lecture 3_overhead cost

7/28/2019 Lecture 3_Overhead Cost

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Overhead Cost Computation andControl

By Sudha Agarwal

Chartered Accountant


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Contents - Overhead Cost

Meaning and Introduction Overhead Accounting

A) Collection, Classification and

Codification of Overheads

B) Allocation, Apportionment and

Reapportionment of overheads

C) Absorption of Overheads

Under/Over Absorption of Overheads

Administration Overheads

Selling and Distribution Overheads

Treatment of Other expenses


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Meaning and Introduction


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Overhead Accounting

The ultimate aim of overhead accounting is to absorb

them in the product units produced by the firm. Absorption of overhead means charging each unit of a

product with an equitable share of overhead expenses. In other words, as overheads are all indirect costs, it

becomes dif. cult to charge them to the product units. In

view of this, it becomes necessary to charge them to theproduct units on some equitably basis which is called asAbsorption of overheads.

The important steps involved in overhead accounting areas follows.

A) Collection, Classification and Codification of OverheadsB) Allocation, Apportionment and Reapportionment ofoverheads

C) Absorption of Overheads.


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A) Collection, Classification and Codificationof Overheads

I. Collection of Overheads :-Overheadscollection is the process of recording each item ofcost in the records maintained for the purpose ofascertainment of cost of each cost center or unit.

The following are the source documents for

collection of overheads.i. Stores Requisition

ii. Wages Sheet

iii. Cash Book

iv. Purchase Orders and Invoicesv. Journal Entries

vi. Other Registers and Records

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A) Collection, Classification andCodification of Overheads

II. Classification of Overheads :-Classification is defined by CIMA

as, the arrangement of items in logical groups having regard to theirnature ( subjective classification ) or the purpose to be fulfilled.( Objective classification)

Classification is made according to following basis.

i. Classification according to Elements :-According to thisclassification overheads are divided according to their elements. The

classification is done as per the following details.- Indirect Materials :-Materials which cannot be identified with thegiven product unit of cost center is called as indirect materials. Forexample, lubricants used in a machine is an indirect material, similarlythread used to stitch clothes is also indirect material. Small

nuts and bolts are also examples of indirect materials.

- Indirect Labor :-Wages and salaries paid to indirect workers, i.e.workers who are not directly engaged on the production are examplesof indirect wages.

- Indirect Expenses :-Expenses such as rent and taxes, printing andstationery, power, insurance, electricity, marketing and sellingexpenses etc are the examples of indirect expenses.

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o ect on, ass cat on anCodification of Overheads

ii. Functional Classification :-Overheads can also be classified according to their

functions. This classification is done as given below.- Manufacturing Overheads :-Indirect expenses incurred for manufacturing arecalled as manufacturing overheads. For example, factory power, works managerssalary, factory insurance, depreciation of factory machinery and other fixed assets,indirect materials used in production etc.

- Administrative Overheads :-Indirect expenses incurred for running theadministration are known as Administrative Overheads. Examples of such overheadsare, office salaries, printing and stationery, office telephone, office rent, electricity

used in the office, salaries of administrative staff etc.- Selling and Distribution Overheads :-Overheads incurred for getting orders from

consumers are called as selling overheads. On the other hand, overheads incurred for

execution of order are called as distribution overheads. Examples of sellingoverheads are, sales promotion expenses, marketing expenses, salesmens salariesand commission, advertising expenses etc. Examples of distribution overheads arewarehouse charges, transportation of outgoing goods, packing, commission ofmiddlemen etc.

- Research and Development Overheads :-In the modern days, firms spend heavilyon research and development. Expenses incurred on research and development areknown as Research and Development overheads.

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o ect on, ass cat on anCodification of Overheads

iii. Classification according to Behavior :-According to this classification, overheads

are classified as fixed, variable and semi-variable.- Fixed Overheads :-Fixed overheads are commonly described as those that do notvary in total amount with increase or decrease in production volume, for a given periodof time, may be a year. Salaries, depreciation of fixed assets, property taxes, are someof the examples of fixed costs. Total fixed costs remain same irrespective of changes involume of production but per unit of fixed cost is variable. It increases if productiondecreases while if production increases, it decreases.

- Variable Overheads :-Variable overheads are those which go on increasing if

production volume increases and go on decreasing if the volume decreases. Suchincrease or decrease may or may not be in the same proportion. Variable overheads aregenerally considered to be controllable as they are directly connected with theproduction.

- Semi-variable Overheads :-These types of overheads remain constant over arelatively short range of variation in output and then are abruptly changed to a new level.For example, supervisors salary is treated as fixed but if a decision is taken to operatea second shift, additional supervisor may have to be appointed which results into

increase in the salary of the supervisor. This indicates that it is a semi-variableoverheads. Similarly, maintenance expenditure, fire insurance are also semi-variableoverheads.

III. Codification of Overheads :- helps in easy identification of different items of overheads. There are numerous items of overheads and a code number to each one will facilitate

identification of these items easily.

done by allotting numerical codes or alphabetical codes or a combination of both.

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ocat on, pport onment anReapportionment of Overheads

The following steps are required to complete this process.

Departmentalization :- Means creating departments in the firm so that the overhead expenses can be

conveniently allocated or apportioned to these departments. For efficient working and to facilitate the process of allocation, apportionment and

reapportionment process, an organization is divided into number of departments like,machining, personnel, fabrication, assembling, maintenance, power, tool room, stores,accounts, costing etc and the overheads are collected, allocated or apportioned to

these departments. This process is known as departmentalization of overheadswhich will help in ascertainment of cost of each department and control of expenses.

Allocation :- the charging of discrete, identifiable items of cost to cost centers or cost units. For example, electricity charges can be allocated to various departments if separate

meters are installed, depreciation of machinery can be allocated to various

departments as the machines can be identified, salary of stores clerk can be allocatedto stores department, cost of coal used in boiler can be directly allocated to boilerhouse division. Thus allocation is a direct process of identifying overheads to the costunits or cost center.

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ocat on, pport onment anReapportionment of Overheads

Apportionment :- if it is not possible to charge the overheads to a particular

cost center or cost unit, they are to be apportioned tovarious departments on some suitable basis.

For example, if separate meters are provided in eachdepartment, the electricity expenses can be allocated to

various departments. However if separate meters are notprovided, electricity expenses will have to be apportionedto the departments on some suitable basis like number oflight points.

Similarly rent will have to be apportioned to various

departments on the basis of floor space, insurance ofmachinery on the basis of value of machinery, power onthe basis of horsepower etc

A statement showing the apportionment of overheads iscalled as Primary Distribution Summary of overheads.

B) All ti A ti t d


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B) Allocation, Apportionment andReapportionment of Overheads

Reapportionment of Overheads :-

The departments are broadly divided into Production Departments and ServiceDepartments. In Primary Distribution Summary, the overheads are apportioned to all the

Departments, i.e. Production and Service. For the purpose of absorption it is necessary that the overheads of the service

departments are reapportioned to the production departments. This process is called as preparation of Secondary Distribution Summary of

overheads. Suppose, there are five departments in a manufacturing firm, P1, P2, and P3 are the

production departments and S1 and S2 are the service departments. The followingresults are available from the Primary Distribution Summary.

In the secondary distribution summary, the overheads of S1 and S2 will have to becharged to Production Departments, P1, P2, and P3. This will have to be done onsome suitable basis.

The matter becomes complicated if S1 and S2 are rendering services to each other in

addition to the services rendered to the production departments. The methods of reapportionment are divided into two types.

B) All ti A ti t d


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Non Reciprocal Methods :-Under this method, the assumption is

that while service departments render services to the productiondepartments, they do not render services to each other. Hence theiroverheads are not apportioned to each other. The following methodsare used under non reciprocal methods -

- Services Rendered :-A production department which receives

maximum services from service departments should be chargedwith the largest share of the overheads.

- Ability to Pay :-This method suggests that a large share ofservice departments overhead costs should be assigned to thoseproducing departments whose product contribute the most to theincome of the business firm.

- Survey or analysis Method :-This method is used where asuitable base is difficult to find. For example, the postage cost couldbe apportioned on a survey of postage used during a year

B) All ti A ti t d


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Reciprocal Method :-Under this method, theassumption is that the service departments do renderservices to the production departments, they also renderservices to other service departments.

- Repeated Distribution Method:-Under this method,services rendered by services departments to the

production departments and other services departmentsare quantified in the form of percentages. The servicesdepartments costs are reapportioned to the productiondepartments on the basis of these percentages. Theprocess is repeated again and again till a negligible

figure is reached. This method becomes complicated forcalculation if the figures are too large.

- Simultaneous Equation Method :-This is an algebraicmethod in which simultaneous equations are formed andamount of overhead expenses of each servicedepartment are found out, by solving the equations.


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the process of absorbing all overhead costs allocated orapportioned over a particular cost center or production

department by the units produced.

absorption means charging equitable share of overhead

expenses to the products.

the basis is the absorption rate which is calculated by

dividing the overhead expenses by the base selected.

The formula used for deciding the rate is as follows,

Overhead Absorption Rate = Overhead Expenses/ Unitsof the base selected.


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The methods used for absorption are as follows.Direct Material Cost :-Under this method, the

overheads are absorbed on the basis ofpercentage of direct material cost.

Budgeted or Actual Overhead Cost/ DirectMaterial Cost *100

Thus if the overhead expenses are Rs. 2,00,000and Direct Material Cost is Rs. 4,00,000 the

percentage of overheads to direct material costwill be, 2,00,000/4,00,000 X 100 = 50%.

Overheads will be thus absorbed on the basis ofpercentage of 50% to material costs.


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Illustration :-A firm produces two products, A and B.

Direct material costs for A are Rs. 2,50,000 and for B,Rs. 1,50,000. The overheads will be charged to theseproducts as shown in the following statement,assuming the rate of absorption as 50%

Particulars Product A ProductB

Direct Materials 2,50,0001,50,000

Overheads 50% of Direct Materials 1,25,000 75,000

Total Materials + Overheads 3,75,000 2,25,000 This method is suitable in those organizations where

material is a dominant factor in the total cost structure.


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Direct Labor Cost Method :-This method is used in those

organizations where labor is a dominant factor in the total cost. Budgeted or Actual Overheads/ Direct Labor Cost X 100 Thus if the overheads are Rs. 3,00,000 and Direct Labor Cost is Rs.

4,00,000 the % of absorption will be 3,00,000/4,00,000 100 = 75%.Overheads will be charged to each product as 75% of labor cost.

This method is also simple to understand and easy to operate. However, it ignores the time taken by each worker for completion of

the job. Similarly it ignores the work performed by machine where alabor is a mere attendant.

Prime Cost Method :-the Prime Cost is taken as the base forcalculating the percentage of absorption of overheads by using thefollowing formula.

Budgeted or Actual Overheads/ Prime Cost * 100


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Illustration :-A manufacturing firm produces two products, A and B.

The direct material cost for A is Rs. 5,00,000 and for B Rs. 3,00,000,direct labor cost is Rs. 3,00,000 and Rs. 2,00,000 respectively for Aand B, direct expenses are Rs. 1,00,000 and Rs. 2,00,000respectively for A and B. The overhead expenses are Rs. 9,60,000.The statement of cost will appear as follows.

Note :- Overhead absorption rate is calculated as

9,60,000/16,00,000 * 100 = 60%


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Production Unit Method :-This method is used when all production

units are similar to each other in all respects. Total overhead expenses are divided by total production units for

computing the rate per unit of overheads and overheads are absorbedin the product units.

If a firm produces more than one product and if they are not uniform toeach other, equivalent units are calculated to find out the rate of

overheads per unit. Overhead absorption rate = Budgeted or Actual

Overheads/Production Units

Direct Labor Hour Method :-Under this method, the rate ofabsorption is calculated by dividing the overhead expenses by the

direct labor hours. Budgeted or Actual Overhead Expenses/Direct Labor Hours This method takes into account the time spent by the labor in

production of each unit where the production units are not uniform oridentical.

it is not suitable if the firm is capital intensive and highly mechanized.


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Machine Hour Rate :- Where machines are moredominant than labor, machine hour rate method is used.

actual or predetermined rate of cost apportionment oroverhead absorption, which is calculated by dividing thecost to be appropriated or absorbed by a number of hours

for which a machine or machines are operated orexpected to be operated. Budgeted or Actual Overhead Expenses/ Machine Hours

Actual or Budgeted Selling Price Method :-In this method, selling price of the

products is used as a basis for absorbing the overheads.The logic used is that if the selling price is high, theproduct should bear higher overhead cost. Ratio of sellingprice is worked out and the overheads are absorbed.


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Meaning :-a rate of absorption is computed and then the overheads

are charged to the products. The rate of absorption may be either predetermined or historical. The main advantage of the historical rate is that there is no possibility

of under/over absorption of overheads. If predetermined rate is used, there is every possibility of under or

over absorption of overheads.

Illustration :-A manufacturing company uses direct material cost asthe basis for absorption of overheads. The absorption rate is workedout as follows.

Budgeted Overheads Rs. 50,000/ Budgeted Material Cost Rs.1,00,000 * 100 i.e. 50%

Now if the actual overheads are Rs. 70,000 and the actual directmaterial cost is Rs. 1,20,000, the overheads absorbed will be Rs.60,000 i.e. 50% of the direct material cost and there will be underabsorption of Rs. 10,000 as the actual overheads incurred are Rs.70,000.


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Once the under/over absorption is noticed, the followingcorrective steps are to be taken to rectify the same.

Use of supplementary Rate :-The under/over absorptioncan be rectified by using the supplementary rate. This rateis calculated by dividing the under/over absorbed amount

of overheads by the units of the base. The rate so arrivedis known to be supplementary rate. Carrying forward to future period :-If the amount of

under/over absorption of overheads is small, it may becarried forward to the future period hoping that it will be

rectified in the future. Writing off to Profit and Loss A/c :-Amount of

under/over absorption can be written off to Costing Profitand Loss Account and thus not reflected in the total costs.


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1) Meaning

Administration cost is the cost of running the administration of a firm.Examples of administrative overheads are, general office expenses, officesalaries, printing and stationery, office lighting, audit fees, insurance of officeequipments, depreciation of office equipments and building, rent, legalcharges, repairs of office premises and machinery, traveling expenses ofoffice staff etc.

2) Treatment in Cost Accounts:There are three methods of treatment ofadministrative overheads in cost accounts.

I. Transfer to Costing Profit and Loss Account: Under this method, theadministration overheads are treated as period costs and is written off to theCosting Profit and Loss Account. Thus these costs are not charged to jobs orproduction units as they are not directly related to the production.

II. Apportionment to manufacturing and selling divisions: Under thismethod, administration overheads are divided between manufacturing andselling divisions on some suitable basis.

The main logic behind this method is that, many experts believe that there areonly two functions of a business firm and these are production and selling andother functions like administration are auxiliary functions.


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Therefore the administration overheads should be merged with

manufacturing and selling divisions. The ultimate effect of this methodis that the administration overheads lose its identity.

III. Separate functional element of cost: Under this method,administration overhead is considered as separate charge to the costto make and sell.

Accordingly, the cost of sales analysis sheet is prepared to show themanufacturing cost and is ultimately charged to the particular job ororder.

3) Control of Administration Overheads:Administration overheadsare mostly fixed in nature. They can also be termed as policy cost as

they arise out of a policy. Due to these reasons, the administrative costs are fixed in nature and

are uncontrollable. However control on these costs can be exercised through preparation

of budgets and use of standard costing.


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1. Meaning:

selling overheads are the overheads that are incurred for the selling effortsrequired for selling the product.

While selling function aims at creating the demand, the distribution functionsobject is to execute the demand.

Distribution overheads are the costs incurred for executing the ordersreceived.

Advertising expenses, sales promotion costs, salesmens salaries andcommission, discounts offered are some of the examples of selling overheads.

Warehouse rent, transportation, secondary packing are some of the examplesof distribution costs.

2. Accounting of Selling and Distribution Overheads: The ultimate aim ofaccounting of selling and distribution overheads is to absorb them in the

product units. Therefore they are allocated to the departments, territories,products etc to the extend possible. Wherever it is not possible to allocate them, they are apportioned on some

suitable basis. After the apportionment, they are finally absorbed in the product


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The following are various methods of accounting of selling anddistribution overheads.

i. Sales service departments and territories: Selling and distribution costs are allocated to sales service departments

and sales territories. Costs which cannot be allocated are apportioned tosuch departments by selecting some suitable basis like populationcoverage, net sales, sales quotas, floor space etc.

help the organization to prepare a territory wise Profit and Loss Account by

comparing the selling and distribution cost of each territory with the sales ofeach territory.

ii. Salesmen wise analysis: This method is followed for evaluating the performance of salesmen. The selling and distribution cost is analyzed by salesmen to ascertain their

comparative ability. Under this method, the selling and distribution costs are allocated to eachsalesman wherever possible.


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iii. Product wise analysis: Under this method, all the direct costs are charged directly to

each product line. On the other hand, indirect costs arecharged/apportioned to the products on some suitable basis likenet sales or other suitable base. Decisions like closing anunprofitable line or further pushing a profitable product line can betaken on the basis of such analysis.

iv. Sales order wise analysis: In this method, it is possible tofind out the profit on sales order by charging all expenses to salesorder.

v. Other methods: In a departmental store, analysis of sellingand distribution costs can be charged to each department so that

it is possible to find out the profitability of each department. In retail establishments, if the management is interested in

knowing the profitability of different lines of merchandise, costscan be allocated or apportioned to each line of merchandise likehardware, timber, coal, general merchandise, cosmetics,consumer durables, medicines etc.

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Treatment of other Expenses

1. Inspection Charges: The inspection charges that can be identified

with a product should be charged to that product. Inspection charges,which cannot be identified with a particular product should be treated asfactory overheads and apportioned to production departments on somesuitable basis like work done or inspection hours.

2. Design and Drawing Office Cost: These costs are treated as directcosts if they can be identified with a particular job or product. However if

these costs cannot be identified with a particular job, they are charged todifferent jobs on some suitable basis like number of drawings made,chargeable man hours etc. Drawing to be enclosed with sales orders maybe treated as administration overheads.

3. Carriage on Materials: Normally the carriage paid on incomingmaterials is treated as purchase cost. However if the carriage charges

cover a large number of individual materials, it may be treated as an itemof production overheads and spread over the different materials. Similarlymaterial handling and storage expenses may be apportioned on the basisof value, weight, volume of materials or number of material requisitions.

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4. Canteen Expenses: Generally canteens in various firms are

run on subsidized basis. In such case the costs are treated as anitem of factory overheads and apportioned to different costcenters on suitable basis like number of employees, amount ofwages, number of meals served etc. The canteen receipts arecredited and net costs are apportioned. On the other hand, if thecanteens are run on no profit no loss basis, the question of cost

apportionment does not arise at all.

5. Training Costs: The costs incurred on training of employeesare collected under different standing order numbers. Thetreatment of these costs depends on the amount of training

expenses. If the amount is small or negligible, they areapportioned to different on suitable basis like number ofemployees trained. On the other hand, if the amount is heavy,training department is treated as a separate service center andthen it is apportioned to other production and service departmentson some suitable basis.


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6. Installation Cost of Plant and Machinery: When a new plant and

machinery is installed, the cost of the installation of the same iscapitalized and depreciation is charged as per the prescribed rates.

7. Set up Cost: This cost can be treated as a direct cost if it is for aparticular job or production order. If it is a common cost which meansthat it is not possible to identify it with a particular job or production

order, it is treated as production order and apportioned to differentjobs on suitable basis like setting up time etc.

8. Dismantling Cost of Plant and Machinery:A plant andmachinery may be dismantled due to sale as it may have becomeredundant or obsolete. This dismantling is permanent and hence thecost involved is added to the cost of asset dismantled and set offagainst any sale proceeds received on account of dismantling. Onthe other hand, if the dismantling is just for shifting the asset fromone place to another, it may be treated as production overhead andapportioned/allocated to different cost centers.


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9. Compensatory Payment to Workers: Compensatory payment can bemade regularly like gratuity. This will be treated as an item of overheads. Ifthis payment is not of regular nature and is paid occasionally, the payment ofcompensation is estimated in advance and a proportionate amount ischarged to overheads in each period on uniform basis.

10. Repairs and Maintenance Cost: Repairs and maintenance cost if paidas preventive maintenance is treated as overhead. The amount may be

collected and charged to a separate department of Repairs andMaintenance. This department is treated as a separate service center andthe amount is apportioned to other cost centers on some suitable basis. Ifrepairs and maintenance is extremely heavy, it is capitalized and written offwith the asset as depreciation.

11. Lighting, heating, ventilation, air-conditioning Expenses: This item is

treated as an overhead and collected under a separate standing ordernumber. If separate meters are installed in each department, this expenditureis allocated to various cost centers. On the other hand, if there are noseparate meters, the amount is apportioned to various cost centers on somesuitable basis like basis of wattage, number of electric points, floor area,cubic capacity, tonnage of air-conditioning, etc.


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12. Cost of Small Tools: One of the methods of treatment of the cost of

small tools is to capitalize the cost and write off depreciation on the same.Depreciation is treated as an item of overheads. If there are any difficulties intreating this cost as a capital cost due to difficulty in ascertaining the life ofsmall tools, the method followed is to charge the purchase price of smalltools to a separate standing order number and distribute to otherdepartments on some suitable basis and finally absorbed by products.

13. Medical Expenses: Cost of medical services are collected underseparate standing order number and is apportioned to various cost centerson suitable basis like number of employees etc. If the amount spent is heavy,there may be a separate medical service department and the costs collectedunder that department. This amount is finally apportioned to other costcenters on suitable basis.

14. Royalties and Patent Fees: When royalties are paid for the right of useof patent process or component in the course of manufacturing, it is treatedas production cost. On the other hand, if it is paid for use of right to sell, it istreated as selling overheads. When it is partially for production and partiallyfor sale, the amount is apportioned between production and selling costs.


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15. Directors Fees and Salaries: This is part of administrationoverheads. However sometimes, this is apportioned between

administration and selling and distribution overheads on the basis oftime devoted.

16. Market Research: Market Research is an item of selling overheadas it is incurred for conducting study of market conditions andascertainment of market potentiality. Cost of market research isapportioned to all the products produced by the firm if it is conducted

for the entire organization. On the other hand, if it is incurred for aparticular product, it may be treated as a direct charge for that product.

17. Bad Debts: Bad Debt is a selling overhead and included in thesame. However abnormal bad debts are excluded from cost accounts.

18. Advertising Cost:Advertising expenditure incurred for a specificproduct is charged to that product. Cost of general advertisement isapportioned to different products on the basis of sales value. If theamount is heavy, the expenses may be treated as deferred revenueexpenditure and can be charged in three or four years.


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lecture 3_overhead cost

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