McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Motivational Needs Motivational Needs and Processesand Processes

Chapter SixChapter Six

Learning Objectives

• Define motivation.• Identify the primary, general, and secondary

needs.• Discuss the major content theories of work

motivation.• Explain the major process theories of work

motivation.• Present the contemporary equity and

organizational justice theories.• Analyze work motivation across cultures.

Introduction

• Motivation is a basic psychological process.– Many of today’s organizational behavior

theorists “think it is important for the field to reemphasize behavior.”

Meaning of Motivation

• Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates a behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive

– Human motives are variously called physiological, biological, unlearned, or primary.

Primary Motives

• A must be unlearned and must be physiologically based

• People develop different appetites for the various physiological motives because people have the same basic physiological makeup

General Motives

• A motive must be unlearned but not physiologically based– Curiosity, manipulation, and activity motives

• Not allowing these types of motives to be expressed and fulfilled may have serious consequences

– Affection motive• Adds importance in the study of human behavior

and organizational behavior

Examples of Key Secondary Motives

Secondary Motives Continued

• Power motive– Adler’s concepts of inferiority complex and

compensation

• Achievement motive– Moderate risk taking– Need for immediate feedback– Satisfaction with accomplishments– Preoccupation with the task

Secondary Motives Continued

• Affiliation motive– Is sometimes equated with social motives

and/or group dynamics

• Security motive– Conscious– Unconscious but greatly influential

• Status motive– Relative ranking

Secondary Motives Continued

• Intrinsic versus extrinsic motives– Extrinsic motives are tangible and visible to

others– Intrinsic motives are internally generated– Cognitive evaluation theory suggests a more

intricate relationship

Work-Motivation Approaches

Content Theories of Work Motivation

• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Content Theories of Work Motivation Continued

• Hierarchy of work motivation (continued)

Content Theories of Work Motivation Continued

• Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation

Content Theories of Work Motivation Continued

• Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation (continued)

– Relation to Maslow’s need hierarchy• Closely related

– Contribution to work motivation• New light on the content of work motivation

– Critical analysis of Herzberg’s theory• Academic perspective: The theory oversimplifies

the complexities of work motivation

Content Theories of Work Motivation Continued

• Alderfer’s ERG Theory– Three groups of core needs:

• Existence• Relatedness• Growth

– Approach adds the term frustration-regression

Content Theories of Work Motivation Continued

• Relationship between the three theories

Process Theories of Work Motivation

• Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation

Process Theories of Work Motivation

• Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation (continued)

– Meaning of the variables• Valance, instrumentality, and expectancy

– Implications of the Vroom model for organizational behavior

– Importance of the Vroom model

Process Theories of Work Motivation Continued

• Porter-Lawler model

Process Theories of Work Motivation Continued

• Porter-Lawler model (continued)

– Implications for practice• Attempts to be more applications oriented

– Contributions to work motivation• Helps overcome barriers such as ability,

practicality, interdependence, and ambiguity

Contemporary Theories of Work Motivation

• Equity theory of work motivation– Equity occurs when

– Equity as an explanation of work motivation• “Striving” to restore equity

– Research support for equity in workplace• Fairly supportive

Contemporary Theories of Work Motivation Continued

• Relationship between equity theory and organizational justice– Distributive justice– Procedural justice– Interactional justice

Contemporary Theories of Work Motivation Continued

• Attribution

theory

Contemporary Theories of Work Motivation Continued

• Attribution theory (continued)

– Overview of the theory– Locus of control attributions

• Organizational symbolism

– Other attributions – Attribution errors

• Fundamental attribution error• Self-serving bias

Contemporary Theories of Work Motivation Continued

• Other work motivation theories– Control theory

• Cognitive phenomenon relating to the degree that individuals perceive they are in control

– Agency theory• Interests of principals and agents diverge or may

be in conflict with one another

Motivation Across Cultures

• Meaning of work across cultures– Should be considered before beginning any

assessment of the nature of motivation

• Motivational differences across cultures– Role of religion– Role of uncertainty avoidance– Role of power distance– Other cultural dimensions

Motivation Across Cultures Continued

• Do motivation theories and approaches hold across cultures?– Key to understanding motivation in an

international context • Explore the basic meaning of work• Recognize the cultural dimensions that contribute

to possible differences in motives• Account for potential new ways to apply the

motivation theories and approaches

Questions