SESSION 7Learning Factors and Processes

December 24, 2010

Knowing an L2 may be considered as having linguistic knowledge/ability and pragmatic knowledge/ability required to use the language with grammatical accuracy and communicative appropriacy(Kumaradivelu, 2006: 25)

conversion of language input into learner output

INTAKE FACTORSIndividual factors: age & anxietyNegotiation factors: interaction & interpretationTactical factors: learning strategies & communication strategiesAffective factors: attitudes & motivationKnowledge factors: language knowledge & metalanguage knowledgeEnvironment factors: social context & educational context

INTAKE FACTORS CONTINUUMLEARNERINTERNALFACTORSINDIVIDUAL AGE & ANXIETY AFFECTIVE ATTITUDES MOTIVATION TACTICALLEARNING STRATEGIESCOMMUNICATION STRATEGIESKNOWLEDGE LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE METALANGUAGE STRATEGIES NEGOTIATION INTERACTION INTERPRETATIONENVIRONMENTAL SOCIAL CONTEXT EDUCATIONAL CONTEXTLEARNEREXTERNALFACTOR

LEARNING STYLESLearning styles are the general approaches for example, global or analytic, auditory or visual that students use in acquiring a new language or in learning any other subject. (Cornett, 1983, p. 9).

Learning style is an overall pattern that provides broad direction to learning and makes the same instructional method beloved by some students and hated by others

Learning style is the biologically and developmentally imposed set of characteristics that make the same teaching method wonderful for some and terrible for others (Dunn & Griggs, 1988, p. 3).

ExamplesConcrete learners: tend to like games, pictures, video, using cassettes, talking in pairs, practicing outside classAnalytical learners: like studying grammar and English books, reading newspapers, studying alone (finding their own mistakes, working on problems set by the teacher)Communicative learners: like to learn by watching and listening to NS, talking to friends in English, watching TV in English, using English out of class, learning new words by hearing them, learning through conversationsAuthority-oriented learners: prefer the teacher to explain everything, having their own textbook, studying grammar, learning by reading, learning new words by seeing them

LEARNING STRATEGIESLearning strategies are defined as specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques -- such as seeking out conversation partners, or giving oneself encouragement to tackle a difficult language task -- used by students to enhance their own learning (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992, p. 63).

When the learner consciously chooses strategies that fit his or her learning style and the L2 task at hand, these strategies become a useful toolkit for active, conscious, and purposeful self-regulation of learning.

LEARNING STRATEGIESLearning strategies can be classified into six groups:

cognitive, metacognitive, memory-related, compensatory, affective, and social.

COMBINATION AND CLASHLearning styles and strategies of individual students can work together with or conflict with a given instructional methodology

harmony between (a) the student (in terms of style and strategy preferences) and (b) the combination of instructional methodology and materials, then the student is likely to perform well, feel confident, and experience low anxiety

If clashes occur between (a) and (b), the student often performs poorly, feels unconfident, and experiences significant anxiety. Sometimes such clashes lead to serious breakdowns in teacher-student interaction.

LEARNING STYLESEhrman and Oxford (1990) cited 9 major style dimensions relevant to L2 learning.

Four most strongly associated with L2 learning: + sensory preferences, + personality types, + desired degree of generality, and + biological differences.

Not dichotomous , learning styles generally operate on a continuum or on multiple, intersecting continua

SENSORY PREFERENCESSensory preferences: four main areas: visual, auditory, kinesthetic (movement-oriented), and tactile (touch-oriented).

Sensory preferences refer to the physical, perceptual learning channels with which the student is the most comfortable.

Visual students like to read and obtain a great deal from visual stimulation. For them, lectures, conversations, and oral directions without any visual backup can be very confusing.

PERSONALITY TYPESPersonality type: an important aspect for L2 education, consisting of four strands:

extraverted vs. introverted social style dimensionintuitive-random vs. sensing-sequential; cognitive style dimensionthinking vs. feeling; and closure-oriented/judging vs. open/perceiving.

Personality type (often called psychological type): a construct based on the work of psychologist Carl Jung. Significant relationships between personality type and L2 proficiency in native-English-speaking learners of foreign languages (Ehrman, 1996 and Oxford, 1996b).

CATEGORIES OF L2 LEARNING STRATEGIESSix major groups of L2 learning strategies have been identified by Oxford (1990). Alternative taxonomies have been offered by OMalley and Chamot (1990) and others.

Cognitive strategies Metacognitive strategiesMemory-related strategiesCompensatory strategiesAffective strategiesSocial strategies

Cognitive strategies

Cognitive strategies enable the learner to manipulate the language material in direct ways,

through reasoning, analysis, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining, reorganizing information to develop stronger schemas (knowledge structures),practicing in naturalistic settings, and practicing structures and sounds formally.

Metacognitive strategiesMetacognitive strategies are employed for managing the learning process overall.

+ identifying ones own learning style preferences and needs, + planning for an L2 task, gathering and organizing materials, + arranging a study space and a schedule, + monitoring mistakes, and evaluating task success, and evaluating the success of any type of learning strategy.

Memory-related strategiesMemory-related strategies help learners link one L2 item or concept with another but do not necessarily involve deep understanding.

+ learn and retrieve information in an orderly string (e.g., acronyms),

+ learn and retrieve via sounds (e.g., rhyming),

+ images (e.g., a mental picture of the word itself or the meaning of the word), a combination of sounds and images (e.g., the keyword method),

+ mechanical means (e.g., flashcards),

+ or location (e.g., on a page or blackboard)

Compensatory strategiesCompensatory strategies help the learner make up for missing knowledge.

guessing from the context in listening and reading; using synonyms and talking around the missing word to aid speaking and writing and strictly for speaking, using gestures or pause words.

Affective and Social strategiesAffective strategies, such as identifying ones mood and anxiety level, talking about feelings, rewarding oneself for good performance

Social strategies help the learner work with others and understand the target culture as well as the language.

asking questions to get verification, asking for clarification of a confusing point,

asking for help in doing a language task, talking with a native-speaking conversation partner, and exploring cultural and social norms.

IMPLICATIONS FOR L2 TEACHING

Assessing Styles and Strategies in the L2 Classroom

Attuning L2 Instruction and Strategy Instruction to Learners Style Needs

Remembering that No Single L2 Instructional Methodology Fits All Students

Preparing for and Conducting L2 Strategy Instruction

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Social and Individual ContextAffective-Cognitive Context Motivational PropensitiesBehavioural IntentionCommunication Behaviour Situated AntecedentsLayer ILayer IILayer IIILayer IVLayer VILayer VSocial SituationIntergroup AttitudesIntergroup ClimatePersonalityCommunicative CompetenceL2 Self-ConfidenceInterpersonal Motivation State Communicative Self-Confidence Desire to communicate with a specific personL2 UseWillingness to CommunicateIntergroup Motivation123456789101112

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