Lect

ure

2: E

lect

roni

c C

ompu

ting

1940

-19

70

Ste

phen

M. M

aure

rG

oldm

an S

choo

l of P

ublic

Pol

icy

smau

rer@

berk

eley

.edu

His

tory

of C

ompu

ting

His

tory

of C

ompu

ting

CS

E P

590A

(UW

)C

SE

P59

0A (U

W)

PP

190/

290

PP

190/

290 --

3 (U

CB

)3

(UC

B)

CS

E 2

90 2

91 (D

00)

CS

E 2

90 2

91 (D

00)

Pol

icy

A T

ippi

ng In

dust

ryM

anag

ing

Mon

opol

y.S

tand

ards

, inn

ovat

ion,

lock

-in.

A D

ivid

ed W

orld

Mili

tary

/sci

entif

ic v

s.C

omm

erci

al/g

over

nanc

e.

Pat

ents Fi

ndin

g N

ew U

ses.

Ex

post

mon

opol

y pr

ice.

Rew

ard

som

etim

es in

adeq

uate

.R

aisi

ng c

apita

l.

Pol

icy

Priz

esN

o m

onop

oly

Spe

cify

ing

the

priz

e co

nditi

on

Rai

sing

Cap

ital

Gra

nts

& C

ontra

cts

Whe

n th

e sp

onso

r kno

ws

�v�

Age

ncy

prob

lem

s

War

time

Ove

rvie

w

Goi

ng E

lect

roni

cV

anne

varB

ush

and

OS

RD

Wor

ld W

ar I

Exp

erie

nce

Org

aniz

ing

Wor

k th

e B

ig S

cien

ce W

ay

Ultr

a, B

letc

hley

Par

k &

All

That

Col

ossu

s (1

500

vacu

um tu

bes)

Stib

bitz

and

EN

IAC

S

A

B

Ele

ctro

nics

�Vac

uum

Tub

es,�

aka

�Val

ves�

Ele

ctro

nic

Logi

c

01

11

10

01

10

10

00

00

SC

BA

Flip

-Flo

p

Bin

ary

Arit

hmet

ic

Hal

f-Add

er

S =

Axo

rBC

= A

andB

Vacu

um T

ube

(Or R

elay

s or

Tran

sist

ors)

Geo

rge

R. S

tibitz

Bel

l Lab

s (1

937)

Tele

phon

e R

elay

s B

inar

y A

rithm

etic

K-M

odel

(193

8)

Mod

el 1

(193

9) -

$20,

000

Mod

els

2-5

(194

0 -4

5)P

aper

tape

, err

or c

heck

ing,

mul

tiplic

atio

n ta

bles

, &st

orag

e re

gist

ers.

NA

CA

and

Abe

rdee

n

Ata

naso

ff-B

erry

John

Vin

cent

Ata

nass

ofC

liffo

rd

Ber

ry

�AB

C C

ompu

ter�

Iow

a S

tate

(193

7 �

39)

Arit

hmet

ic �

Base

2 L

ogic

Mem

ory

�D

rum

, Con

dens

ers

+ �J

oggi

ng�

Out

put

�C

ards

No

�if� s

tate

men

t.

Pro

pose

d 30

0 va

cuum

tube

m

achi

ne w

as n

ever

com

plet

ed.

Kon

rad

Zuse

Z1

Bin

ary

Add

ition

(193

6).

Mec

hani

cal,

punc

hed

tape

. Z2

R

elay

s (1

940)

.Z3

P

rogr

amm

able

(194

1).

2600

rela

ys.

Z4

Ref

ined

Z3

(194

5)20

00 v

acuu

m tu

bes.

EN

IAC

1939

: Fus

es in

stea

d of

vac

uum

tu

bes.

1941

: An

elec

troni

c D

iffer

entia

l A

naly

zer

-$48

6,80

4.22

-200

,000

man

hou

rs

174k

w, 1

7468

vac

uum

tube

s,

500,

000

sold

ered

join

ts, 7

0,00

0 re

sist

ors,

10,

000

capa

cito

rs.

Com

plet

ed in

the

Fall

of 1

945,

use

d on

�The

Sup

er.�

John

Mau

chly

Pre

sper

Eck

ert

EN

IAC

Mat

h U

nits

20 a

ccum

ulat

ors

Flip

flop

�whe

els�

+ T

able

s

Mem

ory

Pro

gram

P

lug

boar

d,ca

bles

,sw

itche

s.

EN

IAC

The

Sof

twar

e C

once

ptTh

e m

agne

tic d

rum

/dis

k id

ea (1

944)

John

von

Neu

man

n (1

903

�19

57)

Firs

t Dra

ft of

a R

epor

t on

the

ED

VA

C (1

945)

Look

ing

Ahe

ad

Pol

icy

The

War

time

Res

earc

h M

iracl

eO

SR

D, N

atio

nal L

abs

Mon

eyTh

e R

esea

rch

Bac

klog

+ F

ocus

ed P

roje

cts

Indu

stry

/Aca

dem

ic C

oope

ratio

nB

ig S

cien

ce R

esea

rch

Mod

el�

and

War

time

Eth

ics?

A R

ole

For P

aten

ts?

Eck

ert a

nd M

auch

lyle

ave

The

Moo

re

Sch

ool.

An

esse

ntia

l inc

entiv

e?C

omm

erci

al v

s. a

cade

mic

mac

hine

s.

S. R

eid

War

ren

(Moo

re S

choo

l):�[T

he

Sch

ool�s

pat

ent p

olic

y] w

as v

ery,

ver

y na

ïve.

We

didn

�t go

out

of o

ur w

ay to

he

lp p

eopl

e, a

nd o

ur g

ener

al a

ttitu

de

was

, �Le

t�s m

ake

it so

it�s

hel

pful

to th

e hu

man

race

and

so

on.��

Pol

icy

The

Firs

t Com

pute

rC

ompa

nies

Pos

twar

New

Gov

ernm

ent N

eeds

Wea

pons

Phy

sics

& �T

he S

uper

�C

rypt

ogra

phy

& In

telli

genc

eA

ir D

efen

se

Bus

ines

s M

achi

nes?

Pun

ch c

ards

dom

inan

t unt

il 19

62.

Com

mer

cial

izin

g C

ompu

ters

Frag

ile, E

xpen

sive

, Unr

elia

ble

Pos

twar

Tech

nolo

gy T

raje

ctor

yIn

tern

al M

emor

y

1945

: Del

ay li

nes,

Cat

hode

ra

y tu

be, d

rum

mem

ory.

1949

: Mag

netic

cor

e.

Ext

erna

l Mem

ory

1945

: Pap

er ta

pe, c

ards

, dru

m.

1950

s: P

last

ic ta

pe, d

isks

.

CP

U V

acuu

m tu

bes,

tran

sist

ors

(194

7),

inte

grat

ed c

ircui

ts (1

959)

.

Moo

re S

choo

l Sum

mer

Sch

ool &

von

Neu

man

n �F

irst D

raft.

�

EN

IAC

, ED

VA

C, E

DS

AC

(Cam

brid

ge 1

949)

, ILL

IAC

(C

ham

pagn

e-U

rban

a 19

51),

JOH

NN

IAC

(Ran

d 19

53),

MA

DM

(Man

ches

ter 1

953)

, SW

AC

(Bur

eau

of S

tand

ards

195

0), M

AN

IAC

(Los

Ala

mos

195

2),

IAS

Mac

hine

(Ins

titut

e fo

r Adv

ance

d S

tudy

195

1),

Ord

vac

(Uni

vers

ity o

f Illi

nois

for A

berd

een

1951

), A

CE

(Tur

ing-

built

194

6),e

tc.,

etc.

Uni

vers

ity &

Gov

ernm

ent

Mac

hine

s

Har

vard

Mar

k IV

A

n W

ang

(192

0 �

1990

)C

ore

mem

ory

(194

9)D

evel

oped

by

Whi

rlwin

dP

aten

ted

1955

, lat

er li

cens

ed

to IB

M

Uni

vers

ity &

Gov

ernm

ent

Mac

hine

s

Ele

ctro

nic

Con

trol C

ompa

ny (1

946)

Targ

et c

usto

mer

s:

Par

i-mut

uel c

ompa

nies

, airc

raft

com

pani

es, i

nsur

ance

, ato

mic

en

ergy

, map

ping

, aca

dem

ia, a

ircra

ft.

Con

vinc

ing

cust

omer

s:N

AS

and

Bur

eau

of S

tand

ards

repo

rts.

Cen

sus

Bur

eau

Con

tract

(194

8)

Cap

ital,

Eng

inee

ring

& M

arke

ting

prob

lem

s

Rem

ingt

on R

and

(195

0)

Eck

ert &

Mau

chly

Nav

y an

d N

SA

Mac

hine

sTe

chno

logy

Dru

m M

emor

y C

ompu

ters

ER

A 1

101

(195

1) (e

x-N

avy)

ER

A 1

103

(195

2) (e

x-N

SA

).

Com

mer

cial

Wea

knes

sM

anua

ls, m

arke

ting,

inpu

t-out

put e

quip

men

t.

Rem

ingt

on-R

and

(195

2)

Eng

inee

ring

Res

earc

h A

ssoc

iate

s

Goi

ng E

lect

roni

cTh

omas

J. W

atso

n S

r. (1

943)

Thom

as J

. Wat

son

Jr. (

1949

)

�The

se d

evel

opm

ent c

ontra

cts

are

of s

uch

a na

ture

th

at th

ey w

ill b

e ve

ry a

ttrac

tive

to a

nyon

e w

ithou

t pr

evio

us p

rivat

e ex

perie

nce

or p

aten

ts in

the

com

putin

g fie

ld; b

ut th

e pa

tent

pro

visi

ons

mak

e it

doub

tful i

f IB

M, w

hich

has

the

lead

in th

e fie

ld, c

an

affo

rd to

par

ticip

ate

in th

e pr

ogra

m�

Whe

reas

bef

ore

the

war

IBM

was

the

only

org

aniz

atio

n ab

le a

nd w

illin

g to

car

ry o

n la

rge

scal

e de

velo

pmen

t of c

alcu

lato

rs,

such

dev

elop

men

t is

now

taki

ng p

lace

on

a la

rge

scal

e.� (

1946

)

R&

D In

itiat

ives

Sel

ectiv

e S

eque

nce

Ele

ctro

nic

Cal

cula

tor (

1948

)La

st e

lect

rom

echa

nica

l com

pute

rFi

rst s

tore

d pr

ogra

m c

ompu

ter

12,5

00 v

acuu

m tu

bes

Use

d fo

r opt

ics,

qua

ntum

phy

sics

, orb

its,

and

hydr

odyn

amic

s.

Tape

Mem

ory

(194

8 -5

3)M

ylar

-bas

ed ta

pe.

Mag

netic

dru

m s

tora

ge (1

948

�19

54)

Har

vard

Sem

inar

.

Pro

duct

sIB

M 6

03/6

04 (1

946)

All-

Ele

ctro

nic

Cal

cula

tor

300/

1400

tube

s.B

inar

y lo

gic

20-6

0 st

ep in

tern

al m

emor

y56

00 m

achi

nes.

1.5

mill

ion

vacu

um tu

bes/

year

.

Car

d-P

rogr

amm

ed E

lect

roni

c C

alcu

lato

rN

orth

rup

& �U

ser I

nnov

atio

n�70

0 bu

ilt.

Ear

ly C

ompu

ters

Uni

vac

UN

IVer

salA

utom

atic

Com

pute

r P

aper

tape

+ D

elay

line

mem

ory.

$1m

eac

h.Ty

pew

riter

out

put,h

igh

spee

d pr

inte

r (19

54)

Uni

vac

Uni

vac

1951

: Firs

t sal

e to

Cen

sus.

1952

: Eis

enho

wer

Ele

ctio

n.

Uni

vac

Uni

vac

1954

: G

ener

al E

lect

ric, D

uPon

t, U

S S

teel

, US

AF�

$1

m e

ach

�Pr

oduc

tion

prob

lem

s.20

sol

d by

195

4.vs

.19

IBM

701

s10

0s o

f IB

M

Car

d-P

rogr

amm

ed C

alcu

lato

rs.

1000

s of

IBM

pun

ch c

ard

mac

hine

s.

�[P]e

rhap

sth

e m

ost r

adic

al id

ea w

hich

bus

ines

s is

be

ing

aske

d to

acc

ept i

s th

e id

ea th

at a

reel

of t

ape

can

safe

ly b

e us

ed to

car

ry in

form

atio

n no

w b

eing

en

trust

ed to

vis

ual c

ard

files

.�

Chi

ef A

ctua

ry,

Met

ropo

litan

Life

Insu

ranc

e C

ompa

ny (1

953)Uni

vac

Uni

vac

Bet

ting

on T

echn

olog

y/P

rice

Sm

all S

ales

For

ce

Cus

tom

ers

coul

d no

t see

val

ue.

Sm

all F

ield

Eng

inee

ring

Sta

ffR

elia

bilit

y is

sues

.P

erpe

tual

ly c

hang

ing

desi

gn.

Mis

sed

dead

lines

, con

fuse

d te

ch s

uppo

rt.

ER

A 1

103

Twen

ty b

uilt.

P

robl

ems

rega

rdin

g �p

ricin

g, re

ntal

, fie

ld s

ervi

ce,

inst

alla

tion,

cus

tom

er tr

aini

ng, a

nd s

uppo

rt.�

IBM

701

(195

2)�D

efen

se C

alcu

lato

r�

Mag

netic

dru

m +

Myl

ar ta

pe+

Pun

ch

Car

ds19

pro

duce

d fo

r airc

raft

com

pani

es,

gove

rnm

ent l

abs

& u

nive

rsiti

es.

IBM

701

Impr

oved

Ver

sion

s: IB

M 7

04 (1

954)

, 70

9 an

d al

l-tra

nsis

tor 7

090.

C

ompa

tible

sof

twar

e70

90 is

all-

trans

isto

r, or

igin

ally

bui

lt fo

r U

SA

F.

IBM

702

(195

3)/IB

M 7

05 (1

954)

Del

ayed

194

8 �T

ape

Pro

cess

ing

Mac

hine

� C

atho

de ra

y m

emor

ym

akes

702

co

mpe

titiv

e w

ith U

niva

c70

5 ha

s M

agne

tic C

ore

Mem

ory.

R&

D Tran

sist

ors

(195

1 -5

9)D

isk

stor

age

(195

2 �

56)

Sof

twar

eS

oftw

are

~ R

enta

l cos

ts.

Cus

tom

er L

ock-

InU

ser I

nnov

atio

nS

HA

RE

and

GU

IDE

(195

5)U

NIV

AC

, Bur

roug

hs, B

endi

x.Fo

rtran

(195

7)

Pol

icy

Aca

dem

ic R

esea

rch

Ass

ertin

g pa

tent

righ

ts a

gain

st IB

M?

Cus

tom

er In

nova

tion

Mon

opol

ists

and

com

plem

ents

Wha

t�s n

ew a

bout

GP

L?Ta

ppin

g in

form

atio

n ab

out u

ser n

eeds

.

Rel

iabi

lity

and

serv

ice.

Whi

rlwin

d &

SA

GE

Whi

rlwin

dW

hirlw

ind

II/S

AG

EA

$50

0m s

ubco

ntra

ct

AN

/FS

Q-7

27

5 to

ns/9

19 m

iles

of c

able

/50,

000

vacu

um

tube

s/co

nsum

ed 3

MW

of p

ower

80

0 pr

ogra

mm

ers

--20

% o

f the

wor

ld�s

sup

ply

500,

000

lines

of c

ode.

Mag

netic

cor

e m

emor

y, la

rge

real

tim

e O

S,

over

lapp

ing

of c

ompu

tatio

n an

d IO

func

tions

, us

e of

pho

ne li

nes,

cat

hode

ray

tube

dis

play

s w

ith li

ght p

ens,

hig

h re

liabi

lity.

Whi

rlwin

d &

SA

GE

Whi

rlwin

d II

IBM

get

s th

e B

id

�Kin

gpin

�

�[T]h

etro

uble

with

IBM

wou

ld b

e its

trad

ition

al

secr

etiv

enes

s.�

Jay

Fore

ster

:In

the

IBM

org

aniz

atio

n w

e ob

serv

ed a

muc

h hi

gher

deg

ree

of p

urpo

sefu

lnes

s,

inte

grat

ion,

and

esp

rit d

e co

rps

than

we

foun

d in

th

e R

emin

gton

Ran

d or

gani

zatio

n. A

lso,

of

cons

ider

able

inte

rest

to u

s, w

as th

e ev

iden

ce o

f m

uch

clos

er ti

es b

etw

een

rese

arch

, fac

tory

, and

fie

ld m

aint

enan

ce in

IBM

.

IBM

Get

s th

e B

id

Ben

efits

to IB

M

Mas

s pr

oduc

tion

of fe

rrite

cor

e m

emor

y

7000

em

ploy

ees

man

ufac

turin

g, in

stal

ling,

se

rvic

ing,

and

impr

ovin

g sy

stem

SA

BR

E ($

300m

) and

ATC

spi

noffs

.

Oth

er B

enef

itsLi

ncol

n La

b, D

EC

, Mitr

eC

orpo

ratio

n, a

nd

Rou

te 1

28.

Ant

itrus

t (19

52 -

1956

)

Gro

unds

: P

reda

tory

Pric

ing,

Inco

mpa

tible

C

ards

, Buy

ing

Up

Pat

ents

, Usi

ng

Leas

es to

Blo

ck in

nova

tion,

Bin

ding

In

vent

ors

to E

xclu

sive

Con

tract

s.

Rel

ief:

Man

dato

ry c

ross

-lice

nsin

g of

pa

tent

s.

Ope

ning

the

card

mar

ket.

Fost

er c

ompe

titio

n in

repa

ir,

seco

ndha

nd s

ales

, and

ser

vice

bu

reau

s.

Pol

icy

DoJ

vs. D

oD3

mill

ion

inst

alle

d va

cuum

tube

sW

hat i

f Rem

ingt

on-R

and

had

won

?

The

Indu

stry

Tak

es O

ff:19

54 -

1960

The

Cris

is Y

ear -

1954

IBM

650

Mag

netic

Dru

m C

alcu

lato

r (19

54)

Del

ayed

194

9 pr

ojec

t.A

sci

entif

ic c

ompu

ter.

But

: Joh

n H

anco

ck g

ets

first

one

.18

00 b

uilt.

Mos

t pop

ular

com

pute

r of 1

950s

.

IBM

650

IBM

Typ

e 60

8 (1

954)

All-

Tran

sist

or/m

agne

tic m

emor

y ve

rsio

n of

Typ

e 60

4.

Impr

oved

Def

ense

Cal

cula

tor (

IBM

704

)

IBM

305

RA

MA

C (1

956)

Ran

dom

Acc

ess

Mem

ory

Acc

ount

ing

Mac

hine

Atta

chm

ent f

or IB

M 6

50 D

rum

Cal

cula

tor

50 d

isks

, 5 m

illio

n ch

arac

ters

Pot

entia

lly In

tera

ctiv

e -�

Ask

Pro

f. R

AM

AC

�

IBM

Goe

s A

ll-S

olid

Sta

te (1

957)

IBM

140

1/14

10An

noun

ced

1959

10,0

00 c

opie

sFe

rrite

cor

e m

emor

ies,

mag

netic

dis

k,

high

spe

ed c

hain

prin

ter.

Sev

en D

war

fs

NC

R:

Buy

s N

orth

rup

spin

offC

RC

(1

954)

. Nic

he s

ales

in

bank

ing

and

reta

il.

Hon

eyw

ell:

Buy

s c

ompu

ter c

ompa

ny

(195

4) a

nd m

arke

ts la

rge

vacu

um tu

be m

achi

ne

(195

7).

Bur

roug

hs (1

956)

:P

urch

ases

JP

L al

umni

co

mpu

ter c

ompa

ny, b

uild

s sp

ecia

lty c

ompu

ters

for

mili

tary

.

Con

trol

Dat

a (1

957)

Spe

rry-

Uni

vac

spin

off.

Sev

en D

war

fs

Sper

ry:

Mer

ges

with

Rem

ingt

on-R

and

(195

5)

Uni

vac

II (1

958)

Par

tial t

rans

isto

r, m

agne

tic m

emor

y,fil

m-b

ased

tape

.

RC

AIn

trodu

ces

new

com

pute

r in

1955

Fe

rrite

cor

e bu

t als

o va

cuum

tube

s,

tape

driv

e. T

rans

isto

rized

com

pute

rs

follo

w.

GE:

S

old

vacu

um tu

bes

to IB

MB

uild

s co

mpu

ters

for N

CR

Failu

re to

com

mer

cial

ize

1953

com

pute

r fo

rUS

AF.

�A

nd A

T&T

AT&

T:

1953

Con

sent

Dec

ree

Sta

ys o

ut o

f com

pute

rs a

fter 1

952.

Roy

alty

-free

lice

nse

on tr

ansi

stor

Jack

Kilb

y&

Rob

ert N

oyce

(195

9).

Arm

y M

icro

mod

ule

Pro

gram

�[I]f

the

inve

ntio

n ha

dn�t

aris

en a

t Fai

rchi

ld

it w

ould

hav

e ar

isen

els

ewhe

re in

the

very

ne

ar fu

ture

. It

was

an

idea

who

se ti

me

had

com

e.�

-Rob

ert N

oyce

Rep

ealin

g G

rosc

h�s

Law

Cos

t s

Pow

er

Inte

grat

ed C

ircui

ts

Jack

Kilb

y(1

923-

2005

)

Rob

ert N

oyce

(192

8 �

1990

)

= W

1/2

Inte

grat

ed C

ircui

ts

Pol

icy

Fire

hose

R&

DA

dvan

tage

s: M

arke

t sha

re, i

nter

nal f

inan

cing

.Fe

rrite

cor

e, d

isk,

tran

sist

or, i

nteg

rate

d ci

rcui

t,ra

ndom

acc

ess,

hig

h sp

eed

prin

tout

.

Pat

entin

g th

e in

tegr

ated

circ

uit.

Cos

ts a

nd b

enef

its�

For t

he A

rmy

For t

he c

ount

ry.

The

1960

s: �I

BM

�s 5

Bill

ion

Gam

ble�

an

d th

e S

yste

m/3

60

Sys

tem

/360

1960

Dec

isio

n -A

nnou

nced

196

4 -D

eliv

ered

196

6

Sev

en D

iffer

ent I

BM

Mac

hine

s.Lo

st e

cono

mie

s of

sca

le in

pro

duct

ion,

mar

ketin

g,

and

serv

ice.

Sof

twar

e co

sts.

Com

petit

ive

Pre

ssur

eG

E, R

CA

, and

H

oney

wel

l.

Sys

tem

/360

Cat

chin

g th

e W

ave:

Inst

alle

d ba

se v

s. N

ew

Use

rs

1960

: 600

0 U

S c

ompu

ters

1973

: 100

,000

com

pute

rs

wor

ldw

ide.

IBM

sal

es g

o fro

m $

1.8b

n(1

960)

To

$7.2

bn

(197

0).

Sys

tem

/360

Man

ufac

turin

g C

risis

.S

oftw

are

Cris

is.

1m li

nes

of c

ode

+ Ti

me

shar

ing.

$125

m b

udge

t.$5

00m

act

ual c

ost.

5,00

0 st

aff-y

ears

.1

year

late

, bug

gy.

R&

D P

riorit

ies

Tim

e sh

arin

g.In

tegr

ated

circ

uits

IBM

S/3

70Im

prov

ed 3

60 fa

mily

with

ICs.

New

DoJ

Suit

(196

9)

S/3

60 a

nd th

e 7

Dw

arfs

Clo

nes H

oney

wel

l and

IBM

140

1.

RC

A m

akes

com

patib

le m

ainf

ram

eS

ovie

ts to

o.

Nic

he M

arke

tsD

EC

min

icom

pute

rs.

CD

C (S

eym

our C

ray)

.

Plu

g C

ompa

tible

Com

pone

nts

Mem

orex

, Tel

ex, A

mpe

x, S

tora

ge

Tech

nolo

gy, C

alC

omp,

Am

dahl

.

S/3

60 a

nd th

e 7

Dw

arfs

Com

pute

r Lea

sing

Com

pani

es

Ant

itrus

t Sui

ts

1971

Rec

essi

on a

nd B

UN

CH

.

Bey

ond

Sch

umpe

ter?

A

(Tem

pora

ry?)

End

to R

evol

utio

nsA

bsen

ce o

f Lar

ge C

ompe

titor

sW

ould

ent

ry p

ay?

DoJ

�sLe

gacy

: An

Ope

n W

orld

IBM

�s C

ontin

uing

Adv

anta

geM

arke

t sha

reLa

gsTa

pes,

dis

k dr

ives

� C

PU

s?H

igh

pric

es, f

ast p

rogr

ess.

Pol

icy

AR

PA

A G

olde

n A

ge?

Mon

ey: $

10 m

illio

n 19

62)/$

15 m

illio

n (1

963)

.In

tera

ctiv

e co

mpu

ting.

AR

PA

net:

Car

rot a

nd S

tick.

Inst

itutio

ns: O

SR

D, a

gain

?

Por

tfolio

Man

agem

ent:

J.C

. Lic

klid

er.

AR

PA

John

C. L

ickl

ider

(191

5 �

1990

)

A G

olde

n A

ge?

Mili

tary

, Aca

dem

ics

as L

ead

Use

rs

MIT

Pro

ject

MA

C (1

964)

Pro

mis

ed o

n-lin

e ca

talo

gs, o

rder

ing

and

billi

ng,e

lect

roni

cca

sh, m

edic

al-in

form

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r hos

pita

ls, c

entra

lized

traf

fic c

ontro

l fo

r citi

es,a

utom

atic

libra

ries,

des

ign

cons

oles

for

engi

neer

s, m

anag

emen

t con

sole

s fo

r co

mpa

nies

and

fact

orie

s, te

achi

ng c

onso

les

for

educ

atio

n, e

ditin

g co

nsol

es fo

r pub

lishi

ng,

rese

arch

con

sole

s fo

r lab

orat

orie

s, a

nd

com

pute

rized

com

mun

ities

.

AR

PA

The

Wor

ld a

t 197

0

Com

mer

ce d

ispl

acin

g m

ilitar

y.IB

M d

omin

ant,

but v

igor

ous

R&

D.

Fadi

ng in

form

atio

n as

ymm

etry

?

Big

Mac

hine

s, b

ut IC

s on

the

horiz

on.

Ope

n st

anda

rds,

lead

use

rs,

and

root

s of

ope

n so

urce

.