learning strategies, principles & approaches strategies... · • the design stage addresses...

Learning Strategies,

Principles & Approaches

© 2015 CORENET GLOBAL 2

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Table of Contents

23T23T23T23TIntroduction23T23T23T23T .......................................................................................... 6

23T23T23T23TPurpose of this Guide23T23T23T23T ................................................................................................... 6

23T23T23T23TThe Learner’s Perspective 23T23T23T23T ............................................................................................. 6

23T23T23T23TThe CoreNet Global Commitment 23T23T23T23T .................................................................................... 7

23T23T23T23TCoreNet Global’s Overall Process Model: A4DE 23T23T23T23T ................................................................... 9

23T23T23T23TFaculty/Subject Matter Experts (SMEs)23T23T23T23T ............................................................................. 10

23T23T23T23TRole and Expectations23T23T23T23T ............................................................................................................................... 10

23T23T23T23TPositive Project Team Relationships23T23T23T23T .......................................................................................................... 11

23T23T23T23TThe Course Design/Revision Process23T23T23T23T ........................................................................................................ 12

23T23T23T23TAnalysis23T23T23T23T ............................................................................................. 15

23T23T23T23TNeeds Assessment 23T23T23T23T ...................................................................................................... 15

23T23T23T23TSummary of Analysis Results23T23T23T23T ..................................................................................................................... 16

23T23T23T23TEffective Curriculum Alignment 23T23T23T23T ..................................................................................... 17

23T23T23T23TDiscovery23T23T23T23T ........................................................................................... 18

23T23T23T23TResearch23T23T23T23T ................................................................................................................. 18

23T23T23T23TInitiating Project Management 23T23T23T23T ...................................................................................... 18

23T23T23T23TProject Planning Document 23T23T23T23T .......................................................................................... 19

23T23T23T23TDesign & Development23T23T23T23T ........................................................................... 20

23T23T23T23TDefinition of Instructional Design23T23T23T23T.................................................................................... 20


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23T23T23T23TEffectively Using Adult Learning Principles 23T23T23T23T ........................................................................ 21

23T23T23T23TDeveloping Program and Learner Objectives 23T23T23T23T ...................................................................... 23

23T23T23T23TUsing Bloom’s Taxonomy: Levels of Cognition 23T23T23T23T .................................................................... 23

23T23T23T23TSelecting a Delivery Methodology 23T23T23T23T ................................................................................... 25

23T23T23T23TClassroom Course Design 23T23T23T23T ................................................................................................ 26

23T23T23T23TVirtual Course Design 23T23T23T23T ................................................................................................... 27

23T23T23T23TeLearning Design23T23T23T23T ....................................................................................................... 30

23T23T23T23TGraphics Considerations 23T23T23T23T .............................................................................................. 32

23T23T23T23TAssessment Design 23T23T23T23T ..................................................................................................... 33

23T23T23T23TDelivery23T23T23T23T ............................................................................................. 34

23T23T23T23TReview Process 23T23T23T23T ......................................................................................................... 34

23T23T23T23TReview Checklist 23T23T23T23T ....................................................................................................... 34

23T23T23T23TQuality Assurance 23T23T23T23T ...................................................................................................... 36

23T23T23T23TBest Practices 23T23T23T23T ...................................................................................... 38

23T23T23T23TIn the Classroom 23T23T23T23T ....................................................................................................... 38

23T23T23T23TIn the Virtual Classroom 23T23T23T23T .............................................................................................. 39

23T23T23T23TRecorded Virtual Classroom Sessions 23T23T23T23T .................................................................................. 40

23T23T23T23TEvaluation 23T23T23T23T .......................................................................................... 41

23T23T23T23TPlan to Evaluate Results 23T23T23T23T .............................................................................................. 41

23T23T23T23TKirkpatrick’s Model of Evaluation 23T23T23T23T ................................................................................... 41


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23T23T23T23TThe CoreNet Global Evaluation Process 23T23T23T23T............................................................................ 44

23T23T23T23TUsing Summative Evaluation for Program Improvement 23T23T23T23T ........................................................ 44

23T23T23T23TCourse Documentation 23T23T23T23T ........................................................................... 45

23T23T23T23TClassroom and Virtual Classroom Documentation 23T23T23T23T ................................................................ 46

23T23T23T23TELearning Course Documentation 23T23T23T23T ................................................................................... 47

23T23T23T23TAppendix: 23T23T23T23T ........................................................................................... 48


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Introduction

Purpose of this Guide

In support of CoreNet Global’s commitment to help its members connect, grow, learn and belong, we initiated

this project to research, benchmark and document the best practices in adult learning and

corporate/professional educational programs today. Using these best practices as our foundation, we have

committed to design and develop top quality, highly effective programs and seminars.

For additional information or questions, please contact Amy Dreher at [email protected].

The Learner’s Perspective

As a result of participation in CoreNet Global learning and professional development programs, every learner

should have a similar experience that can be described as:

• Delivering a consistent user experience

across all CoreNet Global learning with

regard to look and feel, navigation, and

learner expectations for usability

• Providing an integrated sensory

experience that is visually and

intellectually engaging while actively

involving the learner in the learning

process

• Ensuring a maximum efficient learning

opportunity based on analysis of need, objectives, and well- designed materials and activities

• Including ready availability of focused, need to know content

• Providing access to direct, factually accurate, and grammatically correct information

• Delivering content in chunks, organized and cataloged for logical presentation and quick reference

• Integrating globally and culturally diverse graphics, case studies and scenarios, respectful of

local customs.

• Identifying solutions to work place problems that are built on the applicability or relationship of

new information to existing knowledge

mailto:[email protected]


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The CoreNet Global Commitment

In order to successfully achieve the CoreNet Global Learner’s Experience, the design of learning must

consistently include the following practices and principles:

• Intentional focus on solving problems and

establishing the context for learning

• Effective use of design components that include learner choice and social interaction

• Intentional use of Instructional Science to order and

present information in a way that effectively and

efficiently facilitates learning

• Transparent use of leading edge Instructional Design

principles

• Projects initiated from a learner focused design

perspective

• Respect for the learner’s time with timely,

appropriate length courses and quick,

easy access

• Provision of searchable content, whenever possible

• Use of design templates and consistent navigation and structure

• Use of Active Voice for audio and text

• Jargon free content

• Question anticipation and answer provision to meet

learner needs

• Content based on functional, well designed learning

objectives suited to the delivery method

• Focus on small chunks or modules of information to

expedite learning and respect learners time

• Intentional design of interactive and engaging

experiences with frequent interactivity

• Commitment to content clarity and top quality for graphics

and text


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• Inclusion of opportunity for application, practice, and review of knowledge that is proportionate to the

length of the course

• Content designed specifically for the method of delivery: Classroom, Virtual, Online, Print, Audio, Video,

or Mobile

• Provision of a blended learning approach to address multiple learning modalities and preferences

whenever possible

• Commitment that all graphics are

• Visually relevant and appealing

• Royalty free globally

• Culturally diverse

• People oriented photos (not Clip Art)


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CoreNet Global’s Overall Process Model: A4DE

Below is CoreNet Global’s process for the implementation of learning. To the traditional ADDIE Model we

have added the Discovery Stage for completing comprehensive content research and replaced the

Implementation Stage with a more complex the Delivery Stage encompassing everything associated with the

launch of the learning.

• The Analysis stage is both the beginning and ending of the process. Analysis begins with determining the need for a training component and aligning the proposed learning to existing curriculum paths.

• The Discovery stage encompasses best practices for researching course content information and documenting requirements via a scope document.

• The Design stage addresses all aspects of sound instructional design principles and practices related to all types of course delivery methods.

• The Development stage or “creation” is where the developer uses a tool (or tools) to build the course. A variety of development tools are available for use across the training industry.

• The Delivery stage is complex and consists of many tasks including a quality review, posting to CoreNet Global’s learning management platform, marketing courses, and delivering too!

• Finally, the Evaluation stage conducts programmatic and learning evaluation to determine the success of the earning outcome in meeting the business goals and learning objectives.

Traditional

ADDIE

Model


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CoreNet Global’s learning organization relies heavily on capturing knowledge and skills volunteered by our

faculty and subject matter experts (SMEs). From the start through the finish of the process, SMEs are involved.

Faculty/Subject Matter Experts (SMEs)

When designing course materials, our

faculty/subject matter experts are a critical resource

integrated throughout the design and development

process. SMEs help to ensure accurate, timely

content.

Role and Expectations

Faculty/SMEs have a critical role in the design and

delivery of training content. The basic role and

expectations are as follows:

• Provide content as requested

• Check content for accuracy once it is produced

• Participate in review meetings

• Upon final review, sign off on final materials

• Complete and follow through on assignments in a timely manner. This is critical to ensure

that the project is completed on time and as planned.

• Represent a wide diversity of roles, cultures and regions across the globe


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Positive Project Team Relationships

Having a positive and productive working relationship with all members of the course revision team is an

important component to a good outcome in developing training. It’s important to develop a sense of

rapport and trust among design/revision team members. The following suggestions can assist in building

and maintaining that relationship.

1. Get on the “same page”.

o Make sure to have clear expectations and orientation to the process.

o Show a sample of a similar project in order to help team members understand what to

expect from this project.

o Provide an overview of the complexity of the final deliverable, the team effort necessary,

and especially, the importance of expert input.

2. Communicate, communicate, and communicate!

o Inform the course review team of the goals of the project and the amount of time it will

take to meet them. .

o Provide minutes to the course review team members after meetings

3. Respect team member’s time, as well as expertise.

o Whenever possible, let team members react to content. Start with a rough outline that

uses a lesson/topic format.

o Come prepared with questions that encourage team members to participate. And above

all, listen!

o Honor the expert throughout the development process.


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The Course Design/Revision Process

Process Step Description Expectations of Faculty/SME

STEP 1

Initiating the

Project

The CoreNet Global learning team

identifies appropriate faculty/SMEs for the

project. The team prepares a project

document and sends it to the faculty/SME

to initiate the project. This document

ensures the team members understand

exactly what to expect during the course

of the project. This document also

outlines the exact deliverables and

timelines for milestone activities

associated with the project.

Read project document, commit to

participation, sign and return by the

deadline.

Time commitment: approximately 30

minutes

STEP 2

Collection of

Research and

Existing

Materials


collects all currently available research

and documentation and existing course

materials from all faculty/SMEs. This is

compiled for review by project team

members in preparation for the project

team face to face meeting

Digitize and send all related

documentation to CoreNet Global’s

learning team, including, but not

limited to, all existing course

materials, case studies, regional

contextualization resources, all

faculty added supplements, reports,

PowerPoint presentations, white

papers, emails, and other resources.

Time commitment: approximately 60

– 90 minutes

Step 3

Pre Meeting

Preparation

The CoreNet Global learning team will

provide the logistical information

regarding the project meeting, including

location, dates, times, and expense

allowances. The compiled

documentation will be provided to all

team members at least two-four weeks in

advance of the meeting for review,

annotation, and personal preparation by

each team member.

Review and evaluate compiled

information and prepare

contributions for team meeting.

Time Commitment: 1-5 hours

depending on the amount of

information to be reviewed and the

SMEs amount and complexity of

feedback.


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STEP 4

Course

Design/Revision

Meeting

This facilitated meeting will follow a

specific format to explore the

design/revision of the course. The

outline, objectives, and main concepts

are explored and edited as appropriate in

detail. The CoreNet Global learning team

may bring a recorder to this meeting in

order to capture information about the

topic to refer to later.

Provide input to the project team

during the facilitated team meeting.

Time commitment: approximately

1.5 days

STEP 5

Organizational

Representative

Review

Following the compilation of the

information from the Course

Design/Review Meeting, volunteers from

the organizations membership, as

selected by a committee of board

members, will conduct a review of the

proposed content and provide feedback

Provide feedback regarding the

learning objectives, course content,

contextualized supplements, and

assessment documentation.

Time Commitment: approximately 6-

8 hours

STEP 6

Preparing the

Project

Deliverables


ensures that the information is compiled

using appropriate adult learning

principles and practices. The draft

deliverables for this project are

completed according to the learning

standards. During this time, the CoreNet

Global learning team may contact the

subject matter expert to ask questions,

seek clarification, and request additional

information.

Submit feedback to CoreNet Global

learning team for additional

information or clarifications as

requested

Time Commitment: up to 1 hour


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STEP 7

Final Review

Once the draft is complete, the CoreNet

Global learning team forwards it to the

organizational representatives and

faculty/SMEs for their final review. The

course content should be stable and

require minimal updates at this stage. The

faculty/SMEs are notified that the course is

available for SME review. Each course

design/revision team member and

faculty/subject matter expert reviews the

course checking for content accuracy.

Using feedback from the project team, the

CoreNet Global learning team ensures the

deliverables are revised and final

documents produced.

Review the course checking for

content accuracy. Time commitment:

approximately 30-60 minutes.

Notify the CoreNet Global learning

team immediately if there are any

substantial changes to the content

due to other influences not known

to the team at the time of the

project meeting

Step 8

Launching the

New Content

All new course documents are made

available to the faculty assigned to the

course. The new documents will be

implemented by the faculty for their next

assigned delivery of the course.

Review final documents, become

acquainted with course in the new

format and be prepared to deliver

using the new content for the next

assigned seminar. This could take

anywhere from 2 hours to 10 hours

depending on the faculty members

familiarity with the content and the

extent of the changes to an existing

course

Along with faculty/SMEs and project team member’s expertise comes a few cautions.

…Expert knowledge and skills are automated and unconscious. This unconscious knowledge is both a

great strength and a well-disguised weakness. The strength is that unconscious knowledge allows the

expert to perform very complex tasks quickly, effortlessly, and accurately, and to think about other issues

while working. The weakness is that because the knowledge behind routine but complex tasks is

unconscious, experts sometimes cannot accurately describe how they perform those tasks.

Almost all work-related training is designed and/or delivered by subject-matter experts (SMEs). If SMEs

are trying to describe to trainees their expert approach to solving work problems, and their expert

approach is automated and unconscious, then the SME will inevitably make mistakes or fail to relay

pertinent information which can result in learning problems for trainees.1

1 Clark, Richard E. & Estes, Fred. (2002). Turning research into results: A guide to selecting the right

performance solutions. Atlanta, GA: CEP Press.


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Analysis

Needs Assessment

Prior to beginning a training project, it is essential to

have completed an analysis of need for the project.

Many times a training request is made, but has

minimal information to support the need for the

request.

Implementing a training needs analysis for each project will ensure that the essential information is

gathered. This analysis should include:

• Course Information

o Topic

o Course Description (including a detailed outline or list of

suggested training)

• Job Information

o Target Audience

o Description of the task, knowledge or

behavior performance need

o Any previous training on this task

o What content exists today and in what

format

o Expected productivity improvement as

a result of the training

o What else has been done to improve

performance


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o Who is specifically responsible to perform the task

o What is the problem and when did it first occur

o What does successful performance look like

o What is the effect of the current problem

• The analysis becomes more useful with the addition of the following:

o Understanding the total number of individuals in the target audience

o The general location of the audience across the globe

o What professional roles are represented

o The timeframe for completion

o A list of stakeholders, sponsors, and potential subject matter experts

o A list of existing training materials and resources and their location

o Deliverable expectations

o Anticipated training components

o Pre-requisite courses

Summary of Analysis Results

Generally the conclusion of a needs analysis results in a summation of the information reviewed and the

recommendation about whether to proceed with the project. The summary would usually include:

• Executive Summary

• Introduction

• Data Collection Technique(s)

• Performance Analysis

• Possible Solutions

• Cost Benefit Analysis

• Reinforcement Activities to Maximize Value

• Recommendation


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Effective Curriculum Alignment

Once needs analysis is complete, the team has a clearer picture and can determine where the content fits

within the current curriculum. This step offers an opportunity to ensure that the project is not a duplication of

existing content, a repeat of content readily or more cost effectively available from other resources, and that

it clearly fills a priority gap in the curriculum plan.

• Review existing courses, whether online, virtual or classroom based to ensure that the project isn’t

duplicating existing content, and if it is, explore resolutions that are available to remedy the duplication.


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Discovery

Research

The primary activity in this phase is to gather information.

• Research should include:

• Live discussion exploring the details of the project with the c u r r e n t f a c u l t y , primary Subject

Matter Expert(s), and interested members

• Identification of any additional Subject Matter Experts who may have an interest or stake

in the project outcome

Once all resources have been searched, the information is compiled and compared in order to

determine if the most current and accurate information is being used in the project. Sometimes, as a

result of this research, additional faculty, members, SMEs or stakeholders may be identified who need

to be included in the project, sometimes more current information is discovered.

Initiating Project Management

The project team creates the project documents, including the scope/SOW document and work plans with

dates of critical milestones. Decisions regarding the project are incorporated into the project documents so

that all project team members are operating in a coordinated manner as they complete their assigned tasks.

Project considerations addressed in the project documentation includes:

Integration

Scope

Time

Cost

Quality

Human Resources

Communications

Risk

Procurement, if needed


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Project Planning Document

The project planning document provides a detailed description of

the final project deliverable(s) and an outline of the resources to

be provided. It is the primary agreement indicating commitment to

the specific content and timetable for completion of the project.

The project document should contain the following:

• Initial Request Details

• Needs Analysis Summary

• Research Information Summary (location and availability

of current/supplemental resources)

• Statement of Project Scope

• Title and Description

• Instructional Design Recommendations

• High Level Outline

• Learning Objectives

• Level of Projected Interactivity

• Estimated Deliverables Dates, including date, deliverable, time required, and resource responsible

• Summary of assumptions

• Summary of risks

• Summary of roles and specific resources assigned

• Sign off


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Design & Development

Definition of Instructional Design

Instructional design is a systematic process of creating engaging, interactive, and motivational learning

activities using learning and instructional theory to enhance on-the-job performance. Effective instructional

design helps the learner to learn and has a direct impact on performance.

The process includes analysis of learning needs and goals, the development of a delivery system to meet

those needs, and design of instructional materials and activities.

When designing training:

• Write solid objectives

• Set the expectations

• Paint the “big picture”

• Link content to existing knowledge

• Use more visuals, less text

• Allow for comprehension and practice

• Assess using the objectives

CoreNet Global is committed to a learner-centered instructional model that assumes an adult's

knowledge is a function of their prior experiences, mental structures and beliefs used to interpret

the world around them and that they master new learning through practice.


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Effectively Using Adult Learning Principles

Adults learn best when they are seeking resolution to a problem or ready to accept information. As problem-

solving individuals, adults look for learning based on a need to know. It is crucial that the content be

presented as applicable and pertinent to the learners needs. This can be accomplished if learners are

provided a chance to articulate their own needs and select their own learning goals. Learning objectives

should be expressed clearly and the audience should have a chance to accept and buy into these

objectives.

• Development of new knowledge is easier when presented within the context of information that

is already familiar to adults. This means providing a clear understanding about "what's in it for

me" and showing the applicability or relationship of the new information to existing knowledge.

• Research supports the principle that adults learn best when they are actively involved in the

process. Presentations, meetings and lectures are the least opportune methods for delivering

training because their role is passive. The more actively the learner is applying or practicing

the new knowledge, the more likely long term transfer of knowledge.

• Adults generally remember concepts that are presented in the beginning and at the end, that

are linked to existing knowledge and experiences, are chunked into manageable pieces, are

outstanding, memorable and emotional AND content that is written down by the adult.

Principles of Adult Learning


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• Physical changes like visual and auditory acuity are difficult to perceive especially as they tend

to decline over long periods of time. An adult learner might be completely unaware that they

have perceptual abilities that are lower than average. Construct a learning environment that

respects potential physical impairments. In classroom settings allow students to seat

themselves close to the instructor, whiteboard or projection screen. In asynchronous or

virtual settings afford users the ability to adjust volume and zoom controls. Use reasonably

sized and clear fonts.

• Time constraints reduce adult learner productivity and adults tend to have higher learning

performance when they can set their own pace. Structure and pace instruction with adequate

time for student reflection. Instructional Designers should consider the amount of content and

the time allowance for learning. In classroom settings place breaks throughout the session that

allow students to catch up to material or speak privately with the instructor. Do not rush the

students to remain on time with a preconceived agenda; if the class is running behind schedule

do not be tempted to speed up the pace to catch up.

• Adult learners carry a deep well of personal and professional experiences. These past

experiences can enhance new learning or be an inescapable hindrance. Experience

accumulates over time with an increased chance for older learners to either profit or suffer to

a greater degree than their younger adult counterparts. Past experiences will always surface

during interactions with a learning environment. It may be difficult for adult learners to make

connections between their past experiences and the current learning content. The facilitator

or learning environment should support the learners in identifying potential bridges to relevant

past experiences. When dealing with a wide ranging adult audience this may mean utilizing

multiple exemplars to increase the chances of hitting upon a meaningful past experience.

Another strategy involves prompting the learner at key points to reflect upon their own

experiences and knowledge.

• Adults have a firm sense of self with a strong inclination to defend this self-concept from the

environment. Learning experiences have the potential of disproving long held ideas or

knowledge that has become part of the adult’s self-concept. Adults may react defensively

and consciously shut down the learning process against perceived conflicts. The respectful

treatment of adults is crucial to effectively manage learning. Opinions, comments and

questions should be valued regardless of their relevance or perceived sophistication in

relation to the content areas. As such, facilitators should provide unconditional positive regard

to adults as they engage the content. Adults are most interested and learn best when they

experience success. Creating a positive learning climate that offers every learner an

opportunity to experience a level of success motivates desire for learning.


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Developing Program and Learner Objectives

Program objectives document the overall purpose of the learning. What is the expected outcome regarding

performance?

Learner objectives are important to stay focused on what you want the learners to be able to remember

and DO after the training.

Sample objectives include verbs that are readily measured, such as –

• To match

• To define

• To analyze

• To calculate

Objective statements should NOT contain the following verbs (because these subjective verbs cannot

be measured or evaluated):

• Understand the

• Comprehend the

• Learn the

Following is a list of the levels of cognition associated with Bloom’s Taxonomy. Each one has a sampling of

the types of verbs that would be used in learning objectives being written for that level of learning.

Using Bloom’s Taxonomy: Levels of Cognition

1. Knowledge: arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order, recognize, relate, recall,

repeat, reproduce, and state.

2. Comprehension: classify, describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate, locate, recognize,

report, restate, review, select, translate,

3. Application: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice,

schedule, sketch, solve, use, write.

4. Analysis: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate,


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discriminate, distinguish, examine, experiment, question, and test.

5. Synthesis: arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design, develop, formulate,

manage, organize, plan, prepare, propose, set up, and write.

6. Evaluation: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend estimate, judge, predict, rate,

core, select, support, value, evaluate.


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Selecting a Delivery Methodology

Before selecting a method of delivery, it is critical to define each learning objective. Course developers

sometimes make the mistake of selecting the learning delivery and then forcing the content to fit.

Different levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy are more appropriate to

different delivery methods. Understanding the complexity of the

learning objectives and their associated Bloom’s level allows course

developers to select the right delivery methodology to enhance and

maximize the learning experience, and frequently take advantage of

multiple delivery methods.

Today’s savvy instructional designers know that one size does not

fit all and are more frequently opting for opportunities to develop

blended learning programs. This allows the learner to address some content in a self-paced, eLearning

method as is appropriate to the learning objectives for the course. Other content may be experienced

through social learning experiences and online collaborations, and finally, the content associated with some

course objectives is most effectively delivered in a face to face classroom environment.

Method of Delivery Number of

Learners

Type of Content Bloom’s Level

of Objectives

Mobile delivery to

Smart Phone

technology

Unlimited* Review, quick tips, summary of steps, flash

cards, etc. Content needed in the field,

away from the office PC, on the Client site,

etc.

Knowledge

Video (including Live

Meeting Recorded

Sessions)

Unlimited* Distribution of information only, no

opportunities for practice Content is rapidly

changing, information has to be distributed

quickly

Knowledge

Online eLearning

(online eLearning

created in Articulate,

ToolBook, Captivate,

or other tools)

Unlimited* Business knowledge, introductory

concepts, software applications, scenario-

based decisions, promotes interactive

learning with the content Stable content,

updates are infrequent

Knowledge

Comprehension

Application


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Virtual classroom

sessions (60 – 90

minutes)

Best

Practice: 5 –

15 per

session**

Collaboration between peers, expertise of

instructor is essential, complex content and

concepts, practice opportunities are

available Excellent solution for limited travel

budgets

Knowledge

Comprehension

Application

Analysis

Classroom courses (1

– 2 days)

Best

Practice: 10 –

24 per

session***




available

Knowledge

Comprehension

Application

Analysis

Synthesis

Evaluation

Workshops (2 – 4

days)

Best

Practice: 10 –

24 per

session




available Idea format for delving into more

complex objectives that require synthesis

and evaluation skills

Knowledge

Comprehension

Application

Analysis

Synthesis

Evaluation

**For an ideal learning environment, the recommended class size for a virtual training session is

between 5 – 15 learners per session for no more the 90 minutes per session.

*** For an ideal learning environment, the recommended class size for an in-person classroom

training session is between 10 – 24 learners per session.

Classroom Course Design

To ensure the consistency of the CoreNet Global user experience, standards have been established for

classroom-delivered content. Research confirms that learners like delivery of content in small “chunks.” As

a result, content should be grouped in a logical manner for presentation and maximum retention.

Exceptional facilitation skills used to guide the interactions of the learners with content should be the focus

of each session, rather than an enormous PowerPoint deck. Use of PowerPoint should serve only as a

roadmap for the facilitator, rather than a comprehensive listing of all content to be addressed.

NOTE: Relevant Graphics, photos that depict a concept and assist the learner to recall that concept,

should be included for each concept in the slides used


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It is important that the facilitator can identify and discuss the learning objective associated with the

PowerPoint pages -- What must the learner be able to DO once this content page is completed? The skilled

facilitator helps the learner connect the learning objectives to the content. If there is no clear connection to

the learning objectives, then the content may be nice to know rather than need to know. It may add

unnecessary complexity to the course or create a distraction for learners. Clearly identifying when content

deviates from the learning objectives will help the learner establish the priority of the content for learning

retention. Nice to know information can add contextual understanding or provide an opportunity for learners

to process essential information, but it should be kept to a minimum to allow the learner to focus on the

course essentials

Virtual Course Design

Virtual Training involves learners interacting with an instructor via the

Web in real time and involves active participation and transference of

knowledge and skills.

There are advantages and disadvantages to this method of delivering

training. Knowing this information can help content designers and

faculty to build on the strengths of the method and work to overcome

the challenges.

0B0B0B0BAdvantages: 1B1B1B1BDisadvantages:

no travel

easy to edit content materials

no printing / saving trees

knowledge experts who are prepared to share

easy access

Q&A

Surveys

Polls

Branding

Events vs. meetings

Tool available to all free

Recordable

Reaches worldwide audience

Retention from presentations is proven to be poor!

people falling asleep

trainers don’t know how to encourage discussion

no way to tell if participants are multi-tasking

Sessions are frequently too long

poor connections and limited bandwidth

presenter needs to be a techno multi-tasker

audience unfamiliarity with interactive tools

cultural differences in responding – especially when they are voting

comfort levels vary

monotone presenter


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Audio plus video capabilities

Helps with language barriers and cultural differences

Can include handouts and downloads

Familiar PPT format

can be boring

speakers who don’t know how to use virtual classrooms

video doesn’t play well

need second instructor as moderator

need to be chunked much smaller

not interactive

no face-to-face

trainer can’t see what’s “really” happening

design phase is more involved due to having to build in more interactivity

Training and presentations are viewed as the same thing

Whether creating a new virtual course or converting a classroom course for virtual delivery, there are several

elements to consider:

• Plan for 60 – 90 minute chunks of time

• Break course down into multiple sessions if necessary

• Identify any bandwidth issues

• Determine how each content chunk will be handled

• Create activities

• Write a script

• Practice

Virtual Course Best Practices

• Understanding the learner’s experience is the key to increased retention and results. Virtual

training sessions must be interactive, engaging, focused, relevant, and short.

• Virtual training classes should be no more than 90 minutes in length.

• Existing classroom PPT decks must be modified in order to incorporate virtual activities that

engage the learner and allow the learner to interact with the content, colleagues, and the trainer.

• In order to effectively balance the needs of the learner including the response time for


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questions, technical issues, and chat, plan for a Trainer AND a Producer to be present during

the training.

• For every one hour of virtual classroom delivery, it takes 15 hours to effectively design that

content! Plan accordingly.

• Use a variety of interactions, pictures, and whiteboards; use Arial font that is at least size 14 pt.;

and utilize the tools with Live Meeting including the Feedback dropdown menu

When designing virtual training, keep in mind the variety of tools that are available.

Most virtual classroom tools have the following annotation tools available to the facilitator and learners:

• Change feedback color

• Handouts loaded directly onto Live Meeting

• Demonstrations (e.g. software)

• Exploring a web site within Live Meeting

• Chat Highlighter

• Pointer

• Polls

• Question & Answer

• Shared notes

• Whiteboard

Visual delivery

is more

engaging,

making it more

effective than

text


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ELearning Design

Although eLearning modules can be developed using a variety of tools, the basic design philosophies are

important to consider:

• User Friendliness

• Attractiveness/Fun Factor

• Learner Support Features

• Instructional Effectiveness

• Practice Activities and Feedback

• Content Accuracy

• Learner Motivation

Online eLearning puts the learner at the center of learning, actively constructing meaning for new

knowledge rather than passively absorbing it. Online eLearning also enables learners to access training

24 hours a day, 365 days a year, as well as complete training at their own pace.

User Friendliness

• Layout: screens are designed well and scrolling is minimized.

Attractiveness/ Fun Factor

• Interaction: game, extended metaphor, or other special format engages the learner, carries through entire course; is novel, piques curiosity

• Attractive Design: layout, colors, text styles, and graphics are inviting

• Branding: use of CoreNet Global logo and colors is in compliance with standards

• Media: media and animation are used to retain attention, support content; is well designed and used wisely

Learner Support Features

• Help: clear help/navigation instruction screens are provided when needed

• Action text: is present, and specifically states actions to be taken, is in standard color, and uses action arrow; Names of buttons are in bold i.e., Click Submit and Exit

• Aids: Glossaries, job aids, workbooks are used effectively


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Content Accuracy

• Factual: Content is mathematically and factually accurate

• Current: Content is not likely to become outdated due to references, selected examples

• Graphics and text is culturally diverse, considers the global audience

Ensuring Instructional Effectiveness

• Goals and objectives are clearly communicated to the learner

• Are learning objectives specific and observable? Give behavior desired and criteria.

• How will the learner remember or use this information? Mnemonic device?

• Active Learning: course uses a high proportion of active, student centered learning activities

• Chunking: content is chunked in small, discrete blocks; sequenced in a clear, logical way

• Are there transitions between concepts?

• Content is sequenced in a logical way

• Clear, and concise direct writing make the content easy to absorb

• Correct punctuation, spelling, no missing words, bulleted lists

punctuated correctly.

• Font size and style is consistent throughout

• Colors for elements: Verify that all the color(s) are the same on all

pages. (e.g. pop-up and text boxes)

• Verify that the format/location of recurring buttons or images are the same

Encouraging Engagement: Practice Activities and Feedback

• Practice Frequency and Quantity: Practice activities are frequent, follow a unit of content and are

adequate to ensure mastery and retention

• Practice Quality: practice activities are dynamic, challenging, and engaging; contain an introductory

statement and clear learner instructions

• Practice Type: Practice activities are designed to maximize similarity to actual job tasks. Case

scenarios, or interactive experiments are used to enhance problem-solving exercises

• Feedback: is clear and instructive

• ROK: questions/answers support objectives; appropriately test knowledge


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Building Motivation

• Inquiry Method: Questions and paradoxes are included to make learners think

• Messages or symbolic rewards are included to encourage/praise hard work

• Examples used relate to learners’ work

• Program Relevance: does program explain its relevance to learners (WIIFM) at the beginning of the

lesson

• A variety of media is included to create/ sustain learner interest, allow learner to interact with the

content

• Lesson and Course summary are present, complete, reinforces concepts taught

Graphics Considerations

No matter the type of learning being designed, relevant graphics should be used in order to assist the

learner with comprehending and recalling the concepts. By definition, a “relevant graphic” is a photograph

depiction of a concept that assists the learner to recall that concept.

The use of clipart is discouraged and is NOT in accordance to CoreNet Global’s learning team approach

regarding the use of graphics. Royalty-free photographs will be used in all course materials


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Assessment Design

General Guidelines

• Determine the purpose of the assessment

• Match the requirements of the test items to the designated learning

objectives

• Write using simple, complete grammar and wording

• Create items that are worded at the average reading level of the

targeted learning population

• Ensure that each test item has one undisputedly correct answer

• Write test items at a level of difficulty that matches the learning

objective and the targeted learning population

• Include a variety of test item formats

• Review all test items once they are compiled for the test to ensure

that the wording of one item does not give away the answers to

another item

• Have a person less familiar with the content to review test items to

identify points of confusion or grammatical errors

• For a multiple choice test item, distribute the correct answer evenly among the options to reduce

the chance that a learner will try to guess the correct answer based on the pattern of correct

answers.

• For example, do not always make “C” the key.

• For a multiple choice test item, ensure that there is the same number of options for each

multiple choice item

• For a true/false test item, make all statements approximately the same length to reduce the

chance that a learner will try to guess the correct answer based on the length of the statement

• For a true/false test item, maintain an equal amount of true/false statements and distribute them

randomly to reduce the chance that a learner will try to guess the correct answer based on the quantity

or pattern of true or false answers.

• Do not ask questions that do not assess one of the learning objectives

• Do not focus on trivial issues that promote shallow memorization of facts or details

• Do not make test items intentionally difficult or tricky


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Delivery

When you think of delivering a course to learners, traditional classroom delivery

may come to mind. However, “delivery” in CoreNet Global’s learning

development process goes much deeper. This section discusses the standards

and best practices associated with preparing for and providing delivery of the

end-product to the learner. The sections covered include:

• Preparing eLearning courses for the Quality Assurance and Learning Management System loading

processes

• Delivering virtual and traditional classroom courses (tips and tricks when presenting)

Review Process

As you begin the review process, the Review Checklist will provide some guidance as to what you should

be looking for as you review materials. This checklist can also be used once you have completed your

review as a final validation.

Review Checklist

Focus and Purpose:

• From the SME's perspective, what is the purpose of this course?

• From the learner’s perspective, do all of the course elements support the purpose statement above?

• Is the purpose statement clear to the learner?

• Are the benefits from the learner’s perspective provided?

• Are there prerequisites to this course? If so, have they been identified?

Audience:

• From the SME's perspective, do the learning objectives meet the needs of the audience? • Is the depth of content covered in this course appropriate for the intended

audience? • Does the course contain unclear language or concepts that may not be understood?

• Is the use of acronyms avoided? (all terms clearly spelled out)

Research:

• Are all sources of information, charts, graphs, and research sourced and credited?


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• Have all copyrights\trademarks been applied per CoreNet Global standards?

Design:

• Are all of the objectives actionable and measurable? For example, the learner will

“describe,” “restate,” “match,” “analyze,” “recall,” etc.

• Are the following verbs avoided (within the objectives)? The learner will “understand,” “learn,”

“know how to” etc.

• Are the review questions directly linked to the objectives of the course? (No trivial questions

are asked.)

• Are the review questions constructed as “multiple choice,” in question format and provide four

well- written choices? (No true/false, fill-in-the-blank, or all/none of the above.)

• Does the course proceed in a logical and organized way? What would you do differently?

• Is each concept organized around one main objective?

• Is the text on the page pleasing to the eye? (no scrolling) (online eLearning)

• Are there reinforcement activities for each objective built into the course?

• Are the activities appropriate? What suggestions do you have to improve the activities?

• Is each concept clearly explained using the least amount of words

possible?

• Has all non-critical content been removed (need to know vs. nice to know)?

• Is like information grouped together?

• Are ample examples and case studies provided?

• Is the learner provided an opportunity to write down notes, key concepts and important information?

• Is the timing of the course reasonable from the learner’s perspective? (Maximum: 45-

minute eLearning, 90-minute virtual)

• Does the timing for each section\activity seem reasonable? (classroom)

• Is there enough facilitator direction? (classroom and virtual)

• Is there adequate debrief guidance for the facilitator? (classroom and virtual)

• Do the Job Aids and Reference Guides contain the appropriate information?


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Development:

• Are relevant, appropriate and royalty-free photographs used on each page, as needed? (No clip art)

• Are there obvious spelling and grammar errors? If so, where?

• Does each activity function as designed?

• Is the navigation clear, easy and functional (if applicable)?

• Is the course engaging and interactive?

• What improvements would you recommend

Quality Assurance

The quality assurance process helps to ensure that learners experience consistent, accurate,

engaging, and professional learning activities that enhance job performance. All courses, no

matter the method of delivery, should meet the following minimum quality assurance standards:

• Approved CoreNet Global templates are utilized

• Faculty/Subject matter experts are involved throughout the design process and approve of the course content

• The Chicago Manual of Style rules are applied

• Language used within courses is culturally sensitive and appropriate for the audience

• Royalty-free photograph images are used (no clipart)

• Electronically-delivered courses function properly (see chart below)

ELearning Functionality Review

Defect Category Description

Functionality

Verify that all buttons work correctly on each page.

Verify that each section/module opens correctly from the main menu.

Verify that interactions work correctly.

Verify that hyperlinks work correctly.

Verify that pop-up screens open and close correctly.

Verify that page numbers are correct.

Verify that there are no unusual marks or designs on the pages.

Verify that all online eLearning and lesson name instances are correct.

Verify that the most current corporate logo is used throughout the online eLearning.

Verify that the most current development tool template has been used.

Verify that the pictures or lines on the page do not cut off the text.

Verify that sub screens/informational boxes open with content.

Verify that when a pop-up screen is open, the underlying text does not bleed through.

Verify that subject line and browser title displays the appropriate online eLearning name

within the instructor help email.


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GUI Verify that each learner interaction includes detailed instructions as to how the interaction

works.

Verify that all text within a video or screen capture is legible.

Text

Verify that a clear and concise writing style was used.

Verify that there is correct punctuation for each sentence.

Verify that all words are spelled correctly.

Verify that there are no missing words in sentences.

Verify that all bulleted lists are punctuated correctly.

Verify that font style and size is consistent throughout online eLearning.

Consistency

Verify that all the color(s) are the same on all pages. (e.g. pop-up and text boxes)

Verify that the format/location of recurring buttons or images are the same.

Verify that the directional arrows are the same color and size.

Verify that the colors of the words are the same, no different color letters.


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Best Practices

In the Classroom

• Prepare the Room and Materials - always review the manuals, hand-outs, etc., visit the training room,

verify the equipment is working properly

• Practice - practice the delivery, but don’t memorize it. Express your ideas clearly and concisely

• Be available both before and after class to answer questions.

• Your role as facilitator is to create an atmosphere in which a person is self-motivated. Establish the

purpose of the course and obtain buy-in from your learners.

• Start on time, end on time.

• Establish ‘Ground Rules’ at the beginning of the session. Several example ground rules include:

• Be Respectful of Others

• Participate

• Start & End on Time

• Learn from Each Other

• Be Patient with Others

• Stay Focused

All learners need to be actively involved, not by hearing the information but by doing. Learners must be

able to apply, to do, and to do with understanding.

• Avoid reading the manual or lecturing for long periods of time. Your course should be

interactive, engaging, and energetic.

• Be supportive of learners and their questions. Avoid jokes and comments that may be

perceived as offensive or may be confusing due to cultural misunderstandings.

• YOU are the most important ingredient in your training. How you look, speak, react --

your body language --can make or break your course.


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In the Virtual Classroom

A strong trainer:

• Gets people involved

• Allows opportunities for the learners

to use the tools

• Has active listening skills

• Uses a variety of questioning techniques

• Does not get caught in lecture loops

Voice is very important as you are unable to convey body language or expressions unless you’re using a

webcam

• Ability to modulate your voice

• Vary the pace every 5 – 6 minutes

• Carry enthusiasm

• Avoid “umming” & “ahing”

Never read the slides.

• They can elaborate, illustrate or summarize

your points

• They should never be the presentation

Use stories to illustrate major learning points

• Ask learners to share their stories

Point to, highlight, draw & notate the slides as you facilitate

Use the whiteboard as you would a flipchart

• Prepare what you will want to put on the whiteboard ahead of time in a separate document &

just copy & paste text to the whiteboard as needed

• Encourage participants to use the whiteboard or appoint a scribe from the audience

Invite participants to use the Q&A function to ask questions

– Practice delivering each virtual training

class PRIOR to hosting learners

– Avoid reading the slides

– Avoid the use of jargon and acronyms

– Mark on EVERY slide

– Remember to keep learners engaged


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• Anticipate & prepare for learners questions & difficulties

• Get familiar with the technology

• Do a “dry” run – Practice, Practice, Practice

Prepare the Learners

Point out help resources if there are any technical difficulties and provide help number and link for technical

service. Don’t assume learners skill level of virtual classroom tools.

• Show Q&A features you will be utilizing

• Set participation expectations: Let the learners know what and when they will need to contribute/what level of participation will be needed.

• Interactivity tools – annotation, highlight, text tools, color squares, shared notes, attendance etc.

• Give a short demonstration of each tool (2-3 minutes total)

• Let them know where they can download any files that are needed

Recorded Virtual Classroom Sessions

Although many virtual tools have the ability to record each meeting, creating and posting recorded

sessions is highly discouraged.

By definition, virtual training sessions must be interactive, engaging, focused, relevant, and short in order to

increase retention and change behavior. Once a virtual training session is recorded, it then becomes an

asynchronous presentation and loses its interactivity. Essentially, the learner is passively watching a

presentation of information rather than being actively engaged with their learning.


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Evaluation

Plan to Evaluate Results

When post training evaluation and assessment is required, the critical skills, knowledge and behavior that

need to be assessed must be determined up front. Knowing what will be assessed ensures that content

development focuses on what is important. Learning objectives clarify the skills, knowledge and behavior to

be assessed and provide a roadmap to the designer regarding what content to include and what to leave

out.

Kirkpatrick’s Model of Evaluation

The Kirkpatrick Foundational Principles are the key beliefs underpinning the Kirkpatrick Evaluation Model.

The end is the beginning.

Effective evaluation begins before the learning program even starts. Don Kirkpatrick said it best (1st

Edition, Berrett-Koehler, 1993):

"(Learning professionals) must begin with desired results and then determine what behavior is needed to accomplish them. Then trainers must determine the attitudes, knowledge, and skills that are necessary to bring about the desired behavior(s). The final challenge is to present the training program in a way that enables the participants not only to learn what they need to know but also to react favorably to the program."

It is important that the results are defined in measurable terms so that all involved can see the ultimate

destination of the initiative. Clearly defined results will increase the likelihood that resources will be used

most effectively and efficiently to accomplish the mission.

Attempting to apply the Kirkpatrick levels of training evaluation after a program has been developed and

delivered makes it difficult, if not impossible, to create significant value.

Return on Expectations (ROE) is the ultimate indicator of value.

Stakeholder expectations define the value that learning programs are responsible for delivering. Learning

professionals must ask the stakeholders questions to clarify and refine their expectations. This is a


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negotiation process in which the training professional makes sure that the expectations are satisfying to

the stakeholder and realistic to achieve with the resources available.

Once stakeholder expectations are clear, learning professionals then need to convert those typically

general wants into observable, measurable success outcomes by asking the question, "What will success

look like to you?"

Value must be created before it can be demonstrated.

Research suggests that as much as 90% of training resources are spent on the design, development, and

delivery of training events that yield 15% on-the-job application (Brinkerhoff, 2006). Reinforcement that

occurs after the training event produces the highest level of learning effectiveness, followed by activities

that occur before the learning event.

Currently, learning professionals are putting most of their resources into the part of the training process

that produces the lowest level of business results. They are spending relatively little time on the pre-

training and follow-up activities that translate into the positive behavior change and subsequent results

(Levels 3 and 4) that organizations seek.

A compelling chain of evidence demonstrates bottom-line value.

Following the Kirkpatrick Foundational Principles and using the levels of training evaluation help to create

a chain of evidence showing the business value of the learning program. It consists of quantitative and

qualitative data that sequentially connect the four levels.

The chain of evidence serves to unify the learning and business functions, not to isolate learning

programs or set them apart.

The original four levels of training evaluation created by Dr. Don Kirkpatrick in the 1950s have been clarified

with the New World Kirkpatrick Model. Below is an outline of the updated Kirkpatrick Model of training

evaluation with the original definitions and new explanations.

The New World Kirkpatrick Model

Level 1: Reaction

To what degree participants react favorably to the training

Customer Satisfaction

The original definition measured only participant satisfaction with the training.

http://www.kirkpatrickpartners.com/AboutUs/DonKirkpatrick/tabid/223/Default.aspx


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Engagement

The degree to which participants are actively involved in and contributing to the learning experience

Relevance

The degree to which training participants will have the opportunity to use or apply what they learned

in training on the job

Level 2: Learning

To what degree participants acquire the intended knowledge, skills, attitudes, confidence and

commitment based on their participation in a training event

Knowledge “I know it.”

Skill “I can do it right now.”

Attitude “I believe this will be worthwhile to do on the job.”

Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”

Commitment “I intend to do it on the job.”

Level 3: Behavior

To what degree participants apply what they learned during training when they are back on the job

Required Drivers

Processes and systems that reinforce, encourage and reward performance

of critical behaviors on the job

Level 4: Results

To what degree targeted outcomes occur as a result of the training event and subsequent

reinforcement

Leading Indicators

Short-term observations and measurements suggesting that critical behaviors are on track to

create a positive impact on desired results


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The CoreNet Global Evaluation Process

CoreNet Global uses multiple types of evaluation to determine the effectiveness of the learning programs in

achieving the established goals. Consideration is given to the many factors outside of course design to

determine effectiveness, including facilitator skills, environment, cultural and language variables, and

individual readiness for learning.

This includes:

Faculty/Course Observations (see appendix)

Participant Feedback

Faculty Input and Feedback

Stakeholders Feedback: Chapters, Corporate Partners, Board of Directors

Peer Reviews

Testimonials

Metrics and Programmatic Analysis

Using Summative Evaluation for Program Improvement

CoreNet Global uses the resulting analysis of available evaluation data to determine the need for

improvements, enhancements, or refinements to learning programs.


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Course Documentation

When designing learning documentation, the needs of the learner are the primary consideration. Ask the

following:

• Who will use the materials?

• How will they use them?

• When will the learners need the training manual? Consider any pre-work such as reading or

completing assessments.

• What do your learners expect?

• Where will your learners use this manual? Consider environmental factors

• Why do your learners need training documentation?

Characteristics of effective learning documentation includes

taking into consideration these attributes and differences

between learners

• experience

• cultural background

• values

• language

• environment

All documentation should be designed from the learner’s

point of view and must be available in a form and place that

learners can refer to when needed. The document should

have information that is:

• easy to find

• easy to comprehend

• up-to-date, reflecting latest changes and revisions

• reliable and convincing

• useful

• related to the learning objectives


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Classroom and Virtual Classroom Documentation

Course documentation for all CoreNet Global courses in individual course Tool Kits for use by facilitators. The

Tool Kits will consist of the following:

Facilitator’s Manual

Participant Guide

PowerPoint Presentation

Course Overview, including

o Course Description

o Learning Objectives

Summary of Essential Learning, including

o Action Planning

o Links, Samples and Resources

Course Assessment

Course Evaluation

Additional Resources, as designed by the Instructional Designer

NOTE: Learners will not be given print outs of the PowerPoint presentation or the 3 slide notes taking pages

available in the PowerPoint software. The presentation is a subset of the overall course and may not

accurately reflect the course concepts when taken out of the context of the total learning experience.

All documentation for classroom and virtual classroom courses must be filed in the shared

drive and contain the following folders with the appropriate current course information:

Learning Objectives [and competencies], including

interactions planning document

Assessment Questions [and answers]

Facilitators Guide

Participant Guide

Supplemental Resources, including:

o Handouts

o Links, Samples and Resources


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o Summary of project contributors

o Acknowledgements and credits

o Summary of cited sources

Each of these folders will also contain a dated archive folder with all previous versions of these

documents

ELearning Course Documentation

All deliverables and digital documentation for eLearning courses must be filed in the shared drive and

contain the following:

Folder containing all of the resources from the

Discovery Stage used by the Instructional Designer

All graphics in one of two sub-folders, royalty free

graphics or those with the associated documentation of

purchase and permitted usage

Project documents for the current version of the

course, along with a folder containing all archived

versions. This includes the needs analysis, project

management document and other resources like a

summary list of all contributors to the project and their

contact information

Compiled/SCORM Files for the current version of the course

Source files from the associated authoring tool for the current version of the course

Each of these folders will also contain a dated archive folder with all previous versions of these

documents

Archiving only the compiled files for eLearning courses exposes the organization to the risk of having to

completely rebuild courses from scratch should the published files be damaged/corrupted or lost in a

technology crisis. Published files can’t be reopened and edited. The organization must have the source

files to republish/compile and repost to the delivery platform (usually wither website or LMS) with a

minimum of downtime.


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Appendix:

Facilitator’s Guide – Branded Sample


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Participant Guide – Branded Sample


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Course Evaluation Sample


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Bloom’s Verb Chart


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Faculty/Course Observation


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learning strategies, principles & approaches strategies... · • the design stage addresses...

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