lecture 1:concepts of an nonrenewable nonmetallic mineral resources

Topic 1: Concepts of an Nonrenewable Nonmetallic Mineral Resources

28 October 2013 Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation Nonmetallic Deposits

A short series of lectures prepared for the

Third year of Special Geology, Tanta University

2013- 2014

by

Hassan Z. Harraz

[email protected]

To Final Product

From raw material

Outline of Topic 1:

28 October 2013 Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation Nonmetallic Deposits 3

We will explore all of the above in Topic 1.

Earth Resources Reserves and resources Nonrenewable Mineral Resources What are industrial minerals? Why are industrial minerals so important? Geology of Industrial Minerals Deposits Classification of industrial minerals Factors important in evaluating an industrial minerals deposit Selected industrial rocks and minerals

Reserves vs. Resources Reserves

Natural resources that

have been discovered &

can be exploited profitably

with existing technology

Oil – 700 billion barrels

Resources

The term ―resource‖ refers to

the total amounts of a

commodity of particular

economic use that is present in

an area. These estimates

include both extractable and

non-extractable amounts of this

commodity.

Deposits that we know or

believe to exist, but that are not

exploitable today because of

technological, economical, or

political reasons

Oil – 2 trillion barrels

28 October 2013 Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation

Nonmetallic Deposits

4

Nonrecoverable resources

(present in the earth but not obtainable

with present technology)

Recoverable resources

(not likely to be

economic in

foreseeable future)

Unconceived

Resources

Hypothetical,

speculative,

or inferred

resources

Total Resources

Degree of geologic assurance

Limit of

crustal

abundance

Technological

Threshold

Potential

Economical

Threshold

High

High

Low

Low

Known

resources

(located

but not

measured)

Proven

Resources

Discovered Undiscovered



5

Nonrenewable Mineral Resources


Earth crust = Minerals + rock

Minerals –inorganic compound that occurs naturally in the earth’s

crust

Solid

Regular internal crystalline structure.

Rock – solid combination of one or more minerals.

Mineral Resource: Any mineral useful to humans

Ore: A rock that can be profitably mined for a mineral (often a metal)

or for minerals (metals)

High Grade Ore; has high concentration of the mineral

Low Grade Ore: smaller concentration

Gangue: Minerals other than ore present in a rock

Resources


Major types of Earth Resources covered in this class include:

i) Metallic mineral deposits (or Ore Deposits): which can be further subdivided into (a)

precious metals, (b) non-ferrous metals (as the base metals Pb, Zn, Cu, Sn, and

elements like Al), (c) iron and ferroalloy metals (as Mn, Ni, Cr, Mo, W, V, and Co), (d)

minor metals and related non-metals: Sb, As, Be, Bi, Cd, REE, Ta, Te, Ti, and Zr, (e)

fissionable elements: U and Th.

ii) Non-Metallic (or Industrial Rocks and Minerals): which include such industrial

minerals and materials like barite, gypsum, halite , graphite, asbestos, limestone,

sand, basalt, … etc.

iii) Gemstones: e.g. Diamonds, Rubies, Amethyst Sapphires, Zircons, garnets, .. etc.

iv) Energy resources (or Fossil Fuels) such as coal, oil, gas, geothermal energy, solar

energy, and nuclear energy.

v) Water

It should be pointed out that most if not all of the above mentioned resources are fairly common, and

indeed do occur in many crustal rock types. However, their concentrations (or average crustal

abundances) are so low that they are not easily extracted from these rocks . For an economic deposit to

form, these ―commodities‖ have to be concentrated by some natural method, which is why tend to treat

them separately from our regular ―petrology‖ classes. Concentration factors for some metals are also

given below.

Renewable and Non-renewable Resources


Renewable resources

Resource can be replenished over relatively short time spans

Examples include :

Plants

Animals for food

Trees for lumber

Energy from flowing water, sun, wind

Non-renewable resources

Significant deposits take millions of years to form; from a human perspective there are fixed quantities

It’s a one-time only deal.

Once exploited and used the resource is gone forever.

Examples:

Fuels (coal, oil, natural gas)

Metals (iron, copper, uranium, gold)

Some resources, such as groundwater, can be placed in either category depending on how they are used

Earth Resources can be …


Exhaustible or Nonrenewable Mineral Resources

Metallic: {Ferrous, Nonferrous (or Polymetallic), Precious}

Nonmetallic:

{Industrial, Gemstones}

Energy Resources

Radioactive Minerals

Fossil Fuels: (Coal, Oil and Natural Gas)

Alternate/futuristic energy resources.

Perpetual or Renewable

Direct solar energy.

Indirect effects related to

hydrological cycle (e.g.,

wind, oceans, tides, running

water etc).

Potentially Exhaustible/

Renewable

Fresh Air Fresh Water Fertile Soil Biodiversity

28 October 2013 Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation Nonmetallic Deposits 10 http://eps.berkeley.edu/courses/eps50/documents/lecture31.mineralresources.pdf

10


Fig.2: Selected raw materials consumed in the U.S., 1900-95. For this graph, construction materials (crushed stone, sand and gravel) have been separated from the remainder of the industrial minerals to illustrate the upsurge in construction following the end of World War II

World production of non-fuel mineral commodities in 1999


Table from Lottermoser, 2007.

Non-Metallic

minerals Metals

Finding a deposit


The old fashioned way

of finding a mine was

your prospector with a

pick and shovel, a gold

pan, and a lot of luck.

Today, technologies used

include, but are not limited to,

exploration geology, geophysics, geochemistry, and satellite imagery.

Methods For Finding Mineral Deposits

• A. Photos and Satellite Images

• B. Airplanes fly with radiation equipment

and magnetometers

• C. Gravimeter (density)

• D. Drilling

• E. Electric Resistance Measurement

• F. Seismic Surveys

• G. Chemical analysis of water and plants



14

Finding a deposit


Geophysics

Geophysical exploration involves searching for favorable mineral deposits using the physical properties of rocks.

Geophysical investigations ground-penetrating radar studies or the use of seismic waves to show contrasting rock types.

The selected rock units of interest might then be mapped and sampled.

Geochemistry

Geochemists can determine the composition of what

lies below the Earth's surface by sampling soil. Soil at

the surface can carry a chemical signature of what lies

below, because of the movement of chemicals through

the rise and fall of the water table.

Positive geochemical results from surface sampling are

followed by a drilling program. Because of the great

expense, drilling is only carried out when the area is very

likely to contain substantial mineral deposits.

Drilling produces either rock fragments, or 'cores' of rock

for sampling to determine whether the mineral deposit

contains worthwhile concentrations of ore mineral

Geology

Geology is the study of the planet

Earth—the materials of which our planet

is made, the processes that act on these

materials, and the products formed.

Geologists use ground-mapping

techniques to identify features seen on

satellite images and aerial maps of large

tracts of the continent.

Remote sensing: Landsat and Satellite

Imagery

Ground-based surveys are expensive,

and one can often experience difficulty

in mapping large-scale structures.

However, large geological structures are

often readily visible on satellite imagery.

Nonrenewable Mineral Resources


Mineral Deposits

Non-Renewable

Earth crust materials

It’s a one-time only deal.

Once exploited and used the resource is gone forever. Mineral resources include reserves = identified deposits from which

minerals can be extracted profitably now or in the future with technological advances.


Mineral Resources

Mineral Resources

Non-metallic mineral deposits (NM)

Industrial Minerals (IM)): Sulfur, Gypsum, Coal, Barite, Salt, Clay, Feldspar, Borax, Lime, Magnesia, Potash, Phosphates, Silica, Fluorite, Asbestos, Abrasives, Mica

Precious stones: Gem Minerals,

Construction minerals : Stone, Sand, Gravel, Limestone

Metallic mineral deposits or (Ore mineral deposits):

Ferrous: Iron and Steel, Cobalt, Nickel

Non-ferrous: Copper, Zinc, Tin, Lead, Aluminum, Titanium, Manganese, Magnesium, Mercury, Vanadium, Molybdenum, Tungsten, Silver, Gold, Platinum

Energy Resources

Fossil Fuels: Coal, Oil, Natural Gas

Uranium

Geothermal Energy



Typical examples of natural Industrial Mineral Deposits : Clays

Silica sand

Talc

Limestone/chalk

Gypsum

Pumice

Potash

Carbonate Minerals

Evaporite Salts

Phosphate

Sulphur

made from: Mullite bauxite, kaolin

Aluminas bauxite

Silicon carbide quartz + coke

ppt calcium

carbonate lime & CO2

Spinel magnesite + alumina

Soda salt + limestone + coal +

ammonia

Fused minerals alumina, magnesia, spinel

Typical examples of synthetic IM:

What are Nonmetallic Deposits ?

Nonmetallic Mineral Resources

Use of the

word

“mineral” is

very broad



20

Geology of Industrial Minerals Deposits


Geology provides the framework in which mineral exploration and the integrated procedures of remote sensing, geophysics, and geochemistry are planned and interpreted.

Why are Non-Metallic Deposits so important?

28 October 2013 Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation Nonmetallic Deposits 22 22

Nonmetallic Deposits in your kitchen


IM in

your

kitchen

Glass/glasses/ light bulbs silica sand, limestone, soda ash, borates,

feldspar, lithium

Ceramic tiles/mugs/ plates

….etc.

kaolin, feldspar, talc, wollastonite, borates,

alumina, zirconia

Paint TiO2, kaolin, mica, talc, wollastonite, GCC, silica

Plastic white goods

eg. fridge, washer

talc, GCC, kaolin, mica, wollastonite, flame

retardants (ATH, Mg(OH)2)

Wooden flooring treatment materials- borates, chromite

Drinking water treatment materials- lime, zeolites

Wine/beer diatomite, perlite filters

Salt salt

Sugar lime in processing

Detergents/soap borates, soda ash, phosphates

Surfaces marble, granite

Books kaolin, talc, GCC, lime, TiO2 in paper

Oven glass petalite, borates

Heating elements fused magnesia insulators

Wallboard/plaster gypsum, flame retardants

Metal pots/cutlery mineral fluxes & refractories in smelting

Why are IM so important?


Main consuming market mineral sectors

Abrasives Foundry

Absorbents Glass

Agricultural Metallurgy

Cement Paint

Ceramics Pigments

Chemicals Paper

Construction Plastics

Oil well drilling Refractories

Electronics Flame retardants

Filtration Welding



Mineral to end use market

Bentonite Clay

pet owners auto engine producer oil producer

cat litter manufacturer drilling mud manufacturer foundry sand binder

Talc

cosmetics manufacturer

babies/beautiful people

plastics compounder

garden furniture/auto dash magazine publisher

papermaker



Zeolites

foot odour control

retail

Emery

abrasive manufacturer

emery boards/sandpaper

Diatomite

filter manufacturer

wineries/breweries

Mineral to end use market

Silica Sand

Glassmaker

beer bottles

Abrasive manufacturer Ceramic manufacturer

tiles/sinks/toilets sand blasting buildings


Mine to market supply chain

Supply

sector

logistics

sector

consuming market sector

• centres of high population

• their economy - the driver

• directly influence demand for NM




DEMAND

SUPPLY SUPPLY exploration

mineral finance

plant engineering

mining

processing

LOGISTICS trading

port handling

mineral inspection

freight

warehousing/distribution

MARKET direct market mineral consumer

intermediate market mineral

consumer

end market mineral consumer

Mine to market supply chain

General characteristics of Nonmetallic Mineral Deposits


Highest volume and tonnage

low value, but vital commodities

High total value

Prices are more stable NM are prerequisite raw materials for a wide range of industrial and domestic products

Recycling is not much of an issue

Price of the unit value is so low that transportation becomes a major issue

Rarely exported.

Feasibility study: Often need to find a market before looking for a nearby deposit

Depending on their uses, product purity and grain size may become very important factors in deciding the suitability and price of the commodity

NM support and add value to industrial sectors

Market demand drives NM supply

Some deposits are formed by more than one process

Rare Commodities:

• Boron, Garnet, Iodine, Lithium, Sodium carbonate,

Vermiculite, Wollastonite.

Classification of Industrial Minerals


End-use and genesis (Bates, 1960)

By unit price and bulk (Burnett, 1962)

Unit value, place value, representative value (Fisher,

1969)

Chemical and physical properties (Kline, 1970)

Geologic occurrence and end-use (Dunn, 1973)

Geology of origin (Harben and Bates, 1984)

Alphabetical (Harben and Bates, 1990; Carr, 1994)

Classification of industrial rocks and minerals


1- Genetic classification

A- Igneous Rocks

Granite

Basalt and diabase

Pumice and pumicite

Perlite

B- Metamorphic Rocks

Slate

Marble

C- Sedimentary Rocks

Sand and gravel

Sandstone

Clay

Limestone and dolomite

Phosphate rock

Gypsum

Salt

Industrial minerals


A- Igneous Minerals

Nepheline syenite

Feldspar

Mica

Lithium minerals

Beryl

B- Vein and Replacement Minerals

Quartz crystal

Fluorspar

Barite

Magnesite

C- Metamorphic Minerals Graphite Asbestos Talc Vermiculite

D- Sedimentary Minerals and sulfur

Diamond

Diatomite

Potash minerals

Sodium minerals

Borate

Nitrates

Sulfur

Selected Industrial Mineral Deposits:


1) Abrasives: Garnet, Quartz, diamond, diatomite, pumice

Effect of carborundum

2) Aggregates: Coarse and fine aggregates

Fillers

Proximity to market

Optimum targets for exploitation.

3) Cement and concrete: Portland cement: Made by calcining a mixture of limestone (~ 75 – 80%)

and clay (20 – 25%). 5% Gypsum or anhydrite is added after calcinations.

MgO of limestone has to be low.

Alkalis have to be low if used in concrete to prevent aggregate – cement reactions

4) Building Stones and Rip-rap: Durability and hardness

Ease of quarrying

Color and aesthetic value

Impurities and other undesirables


5) Glass: 90% of all glass is of the soda-lime-silica type (quartz sand + limestone + sodium carbonate).

Glass sand has to be 95 – 99.8% SiO2.

Glass sand has to be well sorted, between 20 and 100 mesh, and must be free from refractory minerals.

Small amounts of Al2O3 help prevent devitrification

Other mineral products (borates, Se, As, CaF2) added to obtain certain characteristics.

6) Gypsum: Alabaster: ornamental stone

Plaster of Paris: heated form of gypsum used for casts, plasterboard, … etc.

Occurs as part of the evaporite succession

Sequence of formation of evaporites: Calcite dolomite gypsum halite sylvite Mg – salts.

Exported by a few countries.

7) Asbestos: Chrysotile and Crocidolite

Serpentinites and their veins

Cancer hazard and role of fiber glass

8) Clay minerals: Kaolinite: China clay (paper filler, porcelain and ceramics, cosmetics) and Ball clay (pottery and ceramics,

refractories, and insecticides).

Halloysite: Pottery and ceramics

Kaolinite + illite: bricks and tiles.

Bentonite (smectite): Oil well drilling fluids, suspending agents.

Selected Nonmetallic Deposits:


9) Fluorspar: Acid grade (97% CaF2): used in the manufacture of HF and cryolite

(flux).

Ceramic grade (80 – 96% CaF2): used for the manufacture of ceramics, enamels, glasses and glass fibers.

Metallurgical grade (> 60% CaF2): used in the iron and steel industry.

10) Graphite:

11) Olivine: Uses: Slag conditioner in iron and steel making; foundry sand; blast

cleaning agent; refractory bricks.

Extracted from large dunite bodies.

12) Perlite: Used primarily as an insulator with its high heat resistance and high

sound absorption.

Hydrated obsidian: restricted to areas of Tertiary and Quaternary volcanism.

Various grades resulting from differences in the degree of hydration.

13) Pyrophyllite and Sillimanite:



14) Phosphate Rocks:

Uses: 90% of all phosphates is used as fertilizer, 10% used for animal feedstuff, detergents, food and drink products, fire extinguishers, dental products, and surface treatment of metals.

Sources of the commodity: 76% from chemical sedimentary beds, 23% from carbonatites and other igneous rock complexes, and 1% from Guano.

Textures: oolitic, nodular, pelletal, or micritic, closely mixed with calcite, quartz, and clay minerals.

Examples: the Permian Phosphoria formation of Idaho and Montana; significant deposits in Morocco and Peru. Modern day examples: of the coast of Peru, and the SE Georgia embayment.

Origin: Upwelling of deep, cold seawater and its longshore flow across shallow, warm, well – lit,

continental shelf environments.

The cold water has the ability to dissolve more calcite (and apatite) than warm water.

Upwelling causes a decrease in the CO2 of the seawater, which in turn results in an increase in its pH.

The increase of pH (to values > 7) decreases the solubility of apatite. The higher T has the same effect, so phosphate is precipitated in the shelf environment probably in the form of cryptocrystalline fluorapatite known as ―collophane‖. The main source of this phosphate was the upwelled biomass.

The energetic environment reworks the precipitated phosphate to form pellets, oolites, …. etc. A significant amount of phosphate also forms during diagenesis by the replacement of carbonates.

Best location for deposition is embayments and irregularities of the shoreline, which allows for the development of eddies and ―Gyres‖.

Deposition of phosphorites seems to be tied to periods of transgressions (following the upwelling), which helps rework these deposits, and moves the phosphate grains towards the shore where they are trapped in those embayments.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:PhosphateRockUSGOV.jpg

Use of Phosphate

• Phosphates were once commonly used in laundry detergent in the form trisodium phosphate (TSP), but, because of algae boom-bust cycles tied to emission of phosphates into watersheds, phosphate detergent sale or usage is restricted in some areas.

• In agriculture, phosphate is one of the three primary plant nutrients, and it is a component of fertilizers. Rock phosphate is quarried from phosphate beds in sedimentary rocks. In former times, it was simply crushed and used as is, but the crude form is now used only in organic farming. Normally, it is chemically treated to make superphosphate, triple superphosphate, or ammonium phosphates, which have higher concentration of phosphate and are also more soluble, therefore more quickly usable by plants.

• Fertilizer grades have three numbers; the first is the available nitrogen, the second is the available phosphate (expressed on a P2O5 basis), and the third is the available potash (expressed on a K2O basis). Thus a 10-10-10 fertilizer would contain ten percent of each, with the remainder being filler.

• Surface runoff of phosphates from excessively-fertilized farmland can be a cause of phosphate pollution, leading to eutrophication (nutrient enrichment), algal bloom, and consequent oxygen deficit. This can lead to anoxia for fish and other aquatic organisms in the same manner as phosphate-based detergents.

• Phosphate compounds are occasionally added to the public drinking water supply to counter plumbosolvency.

• The food industry uses phosphates to perform several different functions. For example, in meat products, it solubilizes the protein. This improves its water-holding ability and increases its moistness and succulence. In baked products, such as cookies and crackers, phosphate compounds can act as part of the leavening system when it reacts with an alkalai, usually sodium bicarbonate (baking soda).

• Phosphate minerals are often used for control of rust and prevention of corrosion on ferrous materials, applied with electrochemical conversion coatings


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detergent

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trisodium_phosphate



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilizer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_(geology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarry

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary_rock

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_farming

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superphosphate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_superphosphate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_superphosphate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_phosphate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soluble

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potash

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algal_bloom

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anoxia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumbosolvency

Factors important in evaluating an Industrial Mineral deposits


Customer specifications

Distance to customer (transportation)

Ore grade--concentration of the commodity in the deposit

By-products

Commodity prices

Mineralogical form

Grain size and shape

Undesirable substances

Size and shape of deposit

Ore character

Cost of capital

Location

Environmental consequences/ reclamation/bonding

Land status

Taxation

Political factors

Building Stones and Rip-rap


Durability and hardness

Ease of quarrying

Color and aesthetic value

Impurities and other undesirables

Perhaps the most important geological deposits are those that we use for building purposes.

These come from all geological environments.

The most important economic factor for building materials is that the material has to be close to where it is going to be used, as the highest cost is in its transportation.

Building materials are by far the lowest cost geological materials and their value is usually in the order of only a few dollars per ton

Crushed rock (commonly referred to as Aggregate Stone: Natural aggregate (crushed stone, sand, and gravel) is the most commonly used building material, along with concrete which is derived from crushed limestone. Bricks are made from fine aggregate along with clay which acts as the binding material, and iron oxide minerals for colouration.

Aggregate is also used as a sub-surface lining on our roads. Plaster is derived from crushed and refined gypsum.

Dimension stones are much higher-value building material and are used as decorative facings on buildings. By far the most commonly used dimension stones are marbles.

Building materials


Palisandro marble quarry 45 km south-east of

Karibib, Namibia. Photo: I Graham © Australian

Museum

Hawkesbury sandstone 'Yellow Block' (17

cm x 7 cm). Bondi Quarry, Sydney, New

South Wales. Photo: S Humphreys ©

Australian Museum.

Granite (16 cm x 7 cm). Near Sodwalls Railway Station,

Bathurst District, New South Wales. Photo: S Humphreys ©

Australian Museum.

Marble (17.5 cm x 12.5 cm).

Angaston, South Australia. Photo: S

Humphreys © Australian Museum.

Gabbro slab 'Imperial Black'

(12 cm x 11 cm). Black Hill,

north-east of Adelaide, South

Australia. Photo: S

Humphreys © Australian

Museum.

Limestone / Calcıte • Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the mineral calcite

(calcium carbonate: CaCO3).

• Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or

flint, as well as varying amounts of clay, silt and sand as disseminations,

nodules, or layers within the rock.

Uses of Limestone

• The manufacture of quicklime (calcium oxide) and slaked lime (calcium hydroxide);

• Cement and mortar;

• Pulverized limestone is used as a soil conditioner to neutralize acidic soil conditions;

• Crushed for use as aggregate—the solid base for many roads;

• Limestone is especially popular in architecture as building stone/ material;

• Geological formations of limestone are among the best petroleum reservoirs;

• As a reagent in desulfurizations;

• Glass making;

• Toothpaste;

• Added to bread as a source of calcium


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary_rock

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcite

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_carbonate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silica

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chert

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flint

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silt

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Limestone_cropping.jpg

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quicklime

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaked_lime

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cement

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_aggregate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_formation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagent

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flue_gas_desulfurization

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Riley_(Kansas)_County_Courthouse_1.jpg

Evaporite Deposits


Evaporite deposits are formed by evaporation of lake water or seawater.

The layers of salts precipitate as a consequence of evaporation.

Salts that precipitate from lake water of suitable composition include sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), sodium sulfate

(Na2SO4), and borax (Na2B4O7.1OH2O).

Huge evaporite deposits of sodium carbonate were laid down in the Green River basin of Wyoming during the Eocene

Epoch.

Oil shales were also deposited in the basin.

Borax and other boron-containing minerals are mined from evaporite lake deposits in Death Valley and Searled and

Borax Lakes, all in California; and in Argentina, Bolivia, Turkey, and China.

Much more common and important than lake water evaporites are the marine evaporites formed by evaporation of

seawater.

The most important salts that precipitate from seawater are:

Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O).

Halite (NaCl).

Carnallite (KCl.MgCl2.6H2O).

Low-grade metamorphism of marine evaporite deposits causes another important mineral, sylvite (KCl), to form from

carnallite.

Marine evaporite deposits are widespread.

In North America, for example, strata of marine evaporites underlie as much as 30 percent of the land area.

Marine evaporites produce:

Most of the salt that we use.

The gypsum used for plaster.

The potassium used in plants fertilizers.

Potash • Potash is the most important source of potassium in

fertilizers.

• Flotation is one of the major methods to upgrade the potash.

• Normally fatty acids are used as collectors for flotation. However, this type of collectors is not always suitable for the treatment of complex phosphate ores when calcite and dolomite are present.

• Calcite and dolomite tent to co-float with phosphate giving low concentrate grades.

• Potash can be separated from halite by reverse flotation.


Graphite

Graphite is one of the allotropes of carbon. Unlike diamond, graphite is an electrical conductor.

Graphite holds the distinction of being the most stable form of solid carbon ever discovered.

It may be considered the highest grade of coal, just above anthracite and alternatively called meta-anthracite, although it is not normally used as fuel because it is hard to ignite.

Classification of Graphite There are three principal types of natural graphite, each occurring in

different types of ore deposit: (1) Crystalline flake graphite (53%) occurs as isolated, flat, plate-like

particles with hexagonal edges if unbroken and when broken the edges can be irregular or angular (Madagascar-open pit, 410-950 $/t)

(2) Amorphous graphite occurs as fine particles (Mexico-Underground mines, 240-260 $/t)

(3) Lump graphite (also called vein graphite) occurs in fissure veins or fractures and appears as massive platy intergrowths of fibrous or acicular crystalline aggregates, and is probably hydrothermal in origin (Sri Lanka-Underground mines).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allotropes_of_carbon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthracite

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:GraphiteUSGOV.jpg

USE AREAS OF GRAPHITE MAJOR USE AREAS

REFRACTORIES

(High temperature applications-

Melting Point 3927°C)

Coarse flakes

Graphite crucibles

Carbon-magnesite/alumina bricks (95-99% C)

Monolitics (gunning and ramming mixtures)

Continuous casting ware (nozzles, troughs)

STEEL MAKING

Amorphous or fine flaked

Carbon rising in molten steel

Lubricating dies during hot metal extrution

EXPANDED GRAPHITE

Flakes

Made from flake graphite using chromic acid

sulphuric acids to produce foils

Can be used to insulate molten metal in

ladle, fuel cells and heat sinks for laptop

computer

MINOR USE AREAS

BRIKE LINING/SHOES FOR HEAVY

TRUCKS

FOUNDRY FACING and LUBRICANTS

PENCIL LEAD

Zn-C BATTERIES

ELECTRIC MOTOR BRUSHES

GRAPHITE(CARBON) FIBERS/NANOTUBES

Made from amourphous or fine flakes

Substitute for asbestos

Amourphous or fine flakes are used

High temp. dry lubricant

Powder graphite+clay

Powdered fine flaked graphite

Powder graphite

Reinforced/antistatic/conductive plastics/

concreates/rubbers

45

Diamonds


Most diamonds are found in unique ultramafic igneous rocks called

kimberlites.

Magma generated by partial melting of asthenosphere below 150

kilometres and then rises quickly to the surface, picking up diamonds

from solid lithospheric mantle.

Kimberlite Pipes and Diamonds

lecture 1:concepts of an nonrenewable nonmetallic mineral resources

Education

natural resources

unconceived resources

inferred resources

mentioned resources

minerals metals high

industrial rocks

metallic mineral deposits

ore deposits