Learning and CognitionLearning and CognitionCognitive Information ProcessingUnit 3

BehavioristsBehavioristsBehaviorists insist that psychologists

should study only observable, measurable behaviors-not mental processes

Methodological Behaviorists study only events that can be observed and measured : the environment and the individuals actions

In contrast Radical Behaviorists deny that internal events, like hunger, or fear, cause behavior

CognitivistsCognitivistsConcerned with mental processesHow people acquire, process, and

use informationPay attention to what goes on at

the very moment of learning, not just the results of learning

BehaviorismBehaviorismBehaviorism: The study of

observable patterns of behavior. Learning Theory: the study of

our methods of learning, and how this learning then influences our behavior.

Classical ConditioningClassical ConditioningDiscovered by Ivan Pavlov when

studying digestion and salivation in dogs. ◦This theory applies to things that are

already reflexive or innate behaviors. The Discovery:

◦Morning routine: Enter room, turn on lights, feed dogs.

◦Expected pattern: Lights go on, food goes down, dogs start drooling.

◦Unexpected discovery: After a few weeks, the dogs began to drool when the lights came on!

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningDeveloped by B.F. Skinner, who

believed that Classical Conditioning was correct, but that behavior was not solely reflexive.

Behavior is a learned response, based on the consequences of previous behaviors.

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningIncreasing or Decreasing a Behavior◦Reinforcement: A consequence

that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated.

◦Punishment: A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated.

Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningGiving or Removing a Stimulus: ◦Positive:

Presenting/Giving/Introducing a new stimulus.

◦Negative: Removing/Taking Away an existing stimulus.

““Skinner Box”Skinner Box”.

Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningOur scenario: Your teenage daughter just

received her first car and was allowed to attend a social event alone, provided she was home by 10pm.◦ Reinforcement: She was home at 9:45!◦ Punishment: Little Missy strolled in at

MIDNIGHT!Reinforcement Punishment

Positive Extend curfew to 11pm next time. (GIVING time)

Work Little Missy to death with added chores. (GIVING unpleasant tasks).

Negative Take away curfew all together – she’s trust-worthy! (TAKE AWAY restriction)

Take away her car until she learns. (TAKE AWAY valued object – the car!)

Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningThe Schedule of Reinforcement can impact learning!

Timing: ◦Interval◦Ratio

Schedule: ◦Fixed◦Variable

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

Extinction: Cessation of a behavior based on a lack of continued reinforcement, experience of a punishment, etc.

Stimulus DiscriminationStimulus DiscriminationTelling Things Apart:

◦Generalization◦Discrimination◦ Just Noticeable Difference

Training:◦Shaping◦Chaining◦Omission Training◦Escape Learning aka Avoidance

LearningConditioned Taste Aversion

Behavioral PrinciplesBehavioral PrinciplesEdward Thorndike’s Law of Effect:

◦ If a behavior has positive consequences, it is more likely to be repeated.

◦ If a behavior has negative consequences, it is less likely to be repeated.

David Premack’s Premack Principle:◦An opportunity to engage in a behavior that

is naturally seen frequently can serve as a reinforcement for a less frequent behavior.

Latent Learning: ◦The subject exhibits the desired behaviors

and understands the patterns of the A-B-C model.

Harlow’s Rhesus MonkeysHarlow’s Rhesus MonkeysHarry Harlow

attempted to determine if physical comfort or food was more important to baby monkeys.

Monkeys were given access to 2 artificial wire “mothers”. ◦ 1 had a bottle of milk◦ 1 had a fleece cover

•Babies preferred the fleece mother, and Harlow concluded that primates are comforted by warm, soft things, NOT food.

Social Learning TheorySocial Learning TheoryAlbert Bandura decided to

study learning from a social perspective.

Social Learning Theory states that we can learn just by watching others. ◦We DO NOT have to experience the consequence ourselves!

Social Learning TheorySocial Learning TheoryThe BoBo Doll

Study: ◦Take groups of kids

into a room and have them watch a video of a model punching/kicking/hitting a BoBo Doll.

◦Children see 3 potential endings: Actor is Punished Actor is Rewarded Nothing happens, actor

walks off-screen

Social Learning TheorySocial Learning Theory

◦Children are given an opportunity to play with a BoBo doll. Those who saw a reward

mimic behaviors right away

Those who saw neutral mimic some behaviors.

All, INCLUDING those who saw the punishment, can mimic behaviors if asked.

Those who saw punishment were able to very closely, if not identically, mimic the video!

Social Learning TheorySocial Learning Theory

Observational Learning: The ability to learn by watching the behaviors and consequences of others.

Stages of Cognitive Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment

Theory was developed when Jean Piaget (a Biologist!) was helping to develop IQ tests and noticed that when children answered incorrectly, there was a PATTERN to the WAY they answered!

Stages of Cognitive Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment

Age Stage DescriptionInfancy Sensorimotor

Stage•Child experiences the word through their sense. •“The Little Scientists”•Object Permanence: The ability to understand that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible.

Stages of Cognitive Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment

Age Stage Description2 years old

Preoperational Stage

•Child can think symbolically (e.g. thinking of the past and future, using language, playing pretend). •There is a large growth in vocabulary and use of words and symbols in this stage.•Children LACK operations (the ability to mentally manipulate objects).•Egocentric: Children in this stage cannot distinguish between their own perspective and the perspectives of others.

Stages of Cognitive Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment

Age Stage DescriptionSchool aged

Concrete Operational Stage

•Children can think logically and consistently about features in their world that are real and concrete. •Children are capable of abstract reasoning and performing operations as long as it is in terms of concrete objects.

•EX: A > B, B > C, which is greater, A or C? – NO•EX: Adam is taller than Bill, Bill is taller than Charlie, who’s taller, Adam or Charlie? – YES!

•The schema of conservation (i.e. knowing that changing the shape of things does not change the amount) is formed during this time.•Egocentrism begins to disappear.

Stages of Cognitive Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment

Age Stage DescriptionAdolescents and Adults

Formal Operational Stage

•Individuals are able to think on many different planes:

•Hypothetically•Abstractly•Speculatively•Rationally

•Deductive reasoning and learning to consider possibilities also occurs in this stage.

Some Adults Post-Formal Operational Stage

•Individuals are able to think on many different levels, building on formal operational thought. •Individuals are able to mentally manipulate even complex, abstract ideas.

Other Cognitive TheoriesOther Cognitive TheoriesZone of Proximal Development (ZPD) by Lev Vygotsky◦The difference between what a learner

can do on their own, and with a little bit of guidance/help from an instructor.

Scaffolding: The process of introducing new ideas with sufficient support so that the student can learn and achieve on a level they would not be capable of on their own.

Other Cognitive TheoriesOther Cognitive TheoriesJean Piaget

◦Learning is structured through the use of: Schemes (templates) Assimilation (adding on) Accommodation (changing schemes)

Information Processing Information Processing ModelModel

Information Processing Model: Your brain is like a computer!◦We move memories from…

Sensory register to… 2-3 seconds Very limited capacity

Short-Term Memory to… A couple minutes to a couple hours Capacity limited by Miller’s Magic Number (7 plus or

minus 2) Long-Term Memory

Indefinite storage Infinite capacity

Information Processing Information Processing ModelModel

Strategies for Encoding Strategies for Encoding MemoriesMemories

Encoding MemoriesEncoding MemoriesThe Debate:

◦Do we forget? ◦Or do we forget where we put it?

State-Dependent Memory aka Cued Recall

Encoding Specificity Principle

Forgetting vs. Failure to Retrieve

Types of MemoriesTypes of MemoriesWorking Memory: Current thoughtsDeclarative Memory: Facts

◦Semantic Memory: General knowledge◦Episodic Memory: Events

Sensory Memory: Sensory recall◦Iconic Memory: Visual recognition◦Echoic Memory: Auditory recognition

Procedural Memory: How-to◦AKA Kinesthetic Learning aka

Proprioception

Levels-of-Processing Levels-of-Processing PrinciplePrinciple

Shallow

Deep

Serial-Order EffectSerial-Order EffectSerial-Order Effect: The order

in which we encounter information determines how well it will be stored. ◦Primacy Effect◦Recency Effect◦Frequency Effect◦Familiarity Effect

Memory ReconstructionMemory ReconstructionMemory Reconstruction

◦Hindsight Bias◦Repression◦Eye-Witness Effect

Memory LossMemory LossAmnesia: Damage to

the Hippocampus◦Anterograde Amnesia◦Retrograde Amnesia◦Explicit vs Implicit

MemoryKorsakoff’s

Syndrome: Damage to the Frontal Lobe due to prolonged alcoholism

Memory LossMemory LossAlzheimer’s

Disease: Damage to neural networks spreading from the Frontal Lobe toward the Brainstem. ◦Neurolitic

Plaque◦Neurofibulary

Tangles

Problem SolvingProblem SolvingRecognition: Identify the

problemAlgorithms: Step-by-step

proceduresHeuristics: “Short-cuts” that

may solve a problem faster

Cognition & LanguageCognition & LanguageCategorizationCognitive MapsAttention

◦Preattentive Process◦Attentive Process◦Postattentive Process

Selective AttentionPattern Recognition

The Stroop EffectThe Stroop Effect

LinguisticsLinguisticsLinguistics: The study of

language◦Noam Chomsky’s Transformational Grammar: Deep-level logic moves to surface-level

grammar & word order

LinguisticsLinguisticsBroca’s Area◦Broca’s Aphasia

Wernicke’s Area◦Wernicke’s Aphasia

Language DevelopmentLanguage DevelopmentSounds:

◦Phonemes: An individual sound◦Morpheme: A cluster of sounds with

meaningReading:

◦Fixation◦Saccades

Figuring Out Meaning: ◦Syntactic Bootstrapping

Language DevelopmentLanguage DevelopmentPre-Linguistic: 0-12 MonthsWord Learning: 13 Months and upSyntatic Relations: 20 Months and

upDiscourse/Pragmatics: Elementary

school years◦Irony, sarcasm, humor◦Perspective taking◦Social/interactional skill

Language DevelopmentLanguage DevelopmentOver-generalizationUnder-generalizationLinguistic Schema Development

IQ Scores continue to develop and increase throughout adulthood

Types of Intelligence◦Fluid Intelligence = Abstract thought,

memory, speed of thought, etc. Declines with age

◦Crystallized Intelligence = Accumulated learning of facts, vocabulary, etc. Increases with age

IntelligenceIntelligence

Sternberg’s Types of Intelligence◦Analytical = problem solving◦Creative = artistic, musical,

inventive, designing◦Practical = street smart, apply

knowledge to everyday life

IntelligenceIntelligence

Novice PerformanceExpert PerformanceShift from Novice to Expert

requires deliberate practice!

PerformancePerformance

Gifted and Talented: A term for children who show high levels of intellectual functioning, creativity, artistic talent, leadership quality, etc. ◦No social, emotional, or physical difference from “normal” children.

◦Typically are capable of abstract thought (Formal Operational Thinking in Piaget’s model) before “normal” children.

Special NeedsSpecial Needs

Robert Sternbger: Stated that there are 3 types of intelligence. ◦Academic Intelligence: “Book

learning” – the ability to memorize facts.

◦Creative Intelligence: “Artistic Creativity” – the ability to play music, imagine art, paint, sculpt, etc.

◦Practical Intelligence: “Street smarts” – the ability to problem-solve.

Theories of IntelligenceTheories of Intelligence

Howard Gardner: Stated there were at least 9 types of intelligence.

Theories of IntelligenceTheories of Intelligence

Theories of IntelligenceTheories of Intelligence

IntelligenceIntelligenceMental

RetardationNormalAbove

AverageGenius