learning learning is not attained by chance; it must be sought for with ardor and attended to with...
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Learning
Learning is not attained by chance; it must be sought for with ardor
and attended to with diligence. Abigail Adams
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LearningRelatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior resulting from experience
4 types of learningHabituationClassical conditioningOperant conditioningObservational learningThey all operate under the same principle –
learning by association
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HabituationTendency to become familiar with a stimulus merely as a result of repeated exposure Orienting reflex
Eyes widen, eyebrows rise, muscles tighten, heart beats faster, brain-waves indicate heightened physiological arousal
Effect weakens with continued presentation of stimulus – we habituate
Primitive form of learning Found in all organisms
Decreases the power of reward to motivate
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L E A R N IN G :A r e l a t i v e l y p e r m a n e n t c h a n g e i n b e h a v i o r t h a t r e s u l t s f r o m
e x p e r i e n c e
PRINCIPLES1 . L e a r n i n g i s a c h a n g e i n m e n t a l s t a t e . C h a n g e o c c u r s
i n s i d e t h e l e a r n e r2 . S e e n o n l y t h r o u g h o b s e r v a t i o n3 . L e a r n i n g i n v o l v e s a c h a n g e o f b e h a v i o r4 . R e s u l t s f r o m e x p e r i e n c e ( r e p e t i t i o n )5 . L e a r n i n g i s r e l a t i v e l y p e r m a n e n t6 . C a n b e a p p l i e d / t r a n s f e r r e d t o a n e w s i t u a t i o n7 . W a t c h i n g , L i s t e n i n g , R e a d i n g , e t c . a l l c o n t r i b u t e t o
l e a r n i n g
LEARNING is based on an association between stimuli and responses
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Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)
Stimulus elicits a Response [S R]
EXAMPLE:
Bell rings, students leave!
I v an P av l o v ( R u s s i a n B i o l o g i s t )
D i g e s t i v e s y s t e m o f d o g s – s a l i v a t i o n a t t h e s i g h t o f f o o d i se x p e c t e d
C a n w e g e t t h e d o g t o s a l i v a t e a t t h e a n t i c i p a t i o n o f f o o d ? ? ? ?
C a n w e g e t t h e d o g t o r e s p o n d t o a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e s t i m u l u s ? ? ? ?
P a v l o v ’ s d i s c o v e r y l e a d s t o C l a s s i c a l C o n d i t i o n i n g
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T h e E le m e n ts : U n C o n d i t i o n e d S t i m u l u s ( U C S )
U n C o n d i t i o n e d R e s p o n s e ( U C R ) N e u t r a l S t i m u l u s ( N S )
C o n d i t i o n e d S t i m u l u s ( C S ) C o n d i t i o n e d R e s p o n s e ( C R )
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UCS UCR
NS + UCS UCR
CS CR
THE FORMULA
An unconditioned stimulus elicits an unconditioned response
A neutral stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimulus elicits an unconditioned response
A conditioned stimulus elicits a conditioned response
IN OTHER WORDS
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Experiment time!
A hop, skip, and a jump!
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Go over Classical Conditioning worksheet – numbers 1-10
_____ → _____
UCS UCR
_____ + _____ → _____
NS UCS UCR
_____ → _____
CS CR
Loud Noise Startle
Startle
Startle
Loud NoiseBalloon
Balloon
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Classical ConditioningA tendency to connect events that occur together in time and spacePavlov (1849-1936) Psychic secretions led to classical conditioning,
though unintentionally A stimulus comes to elicit a response that it
doesn’t normally elicit
How does this come about? Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR)
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Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning
Acquisition It takes some number of paired trials for the
learning (or acquisition) of a CRKey factors: order and timing of
presentation
ExtinctionThe elimination of a learned response by
removal of the US or reinforcement
Stimulus GeneralizationThe tendency to respond to a stimulus that
is similar to the CS
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I don’t care if she is a tape dispenser.I love her!
Stimulus generalization
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Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning
Acquisition It takes some number of paired trials for the
learning (or acquisition) of a CR Key factors: order and timing of presentation
Extinction The elimination of a learned response by removal
of the US or reinforcement
Generalization The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is
similar to the CS
Discrimination The ability to distinguish between different
stimuli
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1. Acquisition
The process of developing a learned response
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2. Extinction
• The diminishing of a learned response
• Continuously presenting the CS without the UCS
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3. Generalization
• Producing the same response to two similar stimuli
• The more similar the substitute stimulus is to the original used in conditioning, the stronger the generalized response
• Example: Little Albert
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4. Discrimination
• Producing different responses to two similar stimuli
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Little Albert – Before Conditioning
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Little Albert – During Conditioning
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Little Albert – After Conditioning
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Little Albert - Generalization
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Things to keep in mind…
Classical – associate 2 things, thus anticipate eventsLightening . . . . Thunder!
Unconditioned means unlearnedAssociations should be natural
Response can be the same, but isn’t alwaysContingency – CS should precede UCSSimultaneous pairing takes longer and isn’t as
powerfulBackwards pairing rarely works
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Things to keep in mind…
Single-trial (or minimal-trial) learningPhobias
Little AlbertTaste aversions
Cancer patients & chemotherapy
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Applying Classical ConditioningConditioned Fears We have preferences for some fears
They are learned more quickly and the associations last longer, even during the extinction phase
Social Behaviors People form strong positive and negative attitudes
toward neutral objects by virtue of their links to emotionally charged stimuli
Immune System Preliminary research shows that we can
slow/bolster the immune system through classical conditioning
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Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioningAssociate response with its consequenceBehavior becomes more or less probable
depending on its consequences
Law of effectResponses followed by positive outcomes
are repeated whereas those followed by negative outcomes are not
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Operant Conditioning
Skinner boxes
Behavioral contingenciesPositive reinforcementNegative reinforcementExtinctionPunishment
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ReinforcementReinforcer A consequence that increases the likelihood
that behavior will occur again
Positive reinforcement Providing a positive stimulus Studying earns you a good grade Premack principle
More probable behavior can be used as a reinforcer for less probable behavior
Negative reinforcement Removing an aversive stimulus Fastening our seatbelts to turn of the buzzer
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PunishmentPunishmentA consequence that decreases the
likelihood that behavior will occur again
Positive punisherProviding an aversive stimulusScolding a child, shocking a lab rat for
pressing the response lever
Negative punisherRemoving a positive stimulusTaking food away from a hungry rat
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Shaping and ExtinctionShaping Encouraging a new behavior by reinforcing
successive approximations This is how trainers get animals to do new tricks
Extinction As in classical conditioning, failure to reward the
learned behavior will eventually lead to a cessation of that behavior
If a vending machine stops giving you a Coke, you’ll stop putting your money into it
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Things to keep in mind . . .
Primary vs. secondary reinforcersPrimary – stimuli that are innately
reinforcingSecondary – stimuli that are rewarding
because of their association with primary reinforcers
Why don’t the behaviors just keep occurring?Discriminative stimulusRelative degree of satiation
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Reinforcement Schedules
ContinuousLearning occurs rapidlySubject to rapid extinction when
discontinued
PartialFixed-Interval (FI)Variable-Interval (VI)Fixed-Ratio (FR)Variable-Ratio (VR)
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Behavioral ContingenciesType Consequence
Prob. of behavior Example
Positive reinforce
Add desirable
IncreaseStudy and get an “A”
Negative reinforce
Remove undesirabl
eIncrease
Go to dentist; filling removes
pain
ExtinctionFail to add desirable
DecreaseSay hi. No response.
Stop saying hi
“Positive”Punishment
Addundesirabl
eDecrease Hangover
“Negative” Punishment
Removedesirable
Decrease Get benched for fighting
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Observational Learning
Not all learning comes from direct experience!
Sometimes we watch others & see what happens…Older siblings, peers, & parentsVicarious rewards & punishmentsAlso: intrinsic rewards & punishments
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Albert Bandura
Bobo doll studies2 stages of observational learningAcquisitionPerformance
4 steps of observational learningAttentionRetentionReproductionMotivation