learning and memory: organization and pathways of the ... · improvement in standard learning- and...
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Learning and memory: Organization and pathways
of the hippocampal formation
1. Learning and memory: Brain
regions and major pathways
2. Organization of the hippocampal
formation
2.1 Anatomy and microanatomy
of the hippocampus
2.2 Principles of function of the
hippocampus
Additional Literature:
Eric Kandel „In Search of Memory: The Emergence of a New Science of
Mind“, Norton & Company, 2007
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Types of memory
Working memory:
studied in most detail: BA46 (frontal
lobe); small lesion produces deficits
in „delayed response task“
Structural base: firing of neurons (<30s)
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Implicit and explicit memory:
Types of memory
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Brain regions associated with declarative memory
Studies of patients with specific lesions
- surgery (e.g., H.M.)
- neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Alzheimer‘s disease)
Specific memory deficit (amnesia)
- normal short-term memory
- good long-term memory (but
evidence for some retrograde
amnesia)
- unchanged IQ
- normal learning of motor
skills
H.M.: Bilateral removal of
regions of the temporal
lobe
(L.R. Squire (2009) The Legacy of Patient H.M.
for Neuroscience. Neuron 61: 6-9)
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→ Central role of hippocampus in declarative memory
Alzheimer‘s disease
Specific deficit in explicit memory (early stages)
Early changes (neuron
death) in temporal lobe
(entorhinal cortex and
hippocampus)
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Major pathway for acquiring declarative memory
Dual function of the entorhinal cortex: main input and main output of the
hippocampus
EC and H are temporary way stations but not site of storage
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Anatomy of the hippocampus and neighboring brain
structures
Part of the archicortex (1-layer-
structure)
Hippocampus: Develops from a
special fold at the edge of the cerebral
cortex
Visible in coronal sections with large
variations dependent on the position
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Dentate gyrus
(granule cells)
CA1 (small pyramidal
neurons)
CA2 (large pyramidal
neurons)
CA3 (large pyramidal
neurons)
Anatomy of the hippocampal formation
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Dentate gyrus
CA1CA2CA3
Tractus perforans
Input: tractus perforans, contacts dendrites of the pyramidal neurons and
granule cells of the dentate gyrus
Output: axons of pyramidal cells that
form the alveus
Alveus
Input and output
of the
hippocampus
(from: Kahle, Taschenatlas der Anatomie)
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Axons of granule cells form mossy fibers that contact the dendrites of the
pyramidal cells
Backward collaterals (Schaffer collaterals) from the axons of the CA3
pyramidal neurons to dendrites of the CA1 region
Dentate gyrus
CA1CA2CA3
Schaffer collateral
Connections
within the
hippocampus
Mossy fiber
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Dentate gyrus
CA1CA2CA3
Schaffer collateral
Mossy fiber
The hippocampus as temporary way station:
The trisynaptic pathway
Tractus perforans
Alveus
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How does the hippocampus work in
memory formation?
I. Hippocampus receives no direct somatosensory information but is highly
connected to the cortex (including several association cortices)
→ Key function may be that highly processed information from the cortex is
modified and sent back to the cortex
Note: In mouse, EC only involved in olfactory information procession
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(from: Eric Kandel „In Search of Memory: The
Emergence of a New Science of Mind“)
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Gyrus dentatus
CA1CA2CA3
Mossy fiber
Stimulus
Recording
II. The pathways within the hippocampus (Schaffer collateral pathway and
mossy fiber pathway) are sensitive to the history
Brief high-frequency train of stimuli increases the amplitude of the excitatory
postsynaptic potential in the target cells → long-term potentiation (LTP)
Stimulus
Recording
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Structural basis of LTP is different in the two pathways:
Mossy fiber pathway: presynaptic → Ca2+-influx that activates second
messenger cascade
Schaffer collateral pathway: postsynaptic → mediated via glutamate receptors
Ca2+ Ca-dependent
adenylylcyclase
cAMP
ATP
PKA++
+
Downstream-effects probably similar in both cases:
activation of
transcription factors
(e.g. CREB)gene expression
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Homosynaptic LTP
→ Plasticity that depends on
previous experience
Associative LTP
→ Coincidence
detector
Molecular basis of long term potentiation in
Schaffer collateral fibers
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Genetic enhancement of memory ?
Doogie-mouse (1999):
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Genetic enhancement of memory ?
Doogie-mouse (1999): Overexpression of a particular NMDA-receptor subunit (NR2B)
→ Improvement in standard learning- and memory tests (e.g., „Morris watermaze“)
NR2B shows extended kinetics → longer window for coincidence detection
Normal development: expression of NR2B receptor unit decreases with age
but:1. Decrease in NR2B expression correlates with sensitivity to pain: Doogie-mouse
develops symptoms of chronic pain
2. „Enrichment“ of environment improves performance of control animals but not of the
Doogie-mouse (capacity may be at biological limit)
(Literatur: Cooke and Bliss (2003) „The genetic enhancement of memory“. Cell. Mol.
Life Sciences 60:1-5)
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Non-genetic enhancement of memory (Endocannabinoid
system) ?
Endocannabinoids act as retrograde signals at CNS synapses (e.g.,
pyramidal neurons in the hippocampus (modulating activity)
Acute administration of exogenous cannabinoids disrupts neuronal signalling
May be involved in forgetting traumatic events
→ treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with Cannabis
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One stimulus train: early phase (1-3 hrs): no protein synthesis required
>4 stimulus trains: late phase (<24 hrs): requires RNA and protein synthesis
III. LTP has different time scales
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Network-oscillations (cooperative firing) occur in the hippocampus with different
frequencies:
e.g., theta oscillations (4-10 Hz) and gamma (40-100 Hz) oscillations
May have a role in triggering the generation of synchronous network activity in
the neocortex that strengthens synaptic contacts
IV. The connectivity in the hippocampus may cause oscillations
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The hippocampus is strongly influenced by the ascending projections from the
brain stem and by connections of the limbic system (the „emotional brain“)
nicotinic as well as muscarinic (mainly M1) cholinergic receptors
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Cholinergic input may be important for function of the hippocampus
according to the two-state-model of memory formation (Hasselmo, 1999):
„on-line“ state: active, explorative phase
high activity of the cholinergic system, new information is internally stored
„off-line“ state: during sleep phase
decreased cholinergic activity, internally stored information is read out and
stored in neocortex
Involvement of gamma-(35-80 Hz) and theta-(5-12 Hz) oscillations:
cholinergic induction of gamma oscillations occurs via muscarinic (M1)
receptors
(for a review: Alzheimer and Wess, „Muskarinische Acetylcholinrezeoptoren und die
neuronalen Mechanismen kognitiver Leistungen“ Neuroforum 2 (2005))
Nicotine and nicotinic agonists improve cognitive function in aged or
impaired subjects
In some epidemiologic studies: Smoking is protective against development
of neurodegenerative diseases (?)(Picciotto and Zoli (2002) J. Neurobiol. 53:641-655(Review))
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Information storage occurs in „memory engram cells“
‘‘Engram cells’’ are a population of neurons that are activated by learning, have enduring
cellular changes as a consequence of learning, and whose reactivation by a part of the
original stimuli delivered during learning results in memory recall.”
(Tonegawa et al. (2015) Memory Engram Cells Have Come of Age. Neuron
87: 918-931)