Learning and Learning and Teaching: The Teaching: The

Reciprocal LinkReciprocal Link

Sandy ForrestSandy Forrest..  

The Journal of Continuing EThe Journal of Continuing Education in Nursingducation in Nursing

 Thorofare:  Thorofare: Mar/Apr 2004Mar/Apr 2004

.Vol.35, Iss. 2;  pg. 74, 6 pgs.Vol.35, Iss. 2;  pg. 74, 6 pgs

ABSTRACTABSTRACTBackground: Learning and teaching are active Background: Learning and teaching are active

processes occurring simultaneously on a continual processes occurring simultaneously on a continual basis. Within this framework, the learner and the basis. Within this framework, the learner and the

teacher are reliant on each other. Understanding the teacher are reliant on each other. Understanding the intricacies of this linkage enhances the teacher's intricacies of this linkage enhances the teacher's effectiveness in enabling learners to achieve their effectiveness in enabling learners to achieve their

full potentialfull potential.Method: A review of the literature on teaching and .Method: A review of the literature on teaching and

learning styles was completedlearning styles was completedConclusion: Learning best occurs when learners are Conclusion: Learning best occurs when learners are motivated and attend to the important aspects of motivated and attend to the important aspects of

what is to be learned. Using a wide variety of what is to be learned. Using a wide variety of teaching approaches in the hope of covering most teaching approaches in the hope of covering most

individuals' preferences is expedient but not individuals' preferences is expedient but not necessarily effective. The process of exploring the necessarily effective. The process of exploring the effectiveness of one'seffectiveness of one's teaching styles enhances the teaching styles enhances the

ability to facilitate the learning process.ability to facilitate the learning process.

WHAT IS LEARNING?WHAT IS LEARNING?Tell me and I forget. Show me Tell me and I forget. Show me and I remember. Involve me and I remember. Involve me and I understand. (Chinese and I understand. (Chinese

Proverb)Proverb)

learning refers to a process of learning refers to a process of progressive change from progressive change from

ignorance to knowledge, from ignorance to knowledge, from inability to competence, and inability to competence, and

from indifference to from indifference to understanding (Fincher, understanding (Fincher,

1994).1994).

we move from novices to experts we move from novices to experts based on the new knowledge and based on the new knowledge and abilities that we have integrated. abilities that we have integrated. Integration involves continuously Integration involves continuously creating meaning in ourcreating meaning in our

experiences and search for experiences and search for significance in our daily actions. In significance in our daily actions. In essence, we are constantly learning.essence, we are constantly learning.

A person appears to learn best when A person appears to learn best when faculty are aware of the relationship faculty are aware of the relationship between the context, content, and between the context, content, and demands of the learning task. This demands of the learning task. This relationship includes an relationship includes an understanding of learning styles, understanding of learning styles, age, behavior, thinking style, gender, age, behavior, thinking style, gender, content, and learning preferences.content, and learning preferences.

Learning StylesLearning StylesLearning styles are reflections of the Learning styles are reflections of the mind that form an individual's unique mind that form an individual's unique

learning preference (Kemp, Morrison, & learning preference (Kemp, Morrison, & Ross, 1998). It is the way each individual Ross, 1998). It is the way each individual

begins to concentrate on, process, begins to concentrate on, process, internalize, and remember new and internalize, and remember new and difficult information or skills (Dunn & difficult information or skills (Dunn &

Dunn, 1993). Although individuals can Dunn, 1993). Although individuals can successfully master easy information successfully master easy information

using a learning style they do not prefer, using a learning style they do not prefer, they will learn more quickly and easily they will learn more quickly and easily

when they are able to capitalize on their when they are able to capitalize on their preferred learning styles.preferred learning styles.

Differences in preferred ways of learning or Differences in preferred ways of learning or processing information:processing information:

Field dependence and field independenceField dependence and field independence Reflective and impulsiveReflective and impulsive Kolb inventoryKolb inventory Serialist and holistSerialist and holist Deep and suefaceDeep and sueface Lancaster inventory (read article)Lancaster inventory (read article) Hony,learning stylsHony,learning styls Syllabus bound syllabus freeSyllabus bound syllabus free Dunn and Dunn four learning style(Quinn Dunn and Dunn four learning style(Quinn

2000)2000)

AdultsAdultsAdult learners have special Adult learners have special

needs and requirements needs and requirements different from those of children different from those of children

and adolescents (Steinbach, and adolescents (Steinbach, 1993). Table 1 describes 1993). Table 1 describes

critical elements involved in critical elements involved in adult learning.adult learning.

BehaviorBehaviorIndividuals access study behaviors from Individuals access study behaviors from a personal repertoire on the basis of the a personal repertoire on the basis of the specific learning context in which they specific learning context in which they find themselves (Fischer & Rose, 2001; find themselves (Fischer & Rose, 2001; Nulty & Barrett, 1996). In this instance, Nulty & Barrett, 1996). In this instance,

context refers to environmental context refers to environmental demands, assessing which approaches demands, assessing which approaches

will work best, and an evaluation of prior will work best, and an evaluation of prior knowledge. When these factors are knowledge. When these factors are

relatively established, the option of study relatively established, the option of study proficiencies is reasonably encouraging.proficiencies is reasonably encouraging.

However, when learning ability is However, when learning ability is influenced by transitory influenced by transitory

environmental demands and short-environmental demands and short-term objectives, the person resorts term objectives, the person resorts

to less constructive routines to less constructive routines (Applehans & Schmeck, 2002). Thus, (Applehans & Schmeck, 2002). Thus,

less capable learners may feel less capable learners may feel stressed and rely on literal stressed and rely on literal

memorization whereas those who memorization whereas those who are more proficient effectively are more proficient effectively

approach the task as a problem to approach the task as a problem to be solved by dividing the content be solved by dividing the content

into specified elements.into specified elements.

Thinking StyleThinking StyleThinking style refers to a way of using Thinking style refers to a way of using

one's intelligence (Dunn & Griggs, 1998). one's intelligence (Dunn & Griggs, 1998). Basically, our thinking style, or how we Basically, our thinking style, or how we "use our intelligence," corresponds with "use our intelligence," corresponds with

the manner in which we are being the manner in which we are being "challenged" and how we have learned "challenged" and how we have learned to accomplish the task. Learners who to accomplish the task. Learners who

approach these opportunities with approach these opportunities with confidence will typically work confidence will typically work

independently with specified guidelines independently with specified guidelines and expectations of academic success. and expectations of academic success.

Less confident learners will need support Less confident learners will need support and assistance and may still be unable toand assistance and may still be unable to

GenderGenderDifferences do not vary according to Differences do not vary according to

subject or teacher, but do occur based subject or teacher, but do occur based on learning style (Severiens & Dam, on learning style (Severiens & Dam, 1997). Specifically, women who use 1997). Specifically, women who use

memorizing and rehearsing strategies memorizing and rehearsing strategies depend on the teacher to organize their depend on the teacher to organize their learning processes, and define learning learning processes, and define learning as the process of taking in knowledge. as the process of taking in knowledge. Men are ambivalent as to why they are Men are ambivalent as to why they are studying and often lack parameters or studying and often lack parameters or

guidelines. Androgynous learners-guidelines. Androgynous learners-individuals with both masculine and individuals with both masculine and

feminine behavior and attributes-use a feminine behavior and attributes-use a meaning-directed learning style.meaning-directed learning style.

Androgynous learning is indicative Androgynous learning is indicative of people who believe that they of people who believe that they

learn independently, are personally learn independently, are personally interested in the subject, and are interested in the subject, and are learning to construct knowledge. learning to construct knowledge.

This approach to learning is This approach to learning is desirable.desirable.

An application-directed or "prove An application-directed or "prove yourself" learning style is yourself" learning style is

characteristic of individuals with characteristic of individuals with feminine characteristics. feminine characteristics.

Specifically, they use the knowledge Specifically, they use the knowledge they obtain, expect to be stimulated they obtain, expect to be stimulated by education, and have an interest by education, and have an interest

in learning because of the in learning because of the possibilities it creates in terms of possibilities it creates in terms of

practicing a vocation.practicing a vocation.

ContentContentAlthough humans appreciate the Although humans appreciate the

common and the familiar, and often common and the familiar, and often resist change, the brain seeks and resist change, the brain seeks and reacts to innovative occurrences reacts to innovative occurrences

(Angelo, 1991). In fact, rote learning (Angelo, 1991). In fact, rote learning (e.g., memorizing terminology) is (e.g., memorizing terminology) is

frustrating because the brain resists frustrating because the brain resists meaningless stimuli. Invoking the meaningless stimuli. Invoking the

brain's natural capacity to integrate brain's natural capacity to integrate information allows us to assimilate information allows us to assimilate boundless amounts of informationboundless amounts of information..

Learning PreferencesLearning PreferencesLearning preferences relates to a fondness Learning preferences relates to a fondness for methods individuals believe enhance for methods individuals believe enhance

their learning proficiency (Grasha, 1990). For their learning proficiency (Grasha, 1990). For example, with complex content, learners example, with complex content, learners want clear structure and goals, material want clear structure and goals, material

presented in an exciting manner, assistance presented in an exciting manner, assistance with assimilating divergent and with assimilating divergent and

contradictory data, and to be personally contradictory data, and to be personally challenged. For less challenging material, challenged. For less challenging material,

people like the pace of instruction increased, people like the pace of instruction increased, information made more challenging, information made more challenging,

assurance they are processing the content, assurance they are processing the content, and small group exercises to review and small group exercises to review

conceptsconcepts..

WHAT IS TEACHING?WHAT IS TEACHING?Every truth has four corners: Every truth has four corners: as a teacher I give you one as a teacher I give you one corner, and it is for you to corner, and it is for you to

find the other three. find the other three. (Confucius)(Confucius)

Just what is it that teachers do? Ask Just what is it that teachers do? Ask ten teachers, "What does it mean to ten teachers, "What does it mean to teach?" and you will get a variety of teach?" and you will get a variety of puzzled looks and an assortment of puzzled looks and an assortment of answers. Although general themes answers. Although general themes will arise, the exact nature of the will arise, the exact nature of the

action, what teachers do and do not action, what teachers do and do not do, is at the center of ongoing do, is at the center of ongoing

dialogue. According to the Random dialogue. According to the Random House Dictionary, to teach refers to House Dictionary, to teach refers to

"any practice that furnishes a person "any practice that furnishes a person with skill or knowledge" (2002, p. with skill or knowledge" (2002, p.

1342).1342).

a teacher seeks further a teacher seeks further knowledge and training to knowledge and training to

expand on and become expand on and become proficient with a variety of proficient with a variety of teaching styles (Kaplan & teaching styles (Kaplan &

Kies, 1995)Kies, 1995)

Teaching is an art, a craft, Teaching is an art, a craft, and a profession (Morgan-and a profession (Morgan-

Fleming, 2000Fleming, 2000

1. Each teacher and learner is unique.1. Each teacher and learner is unique.2. The classroom is transformed into a 2. The classroom is transformed into a

community in which learners and teachers can community in which learners and teachers can contribute fully.contribute fully.

3. An artist strives for but never reaches 3. An artist strives for but never reaches perfection. The difference is not a matter of perfection. The difference is not a matter of

form, but of talent and quality.form, but of talent and quality.4. Autonomy and individuality are crucial to the 4. Autonomy and individuality are crucial to the

artist.artist.5. "The teacher is more similar to a conductor 5. "The teacher is more similar to a conductor

than a soloist, more like a director than an than a soloist, more like a director than an actor giving a soliloquy" (Morgan-Fleming, actor giving a soliloquy" (Morgan-Fleming, 2000, pp. 161-162). Viewing this last end 2000, pp. 161-162). Viewing this last end product as a challenge instead of a fear or product as a challenge instead of a fear or

frustration calls for an openness for reflection frustration calls for an openness for reflection and self-critique.and self-critique.

As artists, teachers of adult As artists, teachers of adult learners often encourage learners often encourage

them to go beyond the limits them to go beyond the limits of their capabilities (Firmin, of their capabilities (Firmin,

1998). 1998).

For the teacher, this involves For the teacher, this involves believing in learners, viewing believing in learners, viewing

them through the lens of time, them through the lens of time, being genuine with them, being genuine with them,

taking time during teachable taking time during teachable moments, and knowing that moments, and knowing that

you cannot inspire everyone to you cannot inspire everyone to greatness (Palmer, 1998).greatness (Palmer, 1998).

When applying these principles , When applying these principles , the essence of the teaching-the essence of the teaching-

learning process includes learning process includes recognizing and living your truth, recognizing and living your truth, creating moments of possibility, creating moments of possibility,

engaging the familiar and moving engaging the familiar and moving with new possibilities, with new possibilities,

maintaining an attitude of maintaining an attitude of concern and solicitude toward concern and solicitude toward others, and recognizing that others, and recognizing that there is much that we do not there is much that we do not

know (Bunkers, 1999).know (Bunkers, 1999).

Skillful teachers do not rely on a Skillful teachers do not rely on a specific technique or a style. Rather, specific technique or a style. Rather,

over time unanimity develops between over time unanimity develops between the teacher and the learner. The the teacher and the learner. The foundation for this affiliation is a foundation for this affiliation is a

teacher's uniqueness, humor, teacher's uniqueness, humor, perseverance, passion, and ability to perseverance, passion, and ability to indulge the person's desires. To this indulge the person's desires. To this end, a teacher uses interpersonal end, a teacher uses interpersonal skills, a concern for and interest in skills, a concern for and interest in

others, and a commitment and others, and a commitment and willingness to search for and bring out willingness to search for and bring out

another's strengthsanother's strengths..

Although allowance is made for Although allowance is made for learner behaviors, it is a learner behaviors, it is a teacher's character or teacher's character or

personality that influences an personality that influences an individual's perceived needs and individual's perceived needs and the content or skill being taught. the content or skill being taught. "Teaching is a revelation of the "Teaching is a revelation of the self more than it is the use of self more than it is the use of

learned postures, it is the stamp learned postures, it is the stamp of authenticity more than it is of authenticity more than it is the show of authority, it is the the show of authority, it is the

element of trust..." (Gayle, 1994, element of trust..." (Gayle, 1994, p. 4).p. 4).

Teachers and learners act, to varying Teachers and learners act, to varying degrees, on their environments. degrees, on their environments.

Neither teachers nor learners simply Neither teachers nor learners simply react to the other. Rather, the tasks react to the other. Rather, the tasks

involved in a person's learning reflect involved in a person's learning reflect the teacher's preferences or viability. the teacher's preferences or viability.

Further, maintaining a focus on Further, maintaining a focus on teaching style ensures appropriate teaching style ensures appropriate

emphasis on the person and emphasis on the person and preserves the distinctiveness of the preserves the distinctiveness of the

teacher as a separate but responsible teacher as a separate but responsible agent (Grasha, 1994).agent (Grasha, 1994).

Within this framework, teaching Within this framework, teaching style refers to (1) one's style refers to (1) one's

behaviors and the media used behaviors and the media used to transmit information to or to transmit information to or receive it from the learner receive it from the learner

(Kaplan & Kies, 1995) and (2) a (Kaplan & Kies, 1995) and (2) a systemic structure of complex, systemic structure of complex,

stable behaviors, some of stable behaviors, some of which may be atypical (Gayle, which may be atypical (Gayle,

1994).1994).

STAFF DEVELOPMENTSTAFF DEVELOPMENTThere has been much research regarding There has been much research regarding

teaching effectiveness and learning teaching effectiveness and learning outcomes in clinical settings. The outcomes in clinical settings. The

educational needs of nursing staff to educational needs of nursing staff to assist in providing continuity in care assist in providing continuity in care

include (in order of priority): information include (in order of priority): information technology, awareness of roles, technology, awareness of roles,

communications within seamless care, communications within seamless care, working across boundaries, professional working across boundaries, professional

issues, practice-related issues, and issues, practice-related issues, and delivery of patient or client issues delivery of patient or client issues

(Werrett, Helm, & Carnwell, 2001).(Werrett, Helm, & Carnwell, 2001).

It is suggested that these needs It is suggested that these needs can be met in an environment that can be met in an environment that incorporates problem-based and incorporates problem-based and self-directed learning (Williams, self-directed learning (Williams,

2001). Teaching strategies specific 2001). Teaching strategies specific to assisting nurses participating in to assisting nurses participating in

continuing education are continuing education are described in Table 3 (Oberleitner, described in Table 3 (Oberleitner,

Ferrell, Grant, Borneman, Juarez, & Ferrell, Grant, Borneman, Juarez, & Virani, 2002).Virani, 2002).

EVALUATING YOUR TEACHING EVALUATING YOUR TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLESAND LEARNING STYLES

Feedback enables faculty to design Feedback enables faculty to design teaching plans that will help people teaching plans that will help people

achieve their highest level of learning. achieve their highest level of learning. For the individual, an awareness of a For the individual, an awareness of a

preferred learning style can allow for a preferred learning style can allow for a more efficient and effective learning more efficient and effective learning

experience-and perhaps an enjoyable experience-and perhaps an enjoyable one as well. The following list provides one as well. The following list provides

a variety of inventories for teachers a variety of inventories for teachers and learnersand learners to complete: to complete:

* Learning Styles Inventory * Learning Styles Inventory (LSI): The LSI is an (LSI): The LSI is an instructional model instructional model

preference approach, based preference approach, based on hierarchy of needs and on hierarchy of needs and

achievement motivation. To achievement motivation. To complete the inventory, go to complete the inventory, go to

www.tecweb.org.www.tecweb.org.

* VARK: The VARK looks at * VARK: The VARK looks at kinesthetic sensory kinesthetic sensory

modalities that are used for modalities that are used for learning information. To learning information. To

complete the questionnaire, complete the questionnaire, go to www. vark-learn.com.go to www. vark-learn.com.

* * Student Learning Style Inventory: This Student Learning Style Inventory: This inventory suggests that a person's inventory suggests that a person's

attitude or readiness to learn is attitude or readiness to learn is determined by a preference for determined by a preference for

extraversion (focus on the external extraversion (focus on the external world), introversion (focus on the internal world), introversion (focus on the internal

world), perceiving (strong attraction to world), perceiving (strong attraction to sensing and intuition), and judging sensing and intuition), and judging (strong attraction to thinking and (strong attraction to thinking and

feeling). To complete the index, go to feeling). To complete the index, go to www.calstatela.edu/ faculty/jshindl/plsi.www.calstatela.edu/ faculty/jshindl/plsi.

* Index of Learning Styles: This index * Index of Learning Styles: This index assesses preferences related to specific assesses preferences related to specific

dimensions. To complete the index, go to dimensions. To complete the index, go to www.engr.ncsu.edu/learning www.engr.ncsu.edu/learning

styles/ilsweb.html.styles/ilsweb.html.* Student Learning Style Scales: This tool * Student Learning Style Scales: This tool

identifies specific styles that learners identifies specific styles that learners have for interacting with peers and the have for interacting with peers and the

teacher. To complete the assessment, go teacher. To complete the assessment, go to www.ltseries.com/LTS/sitepgsto www.ltseries.com/LTS/sitepgs/ /

GRSLSS/ls_invent.htm.GRSLSS/ls_invent.htm.

* Teaching Goals Inventory: This * Teaching Goals Inventory: This inventory looks at teaching goals as they inventory looks at teaching goals as they

relate to learner expectations. To relate to learner expectations. To complete the inventory, go to www. complete the inventory, go to www.

uiowa.edu/~centeach/tgi.uiowa.edu/~centeach/tgi.* Teaching Style Inventory: This * Teaching Style Inventory: This

inventory examines teaching philosophy, inventory examines teaching philosophy, methods, teaching environment, methods, teaching environment,

evaluation techniques, and personal evaluation techniques, and personal characteristics. To complete the characteristics. To complete the

inventory, go to www. inventory, go to www. ldrc.ca/projects/projects.php?id=26ldrc.ca/projects/projects.php?id=26..

* The Triads Personality * The Triads Personality Indicator: This indicator explores Indicator: This indicator explores

the basic patterns of behavior the basic patterns of behavior that make you who you are, that make you who you are,

explains why you do what you explains why you do what you do, and demonstrates how you do, and demonstrates how you do it. To complete the indicator, do it. To complete the indicator,

go to go to www.enneagramcentral.com/ www.enneagramcentral.com/

testc_a0.htm.testc_a0.htm.

** Teaching Perspectives Inventory: Teaching Perspectives Inventory: Perspectives differ from teaching styles in Perspectives differ from teaching styles in

that they are more basic and incisive. that they are more basic and incisive. Developing an understanding of teaching Developing an understanding of teaching perspectives provides a path for critical perspectives provides a path for critical

reflection on and articulation of one's beliefs reflection on and articulation of one's beliefs about learning, knowledge, and the social about learning, knowledge, and the social role of the teacher (Pratt & Collins, 2001). role of the teacher (Pratt & Collins, 2001).

This understanding offers a method of This understanding offers a method of examining the underlying values and examining the underlying values and

assumptions that constitute teachers' beliefs assumptions that constitute teachers' beliefs about their role. To complete the inventory, about their role. To complete the inventory,

go to go to www.teachingperspectives.com/html/tpijTawww.teachingperspectives.com/html/tpijTa

mes. htm.mes. htm.

SELF-REFLECTIONSELF-REFLECTIONTake time to reflect on the Take time to reflect on the

effectiveness of your teaching effectiveness of your teaching styles. The primary skills that you styles. The primary skills that you

want to perfect include want to perfect include organizational abilities, organizational abilities,

presentation, management, presentation, management, analysis, and synthesis of material, analysis, and synthesis of material, and assessment and evaluation of and assessment and evaluation of student learning. Table 4 describes student learning. Table 4 describes activities to assist in reflecting on activities to assist in reflecting on your teaching abilities (University your teaching abilities (University

of Waterloo, 2001).of Waterloo, 2001).

CONCLUSIONCONCLUSIONRegardless of the content, individuals have Regardless of the content, individuals have

unique preferences relative to how they unique preferences relative to how they approach this learning process-their learning approach this learning process-their learning

style. For successful learning to occur, the style. For successful learning to occur, the ultimate responsibility lies in the teacher's ultimate responsibility lies in the teacher's

skill and judgment after getting to know the skill and judgment after getting to know the learner. This includes an assessment of learner. This includes an assessment of learning styles, which ultimately assists learning styles, which ultimately assists teachers in identifying an individual's teachers in identifying an individual's

strengths that might go unnoticed. Altering strengths that might go unnoticed. Altering teaching strategies and techniques based on teaching strategies and techniques based on

information about the variety of learning information about the variety of learning styles of the learners will help maximize each styles of the learners will help maximize each

person's potential.person's potential.