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Learning Points discussed during lectures Learning • Learning as a topic of study is very important both from the general sense as well as the psychological sense • Learning is important for adaptation – we need to modify our behaviour potential as a function of experience so that mistakes are not repeated • Learning therefore is a fundamental process • What is Learning ? • A change in Behaviour • A change that takes place through Practice or Experience • The change must be Relatively Permanent • Ability to modify behaviour as a result of experience • Issue: Is all human behaviour acquired? Distinguishing learning from other changes in behaviour • Learning is to be distinguished from temporary behaviour changes due to altered body conditions (fatigue, disease, impact of drugs) • Learning should also be distinguished from some permanent changes ‐ Irreparable damage such as brain damage, loss of limb or sense organ ‐ Changes due to maturation (part of normal biological development and do not depend on specific experiences) ‐ Biologically determined sequences or patterns of growth relatively free of the environment Maturation + Learning ‐‐‐ interaction • Two phenomena that involve permanent change in behaviour are so simple that they are generally not classified as learning 1. Habituation: Decrease in responsiveness to a particular stimulus as a result of repeated occurrences 2. Imprinting: A primitive form of behaviour change. Rapid learning of a species specific behaviour (response to a stimulus at a early critical age) – not all animals imprint • Learning vs. Performance

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  • LearningPointsdiscussedduringlectures

    Learning Learningasatopicofstudyisveryimportantbothfromthegeneralsenseaswellasthe

    psychologicalsense Learningisimportantforadaptationweneedtomodifyourbehaviourpotentialasa

    functionofexperiencesothatmistakesarenotrepeated Learningthereforeisafundamentalprocess WhatisLearning? AchangeinBehaviour AchangethattakesplacethroughPracticeorExperience ThechangemustbeRelativelyPermanent Abilitytomodifybehaviourasaresultofexperience Issue:Isallhumanbehaviouracquired?

    Distinguishinglearningfromotherchangesinbehaviour Learningistobedistinguishedfromtemporarybehaviourchangesduetoalteredbody

    conditions(fatigue,disease,impactofdrugs) Learningshouldalsobedistinguishedfromsomepermanentchanges

    Irreparabledamagesuchasbraindamage,lossoflimborsenseorgan Changesduetomaturation(partofnormalbiologicaldevelopmentanddonotdependonspecificexperiences) Biologicallydeterminedsequencesorpatternsofgrowthrelativelyfreeoftheenvironment

    Maturation+Learninginteraction Twophenomenathatinvolvepermanentchangeinbehaviouraresosimplethattheyare

    generallynotclassifiedaslearning1. Habituation:Decreaseinresponsivenesstoaparticularstimulusasaresultofrepeated

    occurrences2. Imprinting:Aprimitiveformofbehaviourchange.Rapidlearningofaspeciesspecific

    behaviour(responsetoastimulusataearlycriticalage)notallanimalsimprint Learningvs.Performance

  • Howdoesonedeterminewhetherlearninghasoccurred? Relativelypermanentchange(Ex:Petdog,teachersevaluation) Aquestionaskedinclass:thosewhoanswerhavelearnt? Sometimeslearningoccursbutisnotobservable

    Thuslearningandperformancearecloselyrelatedbutarestilldistinct TheoriesofLearning

    ConditioningClassicalConditioning(Pavlov);Trialanderrorlearning(Thorndike);OperantConditioning(Skinner)CognitiveApproachLearningthroughCognitivemaps;Latentlearning(Tolman),Insightlearning(Kohler)SocialLearningBandura,Rotter

    BehaviourismLearningisdefinedbytheoutwardexpressionofnewbehavioursFocusessolelyonobservablebehavioursAbiologicalbasisforlearningLearningiscontextindependentClassical&OperantConditioning

    Reflexes(PavlovsDogs) Feedback/Reinforcement(SkinnersPigeonBox)

    ClassicalConditioningIvanP.Pavlov(18491936)TheStimulusResponseTheoryTheExperiment

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    nsofClassicabstitutionThabondisforaresponseiguityAnyCSpredictsUnandExpectsignalforthConceptsExtsentationofurswhenCSnctionmaynndInhibitiontwoopposittatorytendebitorytendeditionedrespusrecoveryeranintervachhasundereneralization

    endencytoreditionedstim

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    twostimuliUS)tationeUS;whentinctionCSbyitselfispresentednotbepermantetendencieencyhasitsuencybecomeponse]loftime,anrgoneextincneacttostimumulus

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  • Discrimination Makeoneresponsetoonestimulusanddifferent/noresponsetootherstimulus Theprocessthatenablestheorganismtonarrowdowntherangeofgeneralization Learningbasedonconsequences

    Skinner:Operantconditioning Thorndike:Trialanderrorlearning

    Anorganismmustalsolearnwhat consistentrelationshipscanbeexpected betweenitsownactionsandsubsequent eventsintheenvironmentspecifically thechangesitcanachieveorpreventConsequences.

    Americanpsychology:Learningoftherelationshipsbetweenbehaviouranditsconsequences.

    Classicalcond:SSrelationship Operant/Trailanderror:SRrelationship Instrumental/OperantConditioning

    LearninginwhichreinforcementiscontingentonaparticularresponseB.F.Skinners(19041990)experimentswithRatsandPigeons.Skinnerstudiedthebehaviourofrats,pigeons,humanbeingsincludinghisownchildren

    ThefunctionalanalysisofbehaviourbySkinnerSinglehandedlyresponsiblefortherecognitionofOCinanalyzing,predictingandcontrollingbehaviourWholenewpsychologyofbehaviourmodification

    ImportantConceptsReinforcement/Reinforcers

  • Thepresentation/terminationofastimulusoreventwhich,whenmadecontingentontheoccurrenceofacertainresponse,makesthatresponsemorelikelytooccurinthefuture(astimuluseventoraconsequencethatincreasesthelikelihoodofanyresponsewithwhichitisassociatedareinforceristheeffectivestimulusthatmakeslearninginstrumentalresponsespossible)

    Positivereinforcers&Negativereinforcers Punishers

    Anunpleasantstimuluswhich,whenitspresentationismadecontingentonaparticularresponse,tendstodecreasethelikelihoodofthatresponse

    Punishment Theapplicationofanunpleasantstimulustosuppressanunwantedbehaviour

    Shaping Teachingadesiredresponsethroughaseriesofsuccessivesteps

    Schedulesofpositivereinforcement Asituationinwhichreinforcementdoesnotfolloweveryresponse.Instead,

    reinforcementsfollowcertainresponsesaccordingtothespecifiedplan

    TheABCofOperantConditioning

    Theanalysisofbehaviourrequiresanaccuratebutneutralrepresentationoftherelationship(orcontingencies)betweenthefollowing

    Antecedents:thestimulusconditions,suchasthelever,theclickoffooddispenser,alightthatmaygoonwhentheleverispressed

    Behaviour:oroperants,suchaspressingthelever Consequences:resultoftheoperantbehaviour;reinforcement/punishment

  • SkinnersApproachObservingthephysicalmeasurablepropertiesofrespondinganddevelopingapracticaltechnologyforcontrollingbehaviourLearningsituationcanandshouldbedescribedentirelyinsuchtermsthatnothingneedstobesaidaboutwhatishappeningwithintheorganism.Ex:Hunger

    BasicIdeasOCistheprocessbywhichbehaviourcanbemodifiedorcontrolledthroughenvironmentalmanipulationAsimpleempiricalstatement:Ifanoperantresponseisemittedandfollowedbyareinforcingstimulus,theprobabilitythatitwilloccuragainisincreasedEnvironmentaldeterminism

    E.L.ThorndikesPuzzleBoxTheExperimentwithCat

    UseofMazesTrialanderrorlearningAtthetimePavlovwasbeginninghisexperimentsonCCinRussia,workonICbeganinUSA.E.L.Thorndikestudiedthelearningofchicks,cats,dogsandmonkeysinavarietyofexperimentalsituations.Bestknownwork:Hungrycatsinapuzzlebox(Onlatertrailstheineffectivescramblinggraduallydecreasedandtheactofopeningthedoorbecamemoreprecise)Measureoflearning:Amountoftimerequiredbythecattoescape.Withpracticethismeasuresteadilydecreased.CalledinstrumentalthelearnedresponseisinstrumentalinsolvingaproblemandgettingarewardContingentreinforcementfollowsresponsebehaviourisinstrumentalingettingareinforcementLawofeffectstampinginandstampingout(responsessatisfactoryconsequences)LoE:Aforerunnertotheprincipleofreinforcement

    Thorndikethoughtthatitwasthefeelingofsatisfactioninaccomplishmentthatmadeasuccessfulresponsemoreprobable

  • TheCognitivGrewinrespFoundationKnowledgeimeaningful&StudiesfocuInputProcCognitiveLeAchangeinhashadNewassociaLearningthr

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  • Thesolutioncomessuddenlyafteraperiodduringwhichlittleprogressismade WolfgangKhler

    TheMentalityofApes(1925)ExperimentswithChimpanzees

    SocialLearningTheoryFoundationinCognitivismA.Bandura(1973)

    Learningtakesplacethroughobservation VicariousLearning Imitation&Modeling BandurasSocialCognitiveTheory

    ModelingandSelfEfficacyModeling:Attention,retention,reproductionandmotivationSelfEfficacy:PeoplesbeliefthattheyhavetheabilitytoperformbehaviourinordertobringaboutadesiredoutcomeLatentnatureoflearningImitationofaggressionandprosocialbehaviour


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