Introduction

In 1994 the Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED) Commisioned the International School Effectiveness & Improvement Centre (ISEIC) to conduct a review of schooleffectiveness research summarizing current knowledge aboutfactors identified in the literature as important in gaininga better understanding of effectiveness.

The aim was to provide ‘an analysis of the key determinants ofschool effectiveness in secondary & primary schools.

Scheerens (1992)

Scheerens (1992) has identified 5 areas of research relevant toschool effectiveness:1. Research into equality of opportunity & the significance of

the school in this.2. Economic studies of education production functions3. The evaluation of compensatory programmes.4. Studies of effective schools & the evaluation of school

improvement programmes 5. Studies of the effectiveness of teachers & teaching methods.

Konsep Kepengetuaan yg efektif

1. Tingkah laku kepemimpinan2. Kemahiran komunikasi3. Proses kumpulan4. Pengajaran5. Pencapaian6. Penilaian7. Organisasi8. Fiskal9. Politik

Mengikut Coleman

Faktor-faktor sek merupakan pengaruh yg amat sedikit terhdppencapaian murid dibandingkan dgn faktor-faktor latarbelakang sosio-ekonomi (1966, hal 325).

Pengetua Yg Berkesan1. Konsep KepemimpinanKepemimpinan dlm sesebuah sek yg berkesan perlu dilihatmelalui perspektif yg luas. Kepemimpinan sek yg berkesanadalah berpaksikan kpd 2 faktor utama:i. Membina ‘komuniti’ kepemimpinan di kalangan guru & bukan bergantung scr mutlak kpd kepemimpinan pengetua.

Sambung…

ii. Membina iklim & persekitaran sek yg berteraskan kpd perhubungan yg intim di kalangan pengetua, guru, pelajar,& ibu bapa.

2. Personaliti PengetuaAda masanya pengetua perlu menggunakan perwatakan yg lembut & mesra dgn pelajar. Ada kalanya ia perlu mempamerkanpersonaliti yg tegas & garang. Kedua ciri personaliti tsb amatdiperlukan memandangkan situasi sek blh bergerak tenangkpd situasi krisis.

3. Kapasiti minda

Pengetua perlu mempyi kekuatan dr segi intelek & ilmu utkmenghadapi cabaran kepengetuaan.

Memandangkan pendidikan bercorak keilmuan yg luas &kompleks, maka pengetua memerlukan kekuatan & kesanggupanminda utk mengenal pasti maklumat & data yg relevan.

Keadaan spt ini memerlukan pengetua mempyi perspektifteori pengurusan sek yg luas. Di kebykan negara, seseorgtidak akan dilantik sebgi pengetua tanpa berijazah sarjana dlmpengurusan sek.

Ciri-ciri pengetua berkesan mengikut model Malaysia

1. Mengamalkan cara berkomunikasi yg cekap.2. Prihatin terhdp hubungan kemanusiaan.3. Prihatin & peka tentang perbezaan budaya & adat resam

masyarakat.4. Mempyi wawasan yg jelas.5. Berjaya mewujudkan persekitaran pendidikan yg dinamik6. Menerima tugas sebgi satu profesion7. Membuat keputusan scr konsensus.8. Memanfaatkan penggunaan teknologi maklumat.9. Ketrampilan lain

i. Ketrampilan pentadbiran

oMenganalisis masalah scr berkesan.oMembuat pertimbangan yg saksama.oMengurus & membuat keputusan.

ii. Ketrampilan peribadioMenilai pendidikan scr jelas.oMempyi minat & motivasi yg tinggi.oMenjaga perawakan diri.

Demands

Things that principals must do. Eg school outcome specifications,legal requirements, bureaucratic rules & regulations.

ConstraintsDetermined by norms & values that exist in the community orschool, availability of human & material resources, spacelimitations

ChoiceOpportunities to do the same things differently & to do theirthings that are not required or prohibited.

Stail Kepemimpinan Pengetua

1. The responder 2. The manager 3. The initiator

Kepemimpinan strategik2. Pelbgi dimensi 2. Pelbgi fungsional

1. Kepemimpinan teknikalSetakat mana pemimpin sek:-i. Berfikiran jelas & logikalii. Membina matlamat & dasar sek yg jelas.iii. Memastikan semua warga sek bertgjb ke atas kejayaan sek.iv. Mengadakan sokongan teknikal sesuai utk merancang,

menyusun, menyelaras, & melaksana dasar-dasar.

2. Kepemimpinan manusia

Setakat mana pemimpin sek:i. Memberi sokonganii. Menggalakkan penglibatan/penyertaan.iii. Meningkatkan komitmen & rasa kepuasan warga sek.iv. Menggalakkan hbgn positif atr warga sek.

3. Kepemimpinan politikalSetakat mana pemimpin sek:i. Mendorong & berkesan membina semangat kjsama/perpaduan

di kalangan warga sek.ii. Memberi sokongan & mengatasi konflik.

4. Kepemimpinan Budaya

Setakat mana pemimpin seki. Inspirasi ii. Karismatikiii. Berjaya membina budaya sek.iv. Berjaya merealisasikan wawasan, nilai & norma sek ke atas

ind atau kump.

5. Kepemimpinan pendidikani. Menggalakkan kemajuan profesional di kalangan warga sek.ii. Meningkatkan P&Piii. Membuat dignosis ke atas masalah pendidikaniv. Memberi pendpt scr profesionalv. Memberi bimbingan dlm hal-hal P&P

11 Factors For Effective Schools

1. Professional leadershipThe important of the headteacher’s leadership role may besensitive to context, particularly patterns of school orgn(Hallinger & Leithwood, 1994)Leadership is not simply about the quality of individualleaders, also the role that leaders play, their style of management, their relationship to the vision, values &goals of the school, & their approach to change.

a. Firm & purposeful

The research literature shows that outstanding leaders tendto be proactive.

Improving many of the school effectiveness factors or makingfundamental changes may require support from outside agencies,such as local education authorities, universities or consultants& successful leaders will establish & sustain regular contactwith these networks. Effective change comes from within a school.

b. A participative approach

A 2nd feature of effective headteachers is the sharing of leadershipresponsibility with other members of the senior managementteam & the involvement more generally of teachers in decision making.In larger schools, there may be even greater need for delegationof some of the responsibilities of leadership.Summing up the 2 features, effective leadership requires clarity,avoidance of both autocratic & over-democratic ways of working,careful judgement of when to make an autonomous decision& when to involves others, & recognition of efficacy of theleadership role at different levels of the school.

c. The leading profesional

This implies involvement in & knowledge about what goeson in the classroom, including the curriculum, teaching strategies& the monitoring of pupil progress.In practice this requires the provision of a variety of forms of support to teachers, including both encouragement & practicalassistance.It also involves the head projecting a high profile throughactions such as frequent movement through school, visits tothe classroom & informal conversation with the staff. It alsorequires assessing the ways teacher function.

2. Shared vision & goals

Research has shown that schools are more effective when staffbuild consensus on the aims & values of the school, & wherethey put this into practice through consistent & collaborative ways of working & of decision making.a. Unity of purpose

Unity of purpose, particularly when it is in combination witha positive attitude towards learning & towards the pupils,is a powerful mechanism for effective schooling.More effective schools share common goals includinga commitment to quality in all aspects of school life& clear sets of organizational priorities.

b. Consistency of practice

Schools where teachers adopt a consistent approach to theuse of school curriculum guidelines, a positive impact onthe progress of students.

c. Collegiality & collaborationIt comes through staff sharing ideas, observing each other & giving feedback, learning from each other, & working togetherto improve the teaching programme.

3. A learning environment

a. An orderly atmsphereThe most effective way of encouraging order & purposeamongst students is through reinforcement of good practiceof learning & behaviour.

b. An attractive working environmentSchool effectiveness research suggests that the physical environment of a school can also have an effect on boththe attitudes & achievement of students.

4. Concentration on teaching & learning

This focus has been defined by quantifying teachers’ & students’use of time, & in others it has been defined in terms of othermeasures of the school’s concentration on the actual processof learning & on achievementa. Maximization of learning time

Some studies have examined the use of time in schools, &a no. of measures of learning time have been shown to havepositive correlation with student outcomes & behavior.

The measures include:

i. Proportion of the day devoted to academic subjectsii. Proportion of time in lessons devoted to learning or to

interaction with pupils.iii. Proportion of teachers’ time spent discussing the content

of work with students as opposed to routine matters & themaintenance of work activity.

iv. Teachers’ concern with cognitive obj(s) rather than personalrelationship & affective obj(s).

v. Punctuality of lessonsvi. Freedom from disruption coming from outside the classroom

b. Academic emphasis

A no. of studies showed that effective schools to be characterizedthrough high levels of student industry in the classroom & through regular setting & marking of homework, withchecks by senior staff that this had occurred. Reviews of bothquantity & quality of homework set as well as the need for good teacher feedback.

An important factor influencing academic emphasis concernsteachers’ subject knowledge. Adequate knowledge was seenas a necessary prerequisite for effective teaching & learning.Curriculum coverage is also important.

c. Focus on achievement

Some researcher have examined the extent to which a schoolconcentrates on the achievement of students as a measureof academic emphasis.

Scheerens (1992) considered 4 aspects to be relevant:institutionalized time spent on learning, amount of homework,effective learning time within institutional constraints, &learning time for different subjects.

5. Purposeful teaching

Partly determined by the quality of the teachers in the school,recruiting & replacing teachers is an important role in effective leadership.

However high quality teachers do not always perform to theirfull potential, & teaching styles & strategies are importantfactors related to student progress.

a. Efficient organization

Several studies have shown the importance of teachers beingwell-organized & absolutely clear about their obj(s).

Drew attention to the beneficial effects of preparing the lessonin advance, more time that teachers spend organizing a lessonafter it has begun, the more likely it is that they will losethe attention of the class, with the attendant double risk ofloss of opportunity to learn & disruptive behavior.

b. Clarity of purpose

The importance of students always being aware of the purposeof the content of lessons.

Effective learning occurs where teachers clearly explain theobj(s) of the lesson at the outset, & refer to these throughoutthe lesson to maintain focus. These obj(s) should be relatedto previous study & to things of personal relevance of students.

The information of the lesson should be structured such that itbegins with an overview & transitions are signaled. The mainideas of the lesson should be reviewed at the end.

c. Structural lessons

Drew particular attention to effective questioning techniqueswhere questions are structured so as to focus pupils’attention on the key elements of the lessons.

Scheerens (1992) definition of structured teaching as-making clear what has to be learnt-splitting teaching material into manageable units for the pupils & offering these in a well-considered sequence.-much exercise material in which students can make use of-regularly testing for progress with immediate feedback of the results.

d. Adaptive practice

Student progress is enhanced when teachers are sensitive todifferences in the learning styles of students &, wherefeasible, identify & use appropriate strategies. In many cases this requires flexibility on the part of theteachers in modifying & adapting their teaching styles.

6. High expectationsPositive expectations of student achievement, particularlyamongst teachers but also students & parents, is 1 of themost important characteristics of effective schools.

a. High expectations all round

High expectations correspond to a more active role for teachersin helping pupils to learn & a strong sense of efficacy.

b. Communicating expectationsExpectations do not act directly on student performance, butthrough the attitude of the teacher being communicated tostudents & the consequent effect on their self-esteem.

c. Providing intellectual challengeStudents were stimulated & challenged, progress was greatest.

7 Positive reinforcement

Reinforcement whether in terms of patterns of discipline orfeedback to students, is an important element of effectiveschooling.Rewards, other positive incentives & clear rules are morelikely than punishment to be associated with better outcomes.a. Clear & fair disciplineGood discipline is an important condition for an orderly climatebut is best derived from ‘belonging & participating’ rather than‘rules & external control’.Studies show that effective discipline involves keeping goodorder, consistently enforcing fair, clear & well-understand rules& infrequent use of actual punishment.

b. Feedback

Researchers posited 3 explanations for the greater effect of praise:It affects a greater no of students; the lack of delay allows moredefinite links to incentives; & is more likely to increase the intrinsic rewards of what which is being reinforced.

8. Monitoring progressThese appear to be particular benefits from active headteacher engagement in the monitoring of students achievement & progress.

a. Monitoring pupil performance

i. It is a mechanism for determining the extent to which thegoals of the school are being realized.

ii. It focuses the attention of staff, students & parents on thesegoals.

iii. It is informs planning, teaching methods & assessment.iv. It gives a clear message to students that teachers are

interested in their progress.v. Relates to teachers giving feedback to students, which

we discuss under ‘positive reinforcement’.

b. Evaluating school performance

The feedback & incorporation of monitoring & evaluation information routinely into decision making procedures in the school ensures that information is used actively. Suchinformation also needs to be related to staff development.

9. Student rights & responsibilityThere can be quite substantial gains in effectiveness whenthe self-esteem of students is raised, when they have an active role in the life of the school, & when they are givena share of responsibility for their own learning.

a. Raising student self-esteem

Teacher-student relationships can be enhanced out of the classroom. British studies have found that when there wereshared out-of –school activities between teachers & students& where students felt able to consult their teachers about personal problems, there were positive effects on outcomes.

b. Positions of responsibilityBritish studies have shown positive effects on both behavior& examination success through giving a high proportion ofchildren positions of responsibility in the school system, thusconveying trust in students’ abilities & setting standards ofmature behavior.

c. Control of work

There are positive effects when students are encouraged to manage their work independently of the teacher over shortperiods of time, such as a lesson or an afternoon.

10. Home-school partnershipa. Parental involvement

Parental involvement is often highly correlated with socio-economic factors, & concern that highlightingit as an important factor might unfairly pass responsibilityfor effectiveness to parents.

11. A learning organization

a. School-based staff developmentStaff development in effective schools is generally at theschool site, is focused on providing assistance to improveclassroom teaching & the instructional programme, & is ongoing & incremental.

The 11 interrelated & in many ways, mutually dependent factors identified in this review appear to be generic.

10 Fokus utama Pengurusan Pendidikan

Fokus 1: Pengetua & GB yg BerkesanPengetua & GB adalah aktor utama yg melaksanakan pembangunanpendidikan negara: “The principals set the bearing and tone of theschool”.Sistem identifikasi & lat utk persediaan kepengetuaan akandiperkenalkan. Pembinaan Ilmu Teori Pengurusan Sek di kalanganPengetua/GB akan ditingkatkan. Personaliti pengetua/gb melalui proses ‘grooming’ diperkenalkan.Kemahiran Amalan Kepengetuaan bergerak kpd ‘Hands on Principalship’.Matlamat pembangunan kepengetuaan adalah ke arah penguasaan‘The Core Technology of Schooling’.

Pengetua/GB yg berkesan

Fokus pengurusan pengetua/gb mesti jelas & tertumpu kpd:i. ‘The Classroom View’ memastikan ‘Guru Mengajar & Murid Belajar”.ii. ‘The School Wide View’ memastikan pengurusan seknya mendpt pengikhtirafan masy setempat.

Fokus 2: Sek yg BerkesanPengurusan pendidikan akan memastikan semua sek berada dlm situasi ‘effective school’ sebelum ‘Smart School’. Konsep ‘Schooling with Character’ akan menjadi matlamat pengurusansistem persekolahan. Setiap sek akan menjelmakan perwatakannyayg tersendiri melalui etos & budaya sek.

Sek Yg Berkesan…

Pelajar sek akan dibtk spy mempyi watak kecemerlangan: budipekerti, ketakwaan kpd agama & Tuhan, ilmu & keintelektualan,ketahanan fizikal, sportsmanship & kegiatan luar dgn bersemadikandisiplin yg tinggi.

Institusi sek akan diperkukuhkan melalui tindakan(2) Four Frames: Mewujudkan Struktur Pengurusan yg Utuh Membina Kerangka Kuasa & Authority Membina Kerangka Hbgn Kemanusiaan Membina Kerangka Simbolik utk etos sek

Fokus 2…

Sistem persekan diperkukuhkan spy menjadi ‘pathways’ yg efisyenmenghbgi sistem pendidikan lepasan sek dgn dunia pkjn. Kecemerlanagn & keberkesanan sek dinilai merentasi ‘BeyondTheory One’: kecemerlangan peperiksaan bkn lagi menjadi pengukur utama prestasi sek. The process of schooling akan diberitumpuan utama. Pengurusan sek adalah berprinsipkan ‘schoolsite management’ atau ‘Let Principals Manage’

Yg penting kualiti perkhidmatan persekolahan akan diberi perhatianspy prinsip-prinsip pendemokrasian pendidikan spt ‘equal accessto quality education’ & ‘equal educational opportunities’ akan tercapai.

Fokus 3: Guru yg Profesional

Guru adalah aktor utama slm pembangunan sistem pendidikan.Pembangunan sistem keguruan yg profesional adalah penting utkmencapai hasrat pembangunan pendidikan. Matlamat ini bermula dr asas pemilihan permohonan calon guru utklat pra-perkhidmatan. Lat & kursus pra-perkhidmatan di peringkatIPG & universiti perlu ditumpukan kpd ‘content knowledge’ &‘pedagogical knowledge’. Penyebaran & penempatan guru yg sama dr segi kelayakan & pengalaman. Fokus Guru Profesional juga memastikan bhwkebajikan guru tidak diabaikan spt peluang kenaikan pangkat, rancangan perumahan, peluang guru melanjutkan pelajaran,Yayasan Guru Malaysia.

Fokus 4: Kurikulum yg relevan

Penyediaan & penawaran kurikulum yg relevan akan menentukankualiti pendidikan di samping penyediaan yg lengkap kpd lepasansek utk melanjutkan pelajar ke peringkat tinggi atau memasuki dunia pkjn.Kurikulum mesti berpaksikan kompetensi: menyediakan pelajardgn kemahiran generik, teknik-teknik pemikiran kritikal, penguasaan bhs & kemahiran berkomunikasi dlm 2 atau 3 bhs,penguasaan mate & minat terhdp m/pel sains & teknologi, pendidikan Agama Islam & Moral, Pendidikan Jasmani & Kesihatanspy murid ada ketahanan fizikal.

4 Pillar of Learning

1. Learning to know: Kurikulum perlu jelas tentang ilmu & thpnya perlu dikuasai oleh pelajar.2. Learning to do: Kurikulum perlu menzahirkan keblhan atau kemahiran tangan spy murid dpt bersedia dlm dunia pkjn (Hands on Skills)3. Learning to be: Kuri perlu jelas berkenaan jenis & watak insan yg akan dizahirkan.4. Learning to live together: Kuri perlu bersedia utk mendidik pelajar tentang ciri-ciri kewarganegaraan, pendamaian sejagat, & sikap bkjsama utk dunia globalisasi & dunia tanpa batasan.

Fokus 5: Sistem Penilaian & Pep

Sistem pep persekan negara adalah bersifat awam & berpusat,ciri-ciri fleksibiliti & ind dlm konsep pep perlu dikaji.

Ciri-ciri Criterion Reference Test yg diamalkan berbanding dgn Norm Reference Test akan dikaji kesesuaiannya utk pelaksanaan.

Konsep penilaian kemahiran pelajar merentasi semua mata/pelatau kuri akan diperkenalkan.

Peperiksaan berasaskan sek akan mengurangkan penggantunganterhdp pep berpusat.

Fokus 6: Pembinaan Infrastruktur Sokongan P&P

Perkembangan teknologi & kaedah baru dlm P&P memerlukantindakan utk meningkatkan kualitinya.

Pembinaan bahan pg spt buku teks & multimedia akan diperluasspy bahan(2) ini dpt menjalin kuri sek dgn realiti dunia luar sertameningkatkan kualiti pemikiran & kemahiran pelajar.

Memandangkan pelaburan dlm teknologi pendidikan adalah mahal& tidak bertahan lama, penilaian & penaksiran berterusan dilakukanspy wujud ciri-ciri keberkesanan & pulangan kos yg berkesan.

Fokus 7: Pembinaan Institusi Perancangan & Penyelidikan

Pengurusan pendidikan sebenarnya dipenuhi dgn pembuatankeputusan. Dlm proses pembuatan keputusan yg berhbg dgn polisi, data & maklumat adalah penting.

Pembuatan keputusan polisi memerlukan penelitian terhdp segalaalternatif, opsyen & kemungkinan sebelum sesuatu polisi diputuskan & diterjemahkan menjadi realiti perancangan &penyelidikan.

Sistem Pengurusan Maklumat (EMIS) yg menghbgi dr Pusat kesekolah akan ditingkatkan.

Fokus 8: Pembinaan Sistem Institusi Pelaksanaan & Pemantauan yg berkesan: Sistem Pentadbiran

Keputusan & arahan yg keluar dr pusat akan diterjemahkan kpdakt & program melalui jentera pelaksanaan. Jentera & pentadbiranpelaksanaan di peringkat Bhg, Jabatan & Sek perlu efisen.

Standard Operation Procedures mesti jelas & menepati kehendakpendidikan. Sistem pentadbiran rangkaian, kordinasi & kolaborasidipermaju. Sistem pemantauan melalui Sistem Naziran Sek diperkukuhkan. Sistem maklum balas spy apa yg berlaku di peringkat operasi akan diketahui oleh pihak atasan.

Fokus 9: Pembangunan Staf yg komprehensif

Rancangan pembangunan staf yg komprehensif akan dilaksanakan utk menzahirkan 3 kump staf: (i) Kump pengurusan yg akanmengendalikan institusi & sistem spt sek, Jabatan & Bhg;(ii) Kump pakar yg akan mengendalikan akt & program yg khususspt pakar kuri, pakar pep, pakar perancangan, pakar multi-media(iii) Kump guru yg berminat menjadi guru darjah sepanjang hayatperkhidmatan yg kemahiran pedagogi perlu ditingkat scr berterusan.

10. Pembinaan Hbgn Luar & Masy

Sek adalah institusi masy & pendidikan sen adalah kepentinganawam. Usaha(2) ditingkatkan utk merapatkan sek dgn IB & masy setempat.

Program permuafakatan utk membantu & mengatasi masalah sek.Hbgn PIBG, Kesatuan Guru, media massa ditingkatkan.

Program (2) outreach atr sek & masy luar akan diperluaskan. sek melalui pembinaan hbgn luar & masy, akan mempamirkankebaikan & keindahan yg terjelma dlm sek masing(2).