Lecture 2

Blood & Iron

http://web.mit.edu/jinseok/www/songs/mw.mp3

Questions

• Did Germany need a strong statesman, namely Chancellor Bismarck, to unite?

• Was this an indication of an underdeveloped civil society?

• And, did the liberals acquiesce their political agenda in the face of successful unification?

Reforms Give Way

1850: Olmütz Agreement resurrects a conservative German Confederation and the balancing act between Austria & Prussia

Evaluating the Confederation

• Winners / Losers

• Possibilities of Reform

• Living on Borrowed Time?

1850s OptimismIndustrialization• In Prussia: coal, iron, and steel production increased

8, 14, and 54-fold between 1849-1875.• Alfred Krupp, the “Cannon King”, employed 60 men

in 1836, 1000 in 1858, 8000 in 1865, and doubled again to 16,000 in 1873.

• Over a million new buildings went up in Prussia during the years 1852-67, the fastest growth located in factory plants and public buildings.

1850s Optimism

Demographic Shifts

• Gradual Rise in Living Standards

• Increasing separation between urban & rural areas

• Mass emigration

• Avg. life expectancy was still low: men, 36.5 years; women, 38.5 years

Crown v. Parliament

• 1858: Wilhelm I becomes regent of Prussia to succeed Friedrich Wilhelm

• Budget Crisis of 1860s

• 1862: Prussian isolation in the Confederation and the Zollverein

Otto von Bismarck

“Man cannot create or control the tide of time, he can only move in the same direction and try to direct it.”

Otto von Bismarck (1815-98)• Born in Schönhausen in Brandenburg,

the son of a Pomeranian Junker.• Educated at Göttingen University.• 1836: Entered the Prussian civil

service.• 1839: Retired from the civil service to

manage the family estates.• 1849: Elected as an ultra-conservative

member of the Prussian Landtag.• 1851: Joined the Prussian diplomatic

corps, serving as Prussian representative to the Federal Diet and then ambassador to Russia and France.

• 1862: Appointed Prussian Minister-President.

• 1867: Became Chancellor of the North German Confederation.

• 1871-90: Chancellor of the German Empire.

Propitious Circumstances• Fallout from the Crimean War 1854-56

• French defeat of Austrians in 1859

• Franco-British Competition

Shifting the Balance of Power• 1863: War of Danish Succession and

the take-over of Schleswig-Holstein

• July 1866: Seven-Week War against Austria over tensions concerning the adminstration of S-H & power plays in the Confederation; Koniggrätz victory for Prussia in July

Making Good

• 1866 Bill of Indemnity

• Split among Liberals (Progressive Party & National Liberal Party)

• Creation of North German Confederation: Prussia and 21 principalities

Bismarck’s Concessions• King of Prussia held executive authority as president• Chancellor was named by King and responsible only

to him• Two legislative houses: Federal Council, or

Bundesrat, appointed by the state governments; and a lower house, the Imperial Diet, or Reichstag, elected by equal manhood suffrage.

• Prussia controlled 17 votes out of 43 in the Bundesrat

Shifting the Balance of PowerNapoleon III, Emperor of France• French-Prussian hostilities• Controversy over Spanish succession• French declaration of war on July 19• War unites German principalities south of the River

Main• Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71: Prussian victory

paves the way for the proclamation of a German Empire at Versailles in 1871.

Franco-Prussian War• War with France created huge upsurge in German national feeling –

popular pressure in the South German states to transform the wartime alliance into a permanent union.

• However:– The rulers of the South German states wanted a much looser federation than

Bismarck proposed, giving them more control over their own affairs– Wilhelm I was reluctant to accept a ‘German’ title which he felt would lessen the

dignity of his position as King of Prussia– He insisted that he would only accept the Crown of Germany if it were offered by

his fellow German sovereigns, not the German people

• Bismarck threatened to call on the German people to remove those rulers who opposed a united Germany.

• Symbolic concessions to South German states – Bavaria retained a separate postal service and peacetime control of its own army.

• Bismarck paid a huge bribe to King Ludwig II of Bavaria in order to get him to sign a letter offering the German crown to Wilhelm.

• Germany annexed the territories of Alsace and Lorraine from France.

The Constitution of the German Empire, 1871

• Based on the Constitution of the North German Confederation.• Germany was to be a federal state.• Power was divided between the central government and the governments of the

25 states.• The states preserved their own constitutions, rulers, parliaments and

administrative systems with powers over direct taxation, education, public health etc.

• As German Emperor, the King of Prussia was head of state, head of the civil service and ‘Supreme Warlord’ (Commander-in-Chief) of the armed forces.

• A bi-cameral parliament made up of the Bundesrat (Federal Council) and the Reichstag (National Parliament).

• Prussia dominated the institutions of the new Empire, with the most seats in both houses of parliament, shared institutions and a dominant position in military and administrative circles.

The Constitution of the German Empire, 1871

ReichGovernment

The Chancellor (Reichskanzler)• The ‘highest official in the Reich’• Also Minister-President of Prussia• Responsible to the Emperor, not parliament• Chairman of the Bundesrat• Appointed government ministers• Could ignore resolutions passed by the Reichstag

The Emperor (Kaiser)• Always the King of Prussia• Could appoint/dismiss the Chancellor• Could dissolve the Reichstag• Could make treaties/declare war• Commander-in-Chief of the army• Had to approve all federal laws• Possessed the right to interpret the constitution

Bundesrat (upper house)• The Federal Council• Made up of 58 members nominated by states• Not directly elected• Consent required in passing new laws• 14 votes needed to veto legislation• Prussia had 17 of the 58 seats• Bavaria had 6, the other states had 1 each

Reichstag (lower house)• The National parliament• Elected by all males over 25• Limited powers to initiate new legislation• Government ministers could not be members• Members were not paid• Could approve or reject the federal budget• Elections normally held every 5 years

FederalCentralised government with specific Responsibilities for the Reich as a whole(foreign policy, defence, customs etc.)

StateRegional government with responsibilitiesFor individual states (education, direct Taxation, health, local justice etc.)

Unification

• National currency

• Uniform weights & measures

• Common commercial practices, industrial laws, and financial regulations

The German Empire

From the Meuse?From the Meuse to the Memel / From the Adige to the Belt

“Revolution from Above”

January 18, 1871: The German Empire is founded.

Lesser-Germany under Prussian domination (approx. 3/5 of the land area and 3/5 of the population).

What kind of state is this?

What tensions are relieved?

What new tensions emerge?