learning

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On June28th 1998 James Byrd (a disabled Afro American) was brutally murdered In Texas whilst hitchhiking home. Three young men offered him a ride, chained him to their pickup truck and dragged him two miles, tearing him to pieces. They were brought to justice. Two were executed and the other sentenced to life imprisonment without parole

What turns 3 young men into hate What turns 3 young men into hate filled, callous monstersfilled, callous monsters?

How can we explain why the Klu Klux How can we explain why the Klu Klux Klan later placed a KKK sticker on his Klan later placed a KKK sticker on his

grave 2 years later.grave 2 years later.

Where does such hatred come from?Where does such hatred come from?

Is racism learnedlearned?

LearningLearning

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Tragedies like this show us the dark side of human learning, but racism and hatred are

learned behaviours.learned behaviours.

Phobias, superstitions, love, generosity etc are also learnt.

What is learned can be unlearned.

LearningLearning

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Learning:- Learning:- What do these scenarios have in What do these scenarios have in

common?common?

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They are a diverse collection of events,

They all involve learning of some kindThey all involve learning of some kind,

LearningLearning refers to any relatively enduring change in either: our potential to perform particular our potential to perform particular

behaviours,behaviours,

our knowledge that results from our knowledge that results from experience.experience.

Learning:- Learning:- What do these scenarios have in What do these scenarios have in

common?common?

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The study of learning includes:The study of learning includes:

The study of LearningThe study of Learning

Habituation (Can you habituate to a new smell in your home, like fresh paint?)

Classical conditioningClassical conditioning

Operant conditioningOperant conditioning

Imprinting (Learning that occurs very early in life)

Learning by:- insight, observationobservation, instruction

SACE SACE psycholopsychology will gy will focus on focus on these these threethree

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What we will look What we will look atat

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LearningLearning

Learning is explained through the:

BASIC PROCESSES LEVEL BASIC PROCESSES LEVEL OF EXPLANATIONOF EXPLANATION

The psychological The psychological processes underlying processes underlying behaviourbehaviour

LearningLearning

CognitionsCognitions

MemoryMemory

PerceptionPerception

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LearningLearning

Why have Why have psychologistpsychologist

s studied s studied learning in learning in animals?animals?

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Learning in AnimalsLearning in Animals

The ‘Theory of The ‘Theory of Evolution’Evolution’ (Charles Darwin 1859) proposed that all species evolved through a process of natural selection.

Psychology in the late 19th Century, was influenced by Darwin’s Theory of Evolution. An understanding of ‘basic processes’ such as sensation, perception, learning and memory could be gained by studying animals.

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Based on 3 assumptionsBased on 3 assumptions Experience shapes behaviourExperience shapes behaviour

Most responses are learned and not innateMost responses are learned and not innate The migration of birds is instinctive, but The migration of birds is instinctive, but

“schoolies week” at Victor Harbour is not“schoolies week” at Victor Harbour is not Learning is adaptiveLearning is adaptive

Behaviours useful to the organism are Behaviours useful to the organism are reproduced because of their consequences reproduced because of their consequences (survival)(survival)

Systematic experimentation can Systematic experimentation can uncover laws of learninguncover laws of learning

Theories on LearningTheories on Learning

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Learning in AnimalsLearning in Animals

Classical Classical ConditioningConditioning

Ivan Pavlov’s “classical conditioning” in dogs was a powerful influence on the study of learning in animals

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

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Classical Classical conditioningconditioning is the forming of associations associations between two stimuli that are normally unrelated.

Ivan PavlovIvan Pavlov first demonstrated classical conditioning whilst studying digestion in dogs.


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Pavlov’s Pavlov’s experimentexperiment

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An apparatus for Pavlovian conditioning. A tube carries saliva from the dog’s mouth to a lever that activates a recording device (far left). During conditioning, various stimuli can be paired with a dish of food placed in front of the dog. The device pictured here is more elaborate than the one Pavlov used in his early experiments.


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Classical Conditioning:-Key termsClassical Conditioning:-Key terms

Unconditioned StimulusUnconditioned Stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UCR) without previous conditioning.

Unconditioned ResponseUnconditioned Response (UCR) is an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that occurs without previous conditioning.

Conditioned StimulusConditioned Stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus that, through repeated pairings with an (UCS), now causes a conditioned response (CR)Conditioned ResponseConditioned Response (CR) is a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus (CS) that occurs because of previous repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Neutral StimulusNeutral Stimulus (NS) is a stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest.

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Classical Conditioning:-Key Classical Conditioning:-Key termsterms

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Classical Conditioning ActivitiesClassical Conditioning Activities

Use this link to see how classical conditioning works

To open this activity load the CD Rom “In Psych”, go to Chapter 7 (Basic Principles of Learning) and use the “activity link”

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What has dogs What has dogs salivating to the salivating to the

sound of a bell have sound of a bell have to do with your life?to do with your life?

Classical conditioning has been shown to be the most fundamental way that all animals (including humans) learn most new responses, emotions and attitudes

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Your love for your Your love for your parentsparents

(or significant (or significant other) is the result other) is the result

of classical of classical conditioningconditioning

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Factors Affecting Classical Factors Affecting Classical ConditioningConditioning

1.1. Stimulus Contiguity: Stimulus Contiguity: (The time between (The time between presentation of the CS & UCSpresentation of the CS & UCS))

Stimuli are contiguous if they occur together in time and space

Contiguity relates to the association of stimuli that repeatedly occur together in time

Maximal classical conditioning, occurs when the CS precedes the UCS. (Allows time for the organism to prepare)

During maximal conditioning, the CS begins just before the UCS and stops at the same time as the UCS

Theory states that this should be no more than 0.5 second.

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Contingency in classical conditioning Contingency in classical conditioning means the predictability of the occurrence means the predictability of the occurrence of one stimulus from the presence of of one stimulus from the presence of another. another. For example.....For example.....

A flash of lightning usually, is followed by A flash of lightning usually, is followed by the sound of thunder. Thus, if you see the sound of thunder. Thus, if you see lightning, you might put your hands over lightning, you might put your hands over your ears or lean away in anticipation of your ears or lean away in anticipation of the thunderthe thunder

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For Pavlov, the key variable in associative learning was the number of times the CS was paired with the UCS.As the number of pairings increases, the strength of the association between CS and UCS increases.This was because the CS became a more reliable signal that the UCS was going to occur.

In classical conditioning, if the CS is paired with the UCS, then the UCS is contingent (conditional) on the CS. You can predict from .

2.2. ContingenContingencycy


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3.3. Individuals learning historyIndividuals learning history

Prior learning can hinder learning

4.4. Preparedness (to learn)Preparedness (to learn)

The organism’s biological readiness to learn certain associations

Some responses can be conditioned much more readily to certain stimuli than others

The biologically wired readiness to learn some associations more easily than others.

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3.3. Preparedness (to learn)Preparedness (to learn)

Phobias of spiders and snakes are more common than phobias of automobiles.

BUTBUT we are 10000 times more likely to die at the wheel of a car than by the bite of a spider or snake or to have experienced a car accident than a snake bite??? We are not prepared for the social consequences of an accident.

Survival in Nature:- learning to avoid poisonous insects, plants etc in order to survive.

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Principles of Classical ConditioningPrinciples of Classical ConditioningStimulus Discrimination:-a CR does not Stimulus Discrimination:-a CR does not occur to stimuli that are different to the occur to stimuli that are different to the original CS based on the difference of these original CS based on the difference of these stimuli to the CSstimuli to the CS

Extinction:- occurs when a CS is presented Extinction:- occurs when a CS is presented without the UCS causing the CR to weaken without the UCS causing the CR to weaken and eventually stop occurring.and eventually stop occurring.Spontaneous Recovery- the Spontaneous Recovery- the reappearance of a previously reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a period of time has extinguished CR after a period of time has passed following extinctionpassed following extinction

Stimulus Generalisationn:- a CR occurs to Stimulus Generalisationn:- a CR occurs to stimuli other than the original CS based on stimuli other than the original CS based on the similarity of these stimuli to the CSthe similarity of these stimuli to the CS

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Stimulus Generalisation: Stimulus Generalisation: ‘Little ‘Little Albert’Albert’

Stimulus Generalisation: Stimulus Generalisation: Stimuli are generalized when they are similar to the originally conditioned stimulus. The more similar a stimulus is to the CS, the more lokely generalization will occur.

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Stimulus Generalisation:Stimulus Generalisation:

Have you ever felt afraid when driving a car, and in your rear mirror you notice a white Falcon or Commodore following you, with a rack of spotlights on its roof?

Stimulus Generalisation:Stimulus Generalisation:

If so, your fear of police cars (which If so, your fear of police cars (which typically have spotlights on their roofs) typically have spotlights on their roofs) has generalised to all cars with has generalised to all cars with spotlights.spotlights.

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Stimulus Discrimination:Stimulus Discrimination:

Stimulus Discrimination Stimulus Discrimination occurs when an organism that has a learned response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.

You learn to discriminate between the sound of your mobile phone and the ringing of others.

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ExtinctionExtinction

ExtinctionExtinction is the gradual weakening or suppression of a previously conditioned response .

If you have a classically conditioned fear of a dentist’s drill and later start working as a dental assistant, your fear would gradually diminish.

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Spontaneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery

Couples who have recently broken up sometimes misinterpret and overvalue a similar sudden ‘flare-up’ of feelings and return to doomed relationships.

Spontaneous Recovery Spontaneous Recovery the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of non-exposure to the conditioned stimulus

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Prejudice can be classically Prejudice can be classically conditionedconditioned

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Prejudice can be classically Prejudice can be classically conditionedconditioned

RacismRacismSexismSexismHomophobiaHomophobiaReligious Religious intoleranceintolerance

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Other examples of Classical Other examples of Classical ConditioningConditioning

Taste AversionsTaste Aversions

Associating tastes with unpleasant feelings such as nausea

The smell of eggs, coffee often trigger nausea in pregnant women

Cancer patients associating nausea (from the chemotherapy) with foods eaten soon after treatment

Emotional ResponsesEmotional Responses

Smiling when you hear a song

Sweating when you are about to do an exam

Phobias

Advertising

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Other examples of Classical Other examples of Classical ConditioningConditioning

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Classical Conditioning in Classical Conditioning in everyday lifeeveryday life

Conditioned fearsConditioned fears

40Conditioned fearsConditioned fears

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Conditioned Conditioned fearsfears

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Classical Conditioning in Classical Conditioning in everyday lifeeveryday life

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Classical Classical ConditioningConditioningAdvertisingAdvertising

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Classical Conditioning:-Classical Conditioning:-AdvertisingAdvertising

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

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A Psychology ExperimentA Psychology Experiment

A very shy guy goes into a bar and sees a beautiful woman sitting at the bar.

After an hour of gathering up his courage, he finally goes over to her and asks, tentatively,

"Um, would you mind if I chatted with you for a while?"

She responds by yelling, at the top of her lungs, "NO! I won't sleep with you tonight!"

Everyone in the bar is now staring at them. Naturally, the guy is hopelessly and completely embarrassed

and he slinks back to his table.

After a few minutes, the woman walks over to him and apologizes. She smiles at him and says,

"I'm sorry if I embarrassed you. You see, I'm a graduate student in psychology, and I'm

studying how people respond to embarrassing situations."

To which he responds, at the top of his lungs, "What do you mean $200?!“

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If I got a smile from a few of you after you read my joke (or I could have told you it), I may be tempted to tell a few more jokes.

However if I got lots of frowns or ridicule, I am unlikely to show you jokes in the future

Have you ever told a joke and no one laughed? OR

When you tell a joke to your friends they usually laugh.

Would any of the scenarios above change Would any of the scenarios above change the frequency of your “joke telling”the frequency of your “joke telling”??

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We repeat actions that tend to produce favourable results

We avoid actions that produce unpleasant results

We learn from our experiencesWe learn from our experiences

Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Operant Conditioning (Instrumental conditioning) is a type of learning in which conditioning) is a type of learning in which behaviour is strengthened or diminished, behaviour is strengthened or diminished, depending on the nature of the consequences depending on the nature of the consequences that follow it.that follow it.

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ConsequencesConsequences are the heart of operant operant conditioningconditioning

In Operant Conditioning In Operant Conditioning voluntary responses are controlledcontrolled by their consequencesconsequences

ReinforcementReinforcement strengthens the response and makes it more likely to occur

PunishmentPunishment weakens the response and makes it less likely to occur

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Reinforcement is simple but immensely powerful. Reinforcement is simple but immensely powerful. Much of everyday behaviour is regulated by Much of everyday behaviour is regulated by reinforcement. e.g.reinforcement. e.g.

•You put money into a vending machine and you You put money into a vending machine and you get a soft drink back.get a soft drink back.

•You go to work because this behaviour leads to You go to work because this behaviour leads to you getting a pay cheque.you getting a pay cheque.

•Perhaps you work extra hard because promotions Perhaps you work extra hard because promotions and raises tend to follow such behaviour.and raises tend to follow such behaviour.

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Operant Conditioning:- the Operant Conditioning:- the beginningsbeginnings

ConsequencesConsequences are the heart of operant operant conditioningconditioning Thorndike (1874-Thorndike (1874-

1949)1949) put a cat inside a puzzle box. The only way out was to pull a cord or step on a pedal. Through repeated trial and error (initially by accident) the cat learned to open the door.

He concluded that the frequency of a behaviour is modified by its consequencesconsequences

Thorndike’s Law of EffectThorndike’s Law of Effect

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Skinner (1904-1990)Skinner (1904-1990) extended Thorndike’s Law of Effect” to more complex behaviours using his “Skinner Box”

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The Skinner box. This simple device, invented by B. F. Skinner, allows careful study of operant conditioning. When the rat presses the bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released.


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Differences:- Operant vs Differences:- Operant vs ClassicalClassical

LEARNINGLEARNING

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

The subject’s behaviour is determined primarily by

what precedes it (the stimulus)

This behaviour is called “respondent behaviour”“respondent behaviour”ie. Behaviour that occurs as an

automatic response to some stimulus

The subjects behaviour is primarily

determined by what follows it.

This behaviour is called““operant behaviour”operant behaviour”

ie. Behaviour that operates on the environment

producing consequences

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In classical conditioning, a stimulus that does not produce a response is paired with a stimulus that does elicit a response. After many such pairings, the stimulus that previously had no effect begins to produce a response. In the example shown, a horn precedes a puff of air to the eye. Eventually, the horn alone will produce an eye-blink. In operant conditioning, a response that is followed by a reinforcing consequence becomes more likely to occur on future occasions. In the example shown, a dog learns to sit up when it hears a whistle.

Differences:- Operant vs Differences:- Operant vs ClassicalClassical

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Operant Conditioning:-Operant Conditioning:-ReinforcersReinforcers

ReinforcersReinforcers

Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement Negative ReinforcementNegative Reinforcement

Anything that raises the probability that the behaviour that preceded

it will occur again

Increases the likelihood that the behaviour will occur

The removalremoval of an aversive stimulusincreases the likelihood that

the response will occur

A reinforcer is an event that strengthens the

behaviour it follows

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The Aversive stimulus

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Operant Conditioning:-Operant Conditioning:-ReinforcementReinforcement

Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement

Praise for tidying your bedroom

Regularly tidy bedroom

Negative ReinforcementNegative Reinforcement

Stop nagging to tidy Bedroom

Regularly tidy bedroom

Ending an unpleasant event can be as

rewarding as beginning a pleasant one

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John drives safely and obeys all the road laws so that he can become a “rating 1” driver John drives safely and obeys all the road laws so that he can become a “rating 1” driver and save on his insurance premiums. (+ve reinforcement)and save on his insurance premiums. (+ve reinforcement)

Emma drives safely and obeys all the road laws to avoid getting any more traffic fines and Emma drives safely and obeys all the road laws to avoid getting any more traffic fines and licence demerit points.(-ve reinforcement)licence demerit points.(-ve reinforcement)

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REMEMBER:REMEMBER:

Punishment Punishment is not negative reinforcement.

PunishmentPunishment weakens a behaviour

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PunishmentPunishment affects behaviour, but has the opposite effect to reinforcement. It decreases the strength of the responsePunishmentPunishment

Positive punishmentPositive punishmentThe addition of a stimulus

that weakens the likelihoodof a response occurring again

(You shout at your dog when he digs a hole)

Negative punishmentNegative punishmentThe taking away of a stimulus

that weakens the likelihood of a response occurring again.

(A parent takes away the keys for a teenager who does not come

home on time

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Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningAdd something unpleasant

Take away something pleasant

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Add something you like

Take something unpleasant away

Add something unpleasant

Take something pleasant away

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In positive reinforcement, a response leads to the presentation of a presentation of a rewardingrewarding stimulus. In negative reinforcement, a response leads to the removal of an aversive stimulusremoval of an aversive stimulus. Both types of reinforcement involve favorable consequences and both have the same effect on behavior: The organism’s tendency to emit the reinforced response is strengthened.

Positive reinforcement versus negative Positive reinforcement versus negative reinforcementreinforcement

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Although punishment can occur when a response leads to the removal of a rewarding stimulus, it more typically involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus. Students often confuse punishment with negative reinforcement because they associate both with aversive stimuli. However, as this diagram shows, punishment and negative reinforcement represent opposite procedures that have opposite effects on behavior.

Negative reinforcement and punishmentNegative reinforcement and punishment

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Reinforcement…PunishmentReinforcement…Punishment

IncreasesIncreases DecreasesDecreases

Positive Positive ReinforcementReinforcement

(reward training)(reward training)

Positive PunishmentPositive Punishment

(punishment)(punishment)

Negative Negative ReinforcementReinforcement

(avoidance (avoidance training)training)

Negative Negative PunishmentPunishment

(extinction training)(extinction training)

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Operant Conditioning:- Operant Conditioning:- SummarySummary

REINFORCEMENTPositive

reinforcement

REINFORCEMENTNegative

reinforcement

PUNISHMENTPositive

punishment

PUINISHMENTNegative

punishment

CONDITIONING

Behaviour is Behaviour is more likelymore likely

CONDITIONING

Behaviour is Behaviour is less likelyless likely

OPERANT

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Continuous ReinforcementContinuous Reinforcement

Every correct response

is reinforced

Partial ReinforcementPartial Reinforcement

Some, but not allcorrect responses

are reinforced

Schedules of reinforcement:- Schedules of reinforcement:- the rate or interval at which responses are reinforced..

Excellent to get a new behaviour started,

Faster learning and high rate of responding,

Less resistant to extinction.

More resistant to extinction

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Partial ReinforcementPartial Reinforcement

Some, but not all correct responses are reinforced

RATIO SCHEDULERATIO SCHEDULEMakes a response a designated number of times

(response based)

INTERVAL SCHEDULEINTERVAL SCHEDULERequires a time period to pass between the

presentation of reinforcers (Time based)

Schedules of Schedules of reinforcement:-reinforcement:-

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Operant Conditioning:- Operant Conditioning:- Schedules of Schedules of reinforcementreinforcement

DefinitionsDefinitions Response Response RatesRates ExamplesExamples

FixedFixed

RatioRatio

(FR)(FR)

Reinforcement Reinforcement occurs after a occurs after a

fixed number of fixed number of responsesresponses

Produces a Produces a high rates of high rates of responding.responding.

However However respondents respondents often pause often pause briefly after briefly after

each each reinforcemenreinforcemen

tt

Parents pay Parents pay a child $10 a child $10 after they after they was 2 carswas 2 cars

VariablVariablee

RatioRatio

(VR)(VR)

Reinforcement Reinforcement occurs occurs

unpredictably.unpredictably. The ratio The ratio

(number and (number and amount) amount)

variesvaries

High High response response rates, no rates, no

pause after pause after reinforcemenreinforcemen

t & very t & very resistant to resistant to extinctionextinction

Poker Poker MachinesMachines

Pay out after Pay out after an average an average number of number of responses, responses, but any one but any one

may pay on 1may pay on 1stst then 7then 7thth then then

2020thth etc. etc.

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Variable Ratio ReinforcementVariable Ratio Reinforcement

Gambling activities are Gambling activities are maintained by VR schedulesmaintained by VR schedulesYou play a poker machine programmed to pay off “on average” after 20 presses. After 8 presses you get a 10 coin payout.After 5 more attempts you get a 20 coin payout. But then after 40 more presses nothing happens…You are hooked….the next attempt might just be the one that pays out…so you keep playing again…..again…..again….

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Variable Ratio Variable Ratio ReinforcementReinforcement

Best for maintaining behaviour

Fixed Ratio Fixed Ratio ReinforcementReinforcement

Best for learning a new behaviour

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DefinitionsDefinitions Response Response RatesRates ExamplesExamples

FixedFixed

IntervaIntervall

(FI)(FI)

Reinforcement Reinforcement occurs after a occurs after a fixed time has fixed time has

elapsedelapsed

Responses Responses tend to tend to

increase as the increase as the time for the time for the

next reinforcer next reinforcer is near, but is near, but

drop off after drop off after reinforcement reinforcement

and during and during intervalinterval

You get a You get a weekly pay weekly pay

chequecheque

VariablVariablee

IntervaIntervall

(VI)(VI)

Reinforcement Reinforcement occurs occurs

unpredictably.unpredictably. The interval The interval

(time) (time) variesvaries

Relatively low Relatively low response rates, response rates,

but they are but they are steady because steady because the “subject” the “subject” cannot predict cannot predict when reward when reward

will comewill come

Random Random drug testing drug testing of athletesof athletes

Roadside Roadside speed testsspeed tests

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Each type of reinforcement schedule tends to generate a characteristic pattern of responding. In general, ratio schedules tend to produce more rapid responding than interval schedules (note the steep slopes of the FR and VR curves). In In comparison to fixed comparison to fixed schedules, variable schedules, variable schedules tend to schedules tend to yield steadier yield steadier responding (note the responding (note the smoother lines for the smoother lines for the VR and VI schedules VR and VI schedules on the right) and on the right) and greater resistance to greater resistance to extinctionextinction..


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Here's what we can conclude about schedules of reinforcement:

1. Fixed-ratio schedules and variable-ratio schedules produce high rates of responding. These schedules are used when we want the behavior to occur often.

2. Fixed-interval schedules produce a clustering of responses around reward time. This schedule is used when we want the behavior to occur at specified times but not constantly.

3. Variable-interval schedules produce low but fairly constant rates of responding. This schedule is used when we want the behavior to occur on an ongoing basis, but not too frequently.

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Extinction and Operant Extinction and Operant ConditioningConditioning


If reinforcement is delivered in a predictable manner then extinction should occur more rapidly.

Extinction occurs more rapidly following FR training than following VR trainingExtinction similarly occurs more rapidly following FI training than following VI training

It is easier to extinguish responding that has been condition via continuous schedules than partial schedules.

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Discrimination and Operant Discrimination and Operant ConditioningConditioning


The ‘OPEN’ sign in a store window is a discriminative stimulus signaling that the response of opening the door will be reinforced by you being able to enter the store

The coloured lights at an intersection signals that the reponse of stopping your car (red) or proceeding through the intersection (green) will be reinforced by a safe arrival at your destination.

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ShapingShaping

ShapingShaping

A final goal A final goal responseresponse

Reinforce a series Reinforce a series of successive stepsof successive steps

Shaping is Shaping is effective for effective for teaching teaching complex or complex or novel novel behaviours behaviours that are not that are not likely to likely to occur occur naturallynaturally

Shaping Shaping requires requires continuous continuous reinforcemenreinforcementt

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ShapingShaping

An animal or person is systematically An animal or person is systematically reinforced for displaying closer and closer reinforced for displaying closer and closer approximations of a desired responseapproximations of a desired response

The method of successive approximations The method of successive approximations shapes a desired behaviour by reinforcing shapes a desired behaviour by reinforcing and strengthening each small step toward and strengthening each small step toward the target behaviourthe target behaviour

You start by reinforcing a tendency in the You start by reinforcing a tendency in the right direction. Then you gradually require right direction. Then you gradually require responses that are closer and closer to the responses that are closer and closer to the target behaviourtarget behaviour

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ShapingShaping

Shaping is used to treat Shaping is used to treat phobiasphobias

To treat a fear of tarantulas:To treat a fear of tarantulas:

•Start small…imagine oneStart small…imagine one

•Work up to being in a room Work up to being in a room with onewith one

•Eventually touch one……Eventually touch one……

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What’s the best What’s the best way?way?

The best way to promote The best way to promote fast learningfast learning and and high resistance to extinctionhigh resistance to extinction is to begin is to begin reinforcing the desired behaviour on a reinforcing the desired behaviour on a continuos schedule until the behaviour is continuos schedule until the behaviour is well established.well established.

Then shift to a partial (preferably variable) Then shift to a partial (preferably variable) schedule that is gradually more demandingschedule that is gradually more demanding

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Operant Conditioning:-Operant Conditioning:-

Operant....

Generalisation Discrimination Extinction

A young child who touches a hot stove-top burner

learns to avoid other burners

We learn to board buses, trains etc marked by

different symbols

When previously reinforced behaviours

no longer pay off, we are likely to abandon them

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Operant Conditioning:- ApplicationsOperant Conditioning:- Applications

Animal TrainingAnimal Training

““Shaping and training” animals Shaping and training” animals has been used to enhance has been used to enhance human welfare and benefit human welfare and benefit animal lives:animal lives:Law enforcementLaw enforcement

EntertainmentEntertainment

RescueRescue

Assist the blind or disabledAssist the blind or disabled

MilitaryMilitary

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Self Paced LearningSelf Paced Learning

Provides immediate Provides immediate feedback to the learner.feedback to the learner.

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Incentive SystemsIncentive SystemsMany of these Many of these systems are common systems are common in business and in business and professional sport.professional sport.

Used to enhance Used to enhance academic and work academic and work performanceperformance

Provides motivation Provides motivation to succeed.to succeed.

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Bio-FeedbackBio-FeedbackA bodily function (such A bodily function (such as blood pressure or as blood pressure or heart rate) is recorded heart rate) is recorded and the information is and the information is fed back to a person to fed back to a person to increase control over increase control over that bodily function.that bodily function.

Examples:Examples:

Hypertension and anxiety by Hypertension and anxiety by lowering blood pressure,lowering blood pressure,

Incontinence by better Incontinence by better pelvic muscle controlpelvic muscle control

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PrejudicePrejudiceDemeaning others Demeaning others gains attention and gains attention and sometimes approval sometimes approval from others and can from others and can increase one’s self increase one’s self esteem at the expense esteem at the expense of the victim.of the victim.

Prejudice and discrimination can be positively reinforced.Prejudice and discrimination can be positively reinforced.

When punishment is inconsistent criminal behaviour is more When punishment is inconsistent criminal behaviour is more likely to be repeated and become resistant to extinction. likely to be repeated and become resistant to extinction. (Why do people do things knowing the penalties that could (Why do people do things knowing the penalties that could be applied)be applied)

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Superstitions are developed because of accidental Superstitions are developed because of accidental reinforcement of our actions.reinforcement of our actions.

Athletes carry lucky charms or go through routines prior to Athletes carry lucky charms or go through routines prior to a game because once when they behaved in that way they a game because once when they behaved in that way they performed at their best.performed at their best.

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Conditioning:- A summaryConditioning:- A summary

Classical Cond.Classical Cond. Operant Operant ConditioningConditioning

PioneersPioneers I Pavlov, J B WatsonI Pavlov, J B Watson E Thorndike, B F SkinnerE Thorndike, B F Skinner

TermsTerms NS, UCS, CS, UCR, CRNS, UCS, CS, UCR, CR Reinforcers (primary & secondary), Reinforcers (primary & secondary), reinforcement (+,-), Punishment reinforcement (+,-), Punishment (+,-), Shaping, Reinforcement (+,-), Shaping, Reinforcement schedules (continuous or partial)schedules (continuous or partial)

ExampleExample Cringing at the sound of a Cringing at the sound of a dentist’s drilldentist’s drill

A baby cries and you pick it upA baby cries and you pick it up

ExtinctionExtinction

GeneralisatiGeneralisationon

DiscriminatiDiscriminationon

The CS is presented aloneThe CS is presented alone Reinforcement is discontinuedReinforcement is discontinued

Stimuli similar to CSStimuli similar to CS Responding occurs to similar Responding occurs to similar stimulistimuli

elicit the CR elicit the CR Stimuli similar to CS do notStimuli similar to CS do not

elicit a responseelicit a response

DifferenceDifference Involuntary (subject is Involuntary (subject is passive)passive)

Voluntary (subject is passive)Voluntary (subject is passive)

Behaviour Behaviour orderorder

CS must come before the CS must come before the UCSUCS

Reinforcement or punishment Reinforcement or punishment comes after the behaviourcomes after the behaviour

Only the discriminative stimulus Only the discriminative stimulus results in respondingresults in responding

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Evolution and Classical ConditioningEvolution and Classical Conditioning

Taste-Aversion is an example of thisTaste-Aversion is an example of this

Taste aversion learning is the development of a dislike or aversion to a flavour or food that has been paired with an illness.

You may dine at a restaurant, eat seafood but come down with a stomach virus (unrelated to the seafood) and develop an aversion to seafood as a consequence.

Some types of stimuli are more important for survival Some types of stimuli are more important for survival than others and evolutionary processes have sometimes than others and evolutionary processes have sometimes

prepared the brain to locate some causal correlations prepared the brain to locate some causal correlations more easily than others. more easily than others.

The brain is not equally sensitive to all types of stimuli.The brain is not equally sensitive to all types of stimuli.

Preparedness (see later) is an example of this as well:- Preparedness (see later) is an example of this as well:- occurs when some species are more biologically ready to occurs when some species are more biologically ready to form certain associations:- may explain why some form certain associations:- may explain why some phobias are so easily learnedphobias are so easily learned

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Factors influencing behaviourFactors influencing behaviour

Order of PresentationOrder of Presentation

Reinforcement should follow the desired response (never before)TimingTiming

Reinforcers should be presented as close in time to the desired response as possible to ensure that association between the response and reinforcer is made without interference from other factors

Appropriateness of the reinforcerAppropriateness of the reinforcer

We often do not know of the reinforcer’s effectiveness until it is actually presented. It must lead to a pleasing/satisfying experience.

Characteristics of the individualCharacteristics of the individual

Reinforcement needs to be appropriate to the age, sex, interest etc of the individual.

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Factors influencing behaviourFactors influencing behaviour

Motivation to learnMotivation to learn

Primary factors (hunger, thirst avoidance of pain, sex)

Secondary factors (money, praise, social approval)

PreparednessPreparedness

A species specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain ways and not others

The organism’s biological readiness to learn certain associations

Some responses can be conditioned much more readily to certain stimuli than others

The biologically wired readiness to learn some associations more easily than others.

Animals are differentially prepared to associate stimuli with certain responses (High preparedness…learn quickly)

Learning by ObservationLearning by Observation

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Observational LearningObservational Learning

We learn many things We learn many things through observation and through observation and imitation of othersimitation of others

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Observational LearningObservational Learning

Observational Learning Observational Learning is learning new is learning new behaviours or information by watching or behaviours or information by watching or imitating othersimitating othersModeling Modeling is our capacity to learn by is our capacity to learn by watching otherswatching others..

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Observational Learning

The Modeling processThe Modeling process

ATTENTIONATTENTIONWe must pay attention to the model’s behaviour

RETENTIONRETENTIONWe must retain that information to recall later

REPRODUCTIONREPRODUCTIONWe must be physically capable of reproducing

the model’s behaviour

REINFORCEMENTREINFORCEMENTWe must be motivated to display the behaviour

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Observational Observational LearningLearning

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This graph shows the average number of aggressive acts per minute before and after television broadcasts were introduced into a Canadian town. The increase in aggression after television watching began was significant. Two other towns that already had television were used for comparison. Neither showed significant increases in aggression during the same time period. (Data compiled from Joy et al., 1986.)

Observational Learning:- Observational Learning:- TV and AggressionTV and Aggression

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Acquisition and PerformanceAcquisition and Performance

AcquisitionAcquisition describes the response by which the behaviour is learned through observation.

PerformancePerformance is the process by which the observer acts is the process by which the observer acts out the newly learned response. out the newly learned response.

Acquisition of a behaviour however, does not Acquisition of a behaviour however, does not automatically lead to its performance.automatically lead to its performance.

Acquiring a skillAcquiring a skill

Practice the skillPractice the skillImproved Improved

performanceperformance

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Side Effects of PunishmentSide Effects of Punishment

Increased aggression eg Respnoding aggressively (child, spouse abuse)

Passive Assertiveness eg-showing up late, not mailing a letter

Avoidance Behaviour You do not come home if you know you will be yelled at

Modelling The punishing parent serves as a model

Temporary Suppression Behaviour is suppressed temporarily (speed when a police officer

is out of sight)

Learned Helplessness Acquire a general sense of helplessness

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Learned HelplessnessLearned Helplessness

We learnt earlier that one of the side We learnt earlier that one of the side effects of punishment was “learned effects of punishment was “learned helplessness”helplessness”

Learned Helplessness is a term for a state of Learned Helplessness is a term for a state of helplessness or resignation in which people or animals helplessness or resignation in which people or animals learn that escape from something painful is impossible learn that escape from something painful is impossible and depression results.and depression results.

The perception that one is unable to change things for The perception that one is unable to change things for the better leads to depression.the better leads to depression.

Depression is a sad emotional state or mood that Depression is a sad emotional state or mood that interferes with the ability to function, eel pleasure or interferes with the ability to function, eel pleasure or maintain an interest in life.maintain an interest in life.

Behaviour Therapy and ModificationBehaviour Therapy and Modification

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Behaviour TherapyBehaviour Therapy

Behaviour therapyBehaviour therapy is a treatment of choice for phobias, alcoholism, bed wetting, truancy, taste version etc.This often involves exposure therapyexposure therapy.

The goal is to show the person that the situation will not have the expected fearful consequences. It might help to expose the person intensively to the feared situation. If panic attacks are involved, the person should be taught ways to control the panic attack, such as through deep breathing, or relaxation. Sometimes biofeedback can help

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Psychologically Based TherapiesPsychologically Based Therapies

Systematic desensitization is an effective treatment for phobias in which clients are taught relaxation techniques and then asked to imagine or approach feared situations gradually.

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Cognitive Behaviour TherapyCognitive Behaviour Therapy

Cognitive behaviour therapyCognitive behaviour therapy is sometimes called 'cognitive therapy'.

It involves learning from a therapist to overcome the distorted, negative thinking patterns that can lead to maladaptive behaviours.

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Cognitive Behaviour TherapyCognitive Behaviour Therapy

Depression: Depression: depressed people have depressed people have negative views of their world, themselves negative views of their world, themselves and their futureand their futureCognitive behaviour therapistsCognitive behaviour therapists can treat depression by getting a depressed person to do more things that give them pleasure, helping them to solve problems in their life, and learning better social skills.

An advantage of cognitive behaviour therapy is that it helps people learn skills that may prevent them from becoming depressed in the future. Cognitive behaviour therapy may not be suitable for severely depressed people because they may be too depressed to learn the new thinking skills.

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Psychologically Based TherapiesPsychologically Based Therapies

Modeling is also an effective treatment for phobias. Aversion therapy reduces undesirable behaviors by pairing them with an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus.

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Behaviour ModificationBehaviour Modification

Behaviour ModificationBehaviour Modification is the approach used by behavioural psychologists to modify behaviour. It is usually based on the reinforcement of desired behaviours and ignoring (as far as possible) undesired ones. This is not as simple as it sounds — always reinforcing desired behaviour, for example, is basically bribery. The "schedule" of reinforcement is critical. It is much used in clinical and educational psychology, particularly with people with learning difficulties. In the conventional learning situation it applies largely to issues of class- and student management, rather than to learning content Elements of both classical and operant conditioning may be used together

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Behaviour ModificationBehaviour ModificationBehaviour modification involves Behaviour modification involves three stepsthree steps:

Identify maladaptive behaviour

Identify the reinforcers that are maintaining the maladaptive behaviour Change the environment so that the behaviour is no longer reinforced

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Behaviour modification is used in all kinds of everyday life settings:

•Family homes

•Classrooms

•Daycare centres

•Nursing homes

•Psychiatric units

•Sports fields

•Factories and offices

•Rehabilitation centres

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Research and investigate how Research and investigate how behaviour modification programs behaviour modification programs can be utilised for:can be utilised for:

Reducing illegal driving habitsReducing criminal behaviourReducing litterOvercoming an annoying habit

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Use the link below to access an Interactive Summary of Operant Conditioning

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Use the link below to access a Summary of Classical and Operant Conditioning

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Use the link below to access a Summary of Classical Conditioning

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Use the link below to access a Summary of Operant Conditioning

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Use the link below to access Interactive exercises on Learning

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This program can be used to illustrate the

schedules listed below

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Links to “Learning”Links to “Learning”

The links on the The links on the following pages following pages

may help to may help to further consolidate further consolidate

your your understanding of understanding of

the topic on the topic on “Learning”“Learning”

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Links to other web Links to other web sites sites

(Behaviourism)http://www.seaworld.org/infobooks/Training/atlearn.html http://www.dmu.ac.uk/~jamesa/learning/behaviour.htm(Conditioning)http://library.thinkquest.org/C005704/content_hwl_conditioning.php3(Invader Game)http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072563303/student_view0/chapter6/interactive_activities.html#(Classical Conditioning Examples)http://faculty.uccb.ns.ca/gcarre/courses/psy100ccex.htm(Train a dog to drool on command)http://nobelprize.org/medicine/educational/pavlov/index.html(An on-line Learning Power Point)http://www.uwm.edu/Course/820-101/Kaleta/ClassicalConditionInS00.htm(Little Albert)http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/emotion.htm(Little Albert and more on Learning-McGraw Hill)http://www.dushkin.com/connectext/psy/ch06/watson.mhtml(Stimulus Generalisation and Discrimination activity)http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072358327/student_view0/chapter7/interactive_activities.html#(Learned Helplessness)http://allpsych.com/personalitysynopsis/learned_helplessness.html(Threats to the survival of Mountain Gorillas)http://www.mountaingorillas.org/gorillas/gorillas_threats.htm(Learning)http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/morris5/chapter5/deluxe.html(Learning by Observation-Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study)http://www.holah.karoo.net/bandura.htm(Identifying the CS, UCS, CR and UCR)http://www.tamiu.edu/~jbrown/DOCS/Classes/Introduction/Practice/Practice%20with%20UCS-CS-UCR-CR.htm

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Review QuestionsReview Questions

Define learning. A relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge

that is due to experience.

Define Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning A type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the

capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus

What is an Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)? A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response

without previous conditioning

What is an Unconditioned response (UCR)? An unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that

occurs without previous conditioning

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What is a Conditioned Stimulus (CS)? A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning,

acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response

What is a Conditioned response (CR)? A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs

because of previous conditioning

What is Acquisition? The formation of a new conditioned response tendency.

What is Stimulus contiguity? A temporal (time) association between 2 events.

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What is extinction? The gradual weakening & disappearance of a conditioned

response tendency; the consistent presentation of CS alone without UCS

What is spontaneous recovery? The reappearance of an extinguished response after a period

of non exposure to the CS.

What is stimulus generalization? When an organism that has learned a response to a specific

stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus

What is stimulus discrimination When an organism that has learned a response to a specific

stimulus, does not respond to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus

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What is higher order conditioning? A CS functions as if it were UCS

What is operant conditioning? A form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be

controlled by their consequences

What is reinforcement? It occurs when an event following a response increases an

organism’s tendency to make that response.

What are reinforcement contingencies? The circumstances or rules that determine whether responses

lead to the presentation of reinforcers

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What is a schedule of reinforcement? A specific pattern of presentation of reinforcers over time.

What is continuous reinforcement? It occurs when every instance of a designated response is

reinforced.

What are the 4 types of intermittent reinforcement Fixed-Ratio (FR); Variable-Ratio (VR); Fixed-Interval (FI); &

Variable-Interval (VI)

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What is Shaping? The reinforcement of closer & closer approximations of a

desired response.

What is extinction? The gradual weakening & disappearance of a response

tendency because the response is no longer followed by reinforcement

What are discriminative stimuli? Cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the

probable consequences (reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response

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What is positive reinforcement? It occurs when a response is strengthened because it is

followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus

What is negative reinforcement? It occurs when a response is strengthened because it is

followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus; involves a favorable outcome: removal of aversive stimulus

What is escape learning: an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive

stimulation from occurring; animal in a shuttle box is given a shock & runs into other room; removal or aversive stimulus

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What is avoidance learning? An organism acquires a response that prevents some

aversive stimulation from occurring; Signal comes on, then shock occurs; at 1st only moves when shocked; learns to move when signaled

What is punishment? It occurs when an event following a response weakens the

tendency to make that response.

What is observational learning? It occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced by

the observation of others, who are called models

learning

Documents

human learning

pavlovian conditioning

dogs mouth

young men

study of learninghabituation

darwins theory of evolution

particular behaviours

instructionsace psychology