policy with the Parliament. James insisted that he alone had the “divine foreign policy with the Parliament. James insisted that he alone had the “divine right” to make these decisions. He managed to rule successfully without the right” to make these decisions. He managed to rule successfully without the Parliament as long as England was at peace, i.e. between 1611 and 1621. But Parliament as long as England was at peace, i.e. between 1611 and 1621. But when England got involved in the Thirty Years’ War in Europe (1618-48), James when England got involved in the Thirty Years’ War in Europe (1618-48), James could not afford the costs of an army and disagreed with the Parliament who could not afford the costs of an army and disagreed with the Parliament who wished to go against the Catholics. Until his death in 1625, James continued to wished to go against the Catholics. Until his death in 1625, James continued to quarrel with the Parliament over money and over its desire to play a part in his quarrel with the Parliament over money and over its desire to play a part in his foreign policy.foreign policy.

The StuartsThe Stuarts– He neglected the navy and deprived England of her naval power for 30 years. He neglected the navy and deprived England of her naval power for 30 years.

Yet, England continued her international trade in wool, cotton and silk and the Yet, England continued her international trade in wool, cotton and silk and the ships of the East India Company were sailing as far as Persia and India.ships of the East India Company were sailing as far as Persia and India.

– James I versus the PuritansJames I versus the Puritans: The latter denounced the extravagances and : The latter denounced the extravagances and dissolute living at the king’s court, and attacked the theatre on account of its dissolute living at the king’s court, and attacked the theatre on account of its being the favourite amusement of an immoral aristocracy. being the favourite amusement of an immoral aristocracy. ↓↓

1. Some Puritans fled across the Atlantic in 1620 to escape prosecution and 1. Some Puritans fled across the Atlantic in 1620 to escape prosecution and founded the Massachusetts Colony. (‘founded the Massachusetts Colony. (‘The Pilgrim FathersThe Pilgrim Fathers’ celebrated by the ’ celebrated by the American people on Thanksgiving Day)American people on Thanksgiving Day)

2. The Puritans remaining in England became the focal point for resistance 2. The Puritans remaining in England became the focal point for resistance against the Stuarts, known as the ‘against the Stuarts, known as the ‘RoundheadsRoundheads’ and the extremists. (See the ’ and the extremists. (See the Puritan Parliament Members Oliver Cromwell, John Milton, John Hampden and Puritan Parliament Members Oliver Cromwell, John Milton, John Hampden and John Pym) John Pym)

Charles I (1625-49):Charles I (1625-49):– An art lover, like his father, he spent a lot inviting artists like Van Dyck and An art lover, like his father, he spent a lot inviting artists like Van Dyck and

Rubens to work in England and buying a great collection of paintings by Raphael Rubens to work in England and buying a great collection of paintings by Raphael and Titian, thus increasing the crown’s debts.and Titian, thus increasing the crown’s debts.

– He married Henrietta Maria of France, a fervent Catholic. He married Henrietta Maria of France, a fervent Catholic. – He quarreled with the Parliament – especially with the House of Commons - He quarreled with the Parliament – especially with the House of Commons -

even more bitterly, mainly over money. He tried to rule without the Parliament, even more bitterly, mainly over money. He tried to rule without the Parliament, but, when he needed to have new taxes and loans voted, he had to re-summon but, when he needed to have new taxes and loans voted, he had to re-summon it. The violent debate over Charles’s financial devices and the reform of the it. The violent debate over Charles’s financial devices and the reform of the Church along Puritan lines eventually led to the king’s attempt to arrest the Church along Puritan lines eventually led to the king’s attempt to arrest the leaders of the Parliament. (‘The Great Remonstrance’ 1641) → leaders of the Parliament. (‘The Great Remonstrance’ 1641) → The Civil WarsThe Civil Wars (1642-46; 1648-49) (1642-46; 1648-49)

The StuartsThe Stuarts– James IJames I and the Cavaliers and the Cavaliers/ versus/ / versus/ The House of Commons, The House of Commons, Oliver Oliver

CromwellCromwell and his Ironsides and his Ironsides →→ The Army, concluding that permanent peace The Army, concluding that permanent peace was impossible whilst Charles lived, decided that the King must be put on was impossible whilst Charles lived, decided that the King must be put on trial and executed. In December 1648, Parliament was purged, leaving a trial and executed. In December 1648, Parliament was purged, leaving a small rump totally dependent on the Army, and the Rump Parliament small rump totally dependent on the Army, and the Rump Parliament established a High Court of Justice in the first week of January 1649. On 20 established a High Court of Justice in the first week of January 1649. On 20 January, Charles was charged with high treason. Charles refused to plead, January, Charles was charged with high treason. Charles refused to plead, saying that he did not recognise the legality of the High Court. He was saying that he did not recognise the legality of the High Court. He was sentenced to death on 27 January. Three days later, on January 30, 1649, sentenced to death on 27 January. Three days later, on January 30, 1649, Charles was beheaded on a scaffold outside the Banqueting House in Charles was beheaded on a scaffold outside the Banqueting House in Whitehall, London. → Whitehall, London. → The Commonwealth or RepublicThe Commonwealth or Republic (1649-60)(1649-60) was was proclaimed, in fact a military dictatorship in which the main power was proclaimed, in fact a military dictatorship in which the main power was exerted by exerted by Oliver CromwellOliver Cromwell. .

– Literary representations: e.g. Andrew Marvell’s poem Literary representations: e.g. Andrew Marvell’s poem An Horatian Ode. An Horatian Ode. Upon Cromwell’s Return from Ireland Upon Cromwell’s Return from Ireland (1650); Alexandre Dumas’s novel (1650); Alexandre Dumas’s novel Twenty Years After Twenty Years After (1845).(1845).

Charles II (1660-85):Charles II (1660-85):– To prevent the anarchy after Cromwell’s death, the Convention Parliament To prevent the anarchy after Cromwell’s death, the Convention Parliament

elected in 1660 called back elected in 1660 called back Charles IICharles II from his exile in Holland. ( from his exile in Holland. (The The RestorationRestoration) → The Declaration of Breda (1660) promised pardons, arrears ) → The Declaration of Breda (1660) promised pardons, arrears of Army pay, confirmation of land purchases during the Interregnum and of Army pay, confirmation of land purchases during the Interregnum and ‘liberty of tender consciences’ in religious matters, yet a number of ‘liberty of tender consciences’ in religious matters, yet a number of repressive measures were taken (e.g. the Act of Conformity which required repressive measures were taken (e.g. the Act of Conformity which required all clergy, college fellows and schoolmasters to belong to the Anglican all clergy, college fellows and schoolmasters to belong to the Anglican Church). Church).

– The early years of Charles II’s reign were also marked by the persecution of The early years of Charles II’s reign were also marked by the persecution of the prominent figures of the Commonwealth, the growing unpopularity of the prominent figures of the Commonwealth, the growing unpopularity of the ‘restoration’ of extravagant frivolity at the court, and the growing the ‘restoration’ of extravagant frivolity at the court, and the growing concern of the Parliament with Charles II’s ‘attraction’ to the Catholic concern of the Parliament with Charles II’s ‘attraction’ to the Catholic Church (The Test Act 1673, which prevented any Catholic from holding Church (The Test Act 1673, which prevented any Catholic from holding public office) and with monarchy becoming again too powerful. public office) and with monarchy becoming again too powerful.

The StuartsThe Stuarts– The disastrous years of Charles II’s reign:The disastrous years of Charles II’s reign:

16651665: 1. the plague epidemic in London; 2. the second Dutch war : 1. the plague epidemic in London; 2. the second Dutch war (caused by English and Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry, it ended (caused by English and Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry, it ended in 1667 in a humiliating defeat of the English.)in 1667 in a humiliating defeat of the English.)

1666: 1666: 1. 1. The Great FireThe Great Fire which virtually destroyed the London of the which virtually destroyed the London of the Middle Ages and of Shakespeare’s plays. It changed the architectural Middle Ages and of Shakespeare’s plays. It changed the architectural aspect of London and Christopher Wren designed the plan for the aspect of London and Christopher Wren designed the plan for the rebuilding of London by replacing neoclassic marble and stone for the rebuilding of London by replacing neoclassic marble and stone for the medieval brick and timber. (E.g. magnificent buildings in classic Baroque medieval brick and timber. (E.g. magnificent buildings in classic Baroque like St. Paul’s Cathedral; other buildings by Wren: the Sheldonian like St. Paul’s Cathedral; other buildings by Wren: the Sheldonian Theatre in Oxford and Pembroke College Chapel in Cambridge) 2. the Theatre in Oxford and Pembroke College Chapel in Cambridge) 2. the CovenantersCovenanters’ uprising (a ‘Covenant’ was signed all over Scotland for ’ uprising (a ‘Covenant’ was signed all over Scotland for the defense of the Protestant religion and against the government of the the defense of the Protestant religion and against the government of the Church by bishops). Church by bishops).

James II (1685-88):James II (1685-88):– Charles II’s Roman Catholic brother, he had a troubled reign marked by the Charles II’s Roman Catholic brother, he had a troubled reign marked by the

rebellion in 1685 led by Charles II’s illegitimate son and champion of rebellion in 1685 led by Charles II’s illegitimate son and champion of Protestantism, the Duke of Monmouth, supported by the Earl of Shaftesbury. Protestantism, the Duke of Monmouth, supported by the Earl of Shaftesbury. The defeat of the rebels was followed by James’s cruel revenge: he The defeat of the rebels was followed by James’s cruel revenge: he embarked upon a rapid Romanizing of the country, claimed the royal embarked upon a rapid Romanizing of the country, claimed the royal prerogative to suspend the laws of the land, and, in general, pursued with prerogative to suspend the laws of the land, and, in general, pursued with ever increasing violence and illegality the policy to prepare the forcible ever increasing violence and illegality the policy to prepare the forcible reconversion of England to Roman Catholicism. → 1685: The King’s reconversion of England to Roman Catholicism. → 1685: The King’s Declaration of Indulgence put on trial several bishops + the birth of a Declaration of Indulgence put on trial several bishops + the birth of a Catholic heir to the throne → the Tories and the Whigs offered the crown to Catholic heir to the throne → the Tories and the Whigs offered the crown to the first couple of joint monarchs in the English history. the first couple of joint monarchs in the English history.

The StuartsThe Stuarts William (1689-1702) and Mary (1689-94) of Orange:William (1689-1702) and Mary (1689-94) of Orange:

– The Glorious RevolutionThe Glorious Revolution: On November 5, 1688, William of Orange, the : On November 5, 1688, William of Orange, the husband of James II’s Protestant daughter Mary, landed at Torbay. James II was husband of James II’s Protestant daughter Mary, landed at Torbay. James II was deprived of the crown on account of his deserting his kingdom and the crown deprived of the crown on account of his deserting his kingdom and the crown was offered to William and Mary. This bloodless ‘Revolution’ decided the balance was offered to William and Mary. This bloodless ‘Revolution’ decided the balance between Parliamentary and royal power in favour of the former and, between Parliamentary and royal power in favour of the former and, in in accordance with the Declaration/ Bill of Rights, no king ever attempted to govern accordance with the Declaration/ Bill of Rights, no king ever attempted to govern without Parliament or contrary to the votes of the House of Commons. without Parliament or contrary to the votes of the House of Commons.

– The Act of Settlement (1701)The Act of Settlement (1701):: It secured the Protestant succession to the It secured the Protestant succession to the throne, and strengthened the guarantees for ensuring the parliamentary system throne, and strengthened the guarantees for ensuring the parliamentary system of government. According to it, if Mary had no children, the crown would pass to of government. According to it, if Mary had no children, the crown would pass to her sister Anne; if she also died without children, the crown would go to a her sister Anne; if she also died without children, the crown would go to a granddaughter of James I, who had married the German elector of Hanover and granddaughter of James I, who had married the German elector of Hanover and her children. Even today, if a son or daughter of a monarch becomes a Catholic, her children. Even today, if a son or daughter of a monarch becomes a Catholic, (s)he cannot inherit the throne.(s)he cannot inherit the throne.

Queen Ann (1702-14):Queen Ann (1702-14):– The War for the Spanish Succession (1702-13) ended with the recognition by The War for the Spanish Succession (1702-13) ended with the recognition by

Louis XIV of France of Protestant succession in Great Britain and turned John Louis XIV of France of Protestant succession in Great Britain and turned John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, into a national hero. Further disagreement over Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, into a national hero. Further disagreement over the succession to the throne between the English and the Scottish Parliaments the succession to the throne between the English and the Scottish Parliaments allowed the exiled Roman Catholic son of James II, James Edward Stuart, to land allowed the exiled Roman Catholic son of James II, James Edward Stuart, to land in Scotland in 1708, but he was forced to withdraw to France. (The scene was set in Scotland in 1708, but he was forced to withdraw to France. (The scene was set for the later uprisings in Scotland led by the Stuart Pretenders against the for the later uprisings in Scotland led by the Stuart Pretenders against the Hanoverian kings.) Hanoverian kings.)

– 17071707: Scotland and England were formally united under the name of Great : Scotland and England were formally united under the name of Great Britain and the flags of the two nations (St. Andrew’s Cross for Scotland and St. Britain and the flags of the two nations (St. Andrew’s Cross for Scotland and St. George’s Cross for England) were combined to form the present Union Jack. (St. George’s Cross for England) were combined to form the present Union Jack. (St. Patrick’s Cross would be added in 1801 after Ireland would be united with Great Patrick’s Cross would be added in 1801 after Ireland would be united with Great Britain.) Britain.)

– literary representations: e.g. Alexander Pope’s literary representations: e.g. Alexander Pope’s Windsor Forest Windsor Forest (1713); Jonathan (1713); Jonathan Swift’s Swift’s Gulliver’s TravelsGulliver’s Travels (1726). (1726).

The HanoveriansThe Hanoverians George I (1714-27):George I (1714-27):

– The great-grandson of James I through the female line, George, Elector of The great-grandson of James I through the female line, George, Elector of Hanover came to the throne under the Act of Settlement. His claim was Hanover came to the throne under the Act of Settlement. His claim was challenged by James Edward Stuart (the ‘Old Pretender’) who landed in challenged by James Edward Stuart (the ‘Old Pretender’) who landed in Scotland in 1715, following a rising of Scottish clans on his behalf; this was Scotland in 1715, following a rising of Scottish clans on his behalf; this was unsuccessful and he soon withdrew. unsuccessful and he soon withdrew.

– He spoke only little English and was unfamiliar with the customs of the He spoke only little English and was unfamiliar with the customs of the country, he was dependent on his ministers (the Whigs dominated the country, he was dependent on his ministers (the Whigs dominated the Parliament during his reign – Parliament during his reign – the Whig oligarchythe Whig oligarchy). ).

George II (1727-60):George II (1727-60): – His reign was marked by warfare abroad as well as in Scotland. His reign was marked by warfare abroad as well as in Scotland.

Despite the king’s bravely participating alongside his soldiers in the battle of Despite the king’s bravely participating alongside his soldiers in the battle of Dettingen in Germany and scoring a victory against the French, the War of the Dettingen in Germany and scoring a victory against the French, the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48) ended in defeat for the English, except in North Austrian Succession (1740-48) ended in defeat for the English, except in North America. America.

In 1745, George’s reign was threatened by Charles Edward Stuart (the ‘Young In 1745, George’s reign was threatened by Charles Edward Stuart (the ‘Young Pretender’). After some initial success in Scotland where the Highland clans rallied to Pretender’). After some initial success in Scotland where the Highland clans rallied to his cause and defeated the Hanoverians near Edinburgh, the Pretender was defeated his cause and defeated the Hanoverians near Edinburgh, the Pretender was defeated in the battle of Culloden (April 1746) and fled to France, thus ending the Stuart in the battle of Culloden (April 1746) and fled to France, thus ending the Stuart attempts to return to the British throne. attempts to return to the British throne.

– The king’s initial unpopularity gradually turned into a general respect owing to The king’s initial unpopularity gradually turned into a general respect owing to the country’s prosperity. It was under George’s reign that the foundations of the country’s prosperity. It was under George’s reign that the foundations of the Industrial Revolution were laid with new levels of production in industries the Industrial Revolution were laid with new levels of production in industries such as coal mining and shipbuilding and also in agriculture. such as coal mining and shipbuilding and also in agriculture. Overseas, trade Overseas, trade was boosted by successes such as Clive’s victories in India at Arcot (1751) and was boosted by successes such as Clive’s victories in India at Arcot (1751) and Plassey (1757), which placed Madras and Bengal under British control, and Plassey (1757), which placed Madras and Bengal under British control, and Wolfe’s capture of the French-held Quebec in 1759 (part of a successful Wolfe’s capture of the French-held Quebec in 1759 (part of a successful campaign which transferred Canada with its wealthy trade in fish and fur from campaign which transferred Canada with its wealthy trade in fish and fur from the French to the British rule during the Seven Years’ War in North America).the French to the British rule during the Seven Years’ War in North America).

The HanoveriansThe Hanoverians George III (1760-1820):George III (1760-1820):

– Born of Prince Frederick of Wales and Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, he was Born of Prince Frederick of Wales and Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, he was the first Hanoverian king born in England and using English and his first the first Hanoverian king born in England and using English and his first language. language.

– The early years of his reign were marked by his conflict with the Prime Minister The early years of his reign were marked by his conflict with the Prime Minister William Pitt the Elder and with the House of Commons caused by his attempts William Pitt the Elder and with the House of Commons caused by his attempts at taking a more active part in governing Britain and his wish to choose his at taking a more active part in governing Britain and his wish to choose his own ministers from among a small number of aristocrats who controlled the own ministers from among a small number of aristocrats who controlled the Parliament. The King’s policy was severely criticised by John Wilkes, an MP, Parliament. The King’s policy was severely criticised by John Wilkes, an MP, who demanded liberty of the press, the right of the people to choose their own who demanded liberty of the press, the right of the people to choose their own representatives, the abolition of abusive imprisonment. When the king retorted representatives, the abolition of abusive imprisonment. When the king retorted by imprisoning Wilkes, the London citizens rose in protest rioting in front of St. by imprisoning Wilkes, the London citizens rose in protest rioting in front of St. James’s Palace and throughout the city. James’s Palace and throughout the city.

– The foreign policy under George III was marked by:The foreign policy under George III was marked by: The Seven Years’ War (1754-1763)The Seven Years’ War (1754-1763): George III considered the war too expensive : George III considered the war too expensive

and he made peace with France in 1763, without informing Prussia, which was thus and he made peace with France in 1763, without informing Prussia, which was thus left to fight France alone. The Treaty of Paris turned out satisfactory for the British left to fight France alone. The Treaty of Paris turned out satisfactory for the British who got control over Canada and Florida (thus controlling all North America east of who got control over Canada and Florida (thus controlling all North America east of Mississippi) as well as Bengal (this brought French power in India to an end and Mississippi) as well as Bengal (this brought French power in India to an end and made way for British hegemony and eventual control of India). made way for British hegemony and eventual control of India).

The War of American Independence (1775-1783)The War of American Independence (1775-1783): Initially starting from the : Initially starting from the serious quarrels over taxation between the British government and its colonies in serious quarrels over taxation between the British government and its colonies in America, the conflict, which opposed Britain to half of the world (the rebelling America, the conflict, which opposed Britain to half of the world (the rebelling colonies were supported by France, Spain and the Netherlands), ended in a colonies were supported by France, Spain and the Netherlands), ended in a disastrous defeat for the British government, which lost everything except for disastrous defeat for the British government, which lost everything except for Canada. The United States were granted independence in 1783. Canada. The United States were granted independence in 1783.

The Napoleonic WarsThe Napoleonic Wars: The English retorted to the French Continental System by : The English retorted to the French Continental System by the Continental Blockade and Admiral Nelson saved the English honour when he the Continental Blockade and Admiral Nelson saved the English honour when he defeated the combined French and Spanish fleets at Cape Trafalgar (1805). defeated the combined French and Spanish fleets at Cape Trafalgar (1805).

The HanoveriansThe HanoveriansFurther British involvement in the Napoleonic Wars allowed the Duke of Further British involvement in the Napoleonic Wars allowed the Duke of Wellington (the ‘Iron Duke’) to emerge as a military leader who defeated Wellington (the ‘Iron Duke’) to emerge as a military leader who defeated Napoleon first at Leipzig (1813) and then, after Napoleon’s return from Napoleon first at Leipzig (1813) and then, after Napoleon’s return from Elba, at Waterloo (1825). Elba, at Waterloo (1825).

– Towards the end of his life, George III suffered from seizures of insanity Towards the end of his life, George III suffered from seizures of insanity (1811-20). His son Prince George acted as Regent (the (1811-20). His son Prince George acted as Regent (the RegencyRegency). ).

George IV (1820-30):George IV (1820-30):– marriage difficulties: He had secretly and illegally married a Roman marriage difficulties: He had secretly and illegally married a Roman

Catholic, Mrs. Fitzherbert. In 1795 he officially married Princess Caroline of Catholic, Mrs. Fitzherbert. In 1795 he officially married Princess Caroline of Brunswick, but the marriage was a failure and he tried unsuccessfully to Brunswick, but the marriage was a failure and he tried unsuccessfully to divorce her after his accession in 1820 (Caroline died in 1821). divorce her after his accession in 1820 (Caroline died in 1821).

– Because of the crown’s debts, George was in a weak position in relation to Because of the crown’s debts, George was in a weak position in relation to his Cabinet of ministers. In 1829, George IV was forced by his ministers, his Cabinet of ministers. In 1829, George IV was forced by his ministers, much against his will and his interpretation of his coronation oath, to agree much against his will and his interpretation of his coronation oath, to agree to Catholic Emancipation. By reducing religious discrimination, this to Catholic Emancipation. By reducing religious discrimination, this emancipation enabled the monarchy to play a more national role. emancipation enabled the monarchy to play a more national role.

William IV (1830-37):William IV (1830-37):– George IV’s younger brother’s reign was marked by the Reform crisis, which George IV’s younger brother’s reign was marked by the Reform crisis, which

started with the Great Reform Bill (1832) that abolished the worst abuses of started with the Great Reform Bill (1832) that abolished the worst abuses of the electoral system and represented the capitulation of English landed the electoral system and represented the capitulation of English landed gentry to the middle-classes. gentry to the middle-classes.

Queen Victoria (1837-1901):Queen Victoria (1837-1901): – Queen Victoria is associated with Britain’s great age of industrial expansion, Queen Victoria is associated with Britain’s great age of industrial expansion,

economic progress and, especially, empire. At her death, it was said, Britain economic progress and, especially, empire. At her death, it was said, Britain had a worldwide empire on which the sun never set. had a worldwide empire on which the sun never set.

The HanoveriansThe Hanoverians Throughout the early part of her reign, she was very much influenced by her Throughout the early part of her reign, she was very much influenced by her

husband, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg, who took an active interest in the arts, husband, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg, who took an active interest in the arts, science, trade and industry; the project for which he is best remembered was the science, trade and industry; the project for which he is best remembered was the Great Exhibition of 1851 (the Crystal Palace). After his death, the queen could not Great Exhibition of 1851 (the Crystal Palace). After his death, the queen could not get over her sorrow and refused to appear in public for a long time, which caused get over her sorrow and refused to appear in public for a long time, which caused newspapers to criticise her and to question the value of monarchy. Eventually, her newspapers to criticise her and to question the value of monarchy. Eventually, her advisers persuaded her to take a more public interest in the business of the kingdom advisers persuaded her to take a more public interest in the business of the kingdom and she became extraordinarily popular. and she became extraordinarily popular.

Home policy: the ‘Home policy: the ‘Little EnglandLittle England’ ’ policypolicy supported by the Liberal Prime Minister supported by the Liberal Prime Minister William GladstoneWilliam Gladstone = avoiding foreign entanglements; supporting the Home Rule = avoiding foreign entanglements; supporting the Home Rule for Ireland; promoting the Third Reform Bill (1884) which virtually provided manhood for Ireland; promoting the Third Reform Bill (1884) which virtually provided manhood suffrage.suffrage.

Foreign policy:Foreign policy:– English involvement in the English involvement in the Crimean War (1854-56)Crimean War (1854-56): Britain feared that Russia would : Britain feared that Russia would

destroy the weak Ottoman Empire, which controlled Turkey and the Arab countries, and that destroy the weak Ottoman Empire, which controlled Turkey and the Arab countries, and that would change the balance of power in Europe, putting Britain’s sea and land routes to India would change the balance of power in Europe, putting Britain’s sea and land routes to India in danger. Unfortunately, the outmoded and inadequate British army was defeated (see the in danger. Unfortunately, the outmoded and inadequate British army was defeated (see the famous Charge of the Light Brigade). An important contribution to alleviating the terrible famous Charge of the Light Brigade). An important contribution to alleviating the terrible sufferings of the British troops was that of Florence Nightingale and her band of nurses who sufferings of the British troops was that of Florence Nightingale and her band of nurses who reformed the medical and sanitary conditions in the army and paved the way for women’s reformed the medical and sanitary conditions in the army and paved the way for women’s entry into the medical profession a few years later (Elizabeth Garrett Anderson – 1877).entry into the medical profession a few years later (Elizabeth Garrett Anderson – 1877).

– The Queen and the empireThe Queen and the empire: Queen Victoria was a very strong supporter of the Empire, : Queen Victoria was a very strong supporter of the Empire, which brought her closer to some of her Prime Ministers, i.e., Benjamin Disraeli and the which brought her closer to some of her Prime Ministers, i.e., Benjamin Disraeli and the Marquess of Salisbury. The former, in particular, promoted a Conservative Marquess of Salisbury. The former, in particular, promoted a Conservative ‘Big England’ ‘Big England’ policypolicy aimed at enhancing British prestige throughout the world. (1875 – the purchase of aimed at enhancing British prestige throughout the world. (1875 – the purchase of the Suez Canal; 1876 – Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India.)the Suez Canal; 1876 – Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India.)

The HanoveriansThe Hanoverians Troubles in the British Empire under Queen Victoria:Troubles in the British Empire under Queen Victoria:

– IndiaIndia: The unwise treatment of Indian soldiers resulted in revolt in 1857 (‘The Indian : The unwise treatment of Indian soldiers resulted in revolt in 1857 (‘The Indian Mutiny’). This Sepoy rebellion quickly became a national movement against foreign rule, Mutiny’). This Sepoy rebellion quickly became a national movement against foreign rule, led by a number of Hindu and Muslim princes. Both the British and the Indians behaved led by a number of Hindu and Muslim princes. Both the British and the Indians behaved with great violence, and the British cruelly punished the defeated rebels. India was with great violence, and the British cruelly punished the defeated rebels. India was removed from the political jurisdiction of the East India Company and was placed under removed from the political jurisdiction of the East India Company and was placed under the Crown, but that did not help the relations between the British and the Indians to the Crown, but that did not help the relations between the British and the Indians to recover. The feeling of distrust and distance between the colonisers and the colonised recover. The feeling of distrust and distance between the colonisers and the colonised would grow into the Indian independence movement of the 20would grow into the Indian independence movement of the 20thth century. century.

– AfricaAfrica: The interest in slave trade caused the British to use Christianity as a tool for : The interest in slave trade caused the British to use Christianity as a tool for building a commercial and political empire in Africa. That brought them in conflict with building a commercial and political empire in Africa. That brought them in conflict with other European settlers, like the Dutch ‘Boers’ from South Africa who were defeated only other European settlers, like the Dutch ‘Boers’ from South Africa who were defeated only with great difficulty in 1899-1902. (In 1906, self government was set up in South Africa.)with great difficulty in 1899-1902. (In 1906, self government was set up in South Africa.)

– Canada, Australia, New ZealandCanada, Australia, New Zealand: From the 1840s onwards, as a result of the rapid : From the 1840s onwards, as a result of the rapid increase in population in Britain, many British settlers were called for the development of increase in population in Britain, many British settlers were called for the development of colonies. The new comers took over the land to the detriment of the populations which colonies. The new comers took over the land to the detriment of the populations which already lived in the three countries. In Canada, most of the natives were pushed already lived in the three countries. In Canada, most of the natives were pushed westwards, and those not killed became part of the ‘white’ culture. In Australia, most of westwards, and those not killed became part of the ‘white’ culture. In Australia, most of the aboriginal inhabitants were killed, and only few survived in the central desert areas. the aboriginal inhabitants were killed, and only few survived in the central desert areas. In New Zealand, the Maori inhabitants suffered less, but they still lost most of their land. In New Zealand, the Maori inhabitants suffered less, but they still lost most of their land. These white colonies were, in time, allowed to govern themselves on condition they These white colonies were, in time, allowed to govern themselves on condition they accepted the British monarch as their head of state. accepted the British monarch as their head of state.

As part of her colonial policy, Britain was also engaged in the war with China As part of her colonial policy, Britain was also engaged in the war with China (1857-58) and interfered, between 1861-65, in the American Civil war supporting (1857-58) and interfered, between 1861-65, in the American Civil war supporting the Southern Confederacy.the Southern Confederacy.

By the end of the 19By the end of the 19thth century, Britain controlled the oceans and much of the land century, Britain controlled the oceans and much of the land areas of the world. But even at this great moment of power, Britain spent more on areas of the world. But even at this great moment of power, Britain spent more on its empire than it took from it, and this heavy burden would become impossible to its empire than it took from it, and this heavy burden would become impossible to bear in the 20bear in the 20thth century, when the colonies began to demand their freedom. century, when the colonies began to demand their freedom.

The House of Saxe-Coburg-The House of Saxe-Coburg-GothaGotha

Edward VII (1901-10):Edward VII (1901-10):– Though his time (the ‘Edwardian era’) was one of significant political and Though his time (the ‘Edwardian era’) was one of significant political and

socio-economic changes, the king himself contributed little to the reforms socio-economic changes, the king himself contributed little to the reforms which marked British political and social life. Criticised for his social life, which marked British political and social life. Criticised for his social life, Edward’s main interests lay in foreign affairs, and military and naval Edward’s main interests lay in foreign affairs, and military and naval matters. In particular, Edward played an active role in encouraging matters. In particular, Edward played an active role in encouraging military and naval reforms, pressing for the reform of the Army Medical military and naval reforms, pressing for the reform of the Army Medical Service and the modernisation of the Home Fleet. He died before the Service and the modernisation of the Home Fleet. He died before the constitutional crisis that opposed the Conservatives to the Liberal constitutional crisis that opposed the Conservatives to the Liberal administration could be solved by the latter’s victory in the 1910 elections. administration could be solved by the latter’s victory in the 1910 elections.

George V (1910-36):George V (1910-36):– During the First World War (1914-18), the increasing anti-German feeling During the First World War (1914-18), the increasing anti-German feeling

led the king to change the name of the royal house from Saxe-Coburg-led the king to change the name of the royal house from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Windsor in 1917.Gotha to Windsor in 1917.

– The king tried to play a conciliatory role during both the civil war in Ireland The king tried to play a conciliatory role during both the civil war in Ireland (which started with the Easter Rising in Dublin in 1916) and the Great (which started with the Easter Rising in Dublin in 1916) and the Great Strike in 1926. The Civil War in Ireland resulted in the setting up of the free Strike in 1926. The Civil War in Ireland resulted in the setting up of the free Irish state (later the Republic of Eire), while the six northern counties Irish state (later the Republic of Eire), while the six northern counties (where 67% of the population were Protestant) remained part of the United (where 67% of the population were Protestant) remained part of the United Kingdom (as Northern Ireland). Kingdom (as Northern Ireland).

The House of WindsorThe House of Windsor Edward VIII (Jan.-Dec. 1936):Edward VIII (Jan.-Dec. 1936):

– He reigned less than a year during 1936 only to stage the first voluntary He reigned less than a year during 1936 only to stage the first voluntary abdication in British history. A qualified pilot and a highly popular public figure abdication in British history. A qualified pilot and a highly popular public figure owing to his successful tours at home and overseas, his good war record and owing to his successful tours at home and overseas, his good war record and genuine care for the unprivileged, Edward VIII had, unfortunately, a very genuine care for the unprivileged, Edward VIII had, unfortunately, a very controversial love life. After a number of affairs, he fell in love with an American-controversial love life. After a number of affairs, he fell in love with an American-born divorcée, Mrs. Wallis Simpson and wanted to marry her. Faced with a born divorcée, Mrs. Wallis Simpson and wanted to marry her. Faced with a constitutional crisis, he chose to abdicate on December 11, 1936. He became constitutional crisis, he chose to abdicate on December 11, 1936. He became Duke of Windsor and his younger brother, the upright, responsible Duke of York, Duke of Windsor and his younger brother, the upright, responsible Duke of York, became king George VI.became king George VI.

George VI (1936-52):George VI (1936-52): – George VI gradually gained popularity especially owing to his great George VI gradually gained popularity especially owing to his great

achievements during World War II. He remained for most of the time at achievements during World War II. He remained for most of the time at Buckingham Palace (the Palace was bombed nine times during the war). He and Buckingham Palace (the Palace was bombed nine times during the war). He and his wife, Queen Elizabeth, visited severely bombed areas in the East End of his wife, Queen Elizabeth, visited severely bombed areas in the East End of London and elsewhere in the country. He developed a close working London and elsewhere in the country. He developed a close working relationship with his wartime Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, as most of relationship with his wartime Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, as most of Europe fell to Nazi Germany. Having served in the Navy during the First World Europe fell to Nazi Germany. Having served in the Navy during the First World War, the King was anxious to visit his troops whenever possible (France in 1939, War, the King was anxious to visit his troops whenever possible (France in 1939, North Africa 1943, Normandy, Italy and the Low Countries in 1944). North Africa 1943, Normandy, Italy and the Low Countries in 1944).

– When India and Pakistan became independent in 1947, George ceased to be When India and Pakistan became independent in 1947, George ceased to be Emperor of India. Changes in the Commonwealth meant that its tie was no Emperor of India. Changes in the Commonwealth meant that its tie was no longer based on common allegiance to the Crown, but upon recognition of the longer based on common allegiance to the Crown, but upon recognition of the Sovereign as Head of the Commonwealth. (The Commonwealth = a free Sovereign as Head of the Commonwealth. (The Commonwealth = a free association of independent states, former British colonies, with the British association of independent states, former British colonies, with the British monarch as its head) monarch as its head)

The House of WindsorThe House of Windsor Queen Elizabeth II (1952 to the present):Queen Elizabeth II (1952 to the present):

– FamilyFamily: She married in 1947 Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, the son of : She married in 1947 Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, the son of Prince Andrew of Greece and a great-great-grandson of Queen Victoria. They Prince Andrew of Greece and a great-great-grandson of Queen Victoria. They had four children: Prince Charles, Prince of Wales; Princess Anne (The Princess had four children: Prince Charles, Prince of Wales; Princess Anne (The Princess Royal); Prince Andrew; Prince Edward. Her grandchildren are: Peter and Zara Royal); Prince Andrew; Prince Edward. Her grandchildren are: Peter and Zara Phillips (b. 1977 and 1981), the children of the Princess Royal Anne and of Phillips (b. 1977 and 1981), the children of the Princess Royal Anne and of Mark Phillips of the Queen’s Dragoon Guards; Prince William of Wales and Mark Phillips of the Queen’s Dragoon Guards; Prince William of Wales and Prince Henry of Wales (b. 1982 and 1984), children of Prince Charles of Wales Prince Henry of Wales (b. 1982 and 1984), children of Prince Charles of Wales and Princess Diana (born Lady Spenser); Princess Beatrice of York and and Princess Diana (born Lady Spenser); Princess Beatrice of York and Princess Eugenie of York (b. 1988 and 1990); and The Lady Louise Windsor Princess Eugenie of York (b. 1988 and 1990); and The Lady Louise Windsor and Viscount Severn (b.2003 and 2007), children of The Earl and Countess of and Viscount Severn (b.2003 and 2007), children of The Earl and Countess of Wessex. Wessex.

– The royal family acquired a more complex kind of publicity during 1992 which The royal family acquired a more complex kind of publicity during 1992 which Queen Elizabeth II termed as an ‘annus horribilis’ that culminated with the Queen Elizabeth II termed as an ‘annus horribilis’ that culminated with the Prime Minister John Major’s announcement that the decision of the Prince and Prime Minister John Major’s announcement that the decision of the Prince and Princess of Wales to separate “has been reached amicably” after their mutual Princess of Wales to separate “has been reached amicably” after their mutual loathing had been on display for all the world to see through the media. loathing had been on display for all the world to see through the media. Despite Major’s reassurement that the “succession to the throne is Despite Major’s reassurement that the “succession to the throne is unaffected” many felt the separation as a serious challenge to the royal unaffected” many felt the separation as a serious challenge to the royal institution unprecedented since the Glorious Revolution in 1688. The institution unprecedented since the Glorious Revolution in 1688. The subsequent course of events leading to Princess Diana’s death in a car crash subsequent course of events leading to Princess Diana’s death in a car crash in 1997 followed several years later by the Prince of Wales’s marriage with in 1997 followed several years later by the Prince of Wales’s marriage with Mrs. Camilla Parker Bowles exposed the royal house to public criticism. Mrs. Camilla Parker Bowles exposed the royal house to public criticism.

The House of WindsorThe House of Windsor Cons:Cons:

– Inherited titles cannot be justified in a democratic age.Inherited titles cannot be justified in a democratic age.– The functions of monarchy are meaningless and time-wasting ceremonials The functions of monarchy are meaningless and time-wasting ceremonials

that have been taken over by the executive in virtually every respect.that have been taken over by the executive in virtually every respect.– Monarchy is very expensive with the Queen as one of the richest women in Monarchy is very expensive with the Queen as one of the richest women in

the world for her personal fortune calculated at £ 6.7 billion in 1990 by the world for her personal fortune calculated at £ 6.7 billion in 1990 by Sunday TimesSunday Times, receiving an annual grant of nearly £ 6 million to meet the , receiving an annual grant of nearly £ 6 million to meet the expenses of the nearly 400 strong royal household. expenses of the nearly 400 strong royal household.

– Monarchy no longer holds the country together and no longer has an Monarchy no longer holds the country together and no longer has an effect on people’s behaviour. effect on people’s behaviour.

Pros:Pros:– Monarchy strengthens awareness of national identity and respect for the Monarchy strengthens awareness of national identity and respect for the

authority of government. authority of government. – The pageantry and glitter of monarchy attracts thousands of tourists to The pageantry and glitter of monarchy attracts thousands of tourists to

London and, consequently, is crucial to the nation’s tourist economy. London and, consequently, is crucial to the nation’s tourist economy.

All in all, republicanism does not exist as a major political force in Britain All in all, republicanism does not exist as a major political force in Britain and the British sense of compromise will most likely find the means to and the British sense of compromise will most likely find the means to adjust the ancient institution of monarchy so that it may meet the adjust the ancient institution of monarchy so that it may meet the requirements of a modern democratic country like Great Britain. requirements of a modern democratic country like Great Britain.