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Lesson 1- Nouns ( 1) NOUNS KINDS OF NOUNS: Common Nouns are names of people (e.g. man), things (e.g. (e.g. monkey) and places (church). Proper Nouns are special names of people (e.g. George Bush (e.g. Financial Times), animals (e.g. King Kong) and places (e.g. Paris). A proper noun begins with a Capital Letter. Abstract Nouns An abstract noun is the name of somethin only think of or feel but cannot see (e.g. friendship). Collective Nouns are names used for a number of people, things or animals together and treated as one. For example: a group of a bunch of bananas, a litter of puppies. Countable and Uncountable Nouns Countable nouns are no can be counted (e.g. trees). Uncountable nouns are nouns which canno (e.g. smoke). Countable and Uncountable Nouns are used with the following: Countable Noun Uncountable Noun a, an, a few, several, many, a little, much, some, plenty of, some, plenty of, a lot of, a lot of, a large amount of, a large number of a great deal of Nouns have four genders: 1. Masculine Gender The masculine gender is used for all male Example: boy, man 2. Feminine Gender The feminine gender is used for all female Example: girl, woman 3. Common Gender The common gender is used where the noun male and female. Example: cousin, friend, person, child, student

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Page 1: Learn English is Fun

Lesson 1- Nouns

( 1)   NOUNS KINDS OF NOUNS:

         Common Nouns – are names of people (e.g. man), things (e.g. books),animals (e.g. monkey) and places (church).

        Proper Nouns – are special names of people (e.g. George Bush), things (e.g. Financial Times), animals (e.g. King Kong) and places (e.g. Paris). A proper noun begins with a Capital Letter.

         Abstract Nouns – An abstract noun is the name of something that we can only think of or feel but cannot see (e.g. friendship).

        Collective Nouns – are names used for a number of people,

things or animals together and treated as one. For example: a group of friends, a bunch of bananas, a litter of puppies.     

        Countable and Uncountable Nouns – Countable nouns are nouns which can be counted (e.g. trees). Uncountable nouns are nouns which cannot be counted. (e.g. smoke).

 Countable and Uncountable Nouns are used with the following:

Countable Noun Uncountable Nouna, an, a few, several, many, a little, much, some, plenty of,some, plenty of, a lot of, a lot of, a large amount of,a large number of a great deal of

Nouns have four genders:1.         Masculine Gender – The masculine gender is used for all males.

Example: boy, man2.         Feminine Gender – The feminine gender is used for all females.

Example: girl, woman3.         Common Gender – The common gender is used where the noun can be both

male and female. Example: cousin, friend, person, child, student4.         Neuter Gender – The neuter gender is used for things which have no life or sex.

Example: table, chair. Singular and Plural Nouns – A noun that shows only one person (e.g. a girl), thing

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(e.g. pencil), animal (e.g. tiger) or place (e.g. market) is called a singular noun).

A noun that shows more than one person (e.g. girls), thing (e.g. pencils), animal (e.g. tigers)

or place (e.g. markets) is called a plural noun.

How plural nouns are formed.

By adding –s.

By adding ‘es’ to nouns ending in –ch, –s, –sh and –x.

beach beaches peach peachesbranch branches speech speechesditch ditches watch watches

 boss bosses glass glassesbus buses lens lenseschorus choruses pass passes

 brush brushes fish fishesbush bushes lash lashesdish dishes wish wishes

 box boxes hoax hoaxesfax faxes six sixesfox foxes tax taxes

 By adding ‘es’ to nouns ending in –o.

buffalo buffaloes potato potatoescargo cargoes mosquito mosquitoesecho echoes tomato tomatoes

 By adding ‘s’ to nouns ending in –o.

banjo banjos patio patiosbamboo bamboos photo photosradio radios                         video videos

 By replacing ‘y’ with –ies.

baby babies lorry lorriesfly flies navy navieshobby hobbies                      puppy puppies

 By adding ‘s’ to nouns ending in –y.

boy boys key keys

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day days toy toysdonkey donkeys                     turkey turkeys

 By replaying ‘f’ or ‘fe’ with –ves.

calf calves loaf loaveshalf halves self selveslife lives                           wife wives

  By adding ‘s’ to nouns ending in –f or –fe.

chief chiefs hoof hoofsdwarf dwarfs reef reefgulf gulfs                           roof roofs

 By changing vowels.      

foot feet louse licegoose geese tooth teethmouse mice                           woman women

Some nouns have same words for plural and singular.

aircraft aircraft music musiccrossroads crossroads series seriesfurniture furniture                    sheep sheep

 Exceptional plural.

child children ox oxencrisis crises passer-by passers-bymouse mice                         radius radii

 

FORMING NOUNSNouns can be formed from nouns, verbs and adjectives. They are formed by adding certain letters to them.

Nouns Nounswidow widowhoodfriend friendshipking kingdom

 Verbs Nounsadd additionfail failuregive gift

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 Adjectives Nounsclean cleanlinesssad sadnessbeautiful beauty

( 2)     VERBS  

Verbs are words that show action. Every sentence must have a verb. A verb is not always one word. It may be made up of more than one word.

Auxiliary verbs

The words: am, is, are, was, and were are verbs. They are forms of the verb ‘to be’. They are helping verbs called auxiliary verbs. 

If the subject of a sentence is singular, the verb must be singular. If thesubject of a sentence is plural, the verb must be plural. The verb must agree with the subject in number.

Examples of ‘subjects’ and ‘verbs’ being singular: The man is sleeping. Shegoes to the market. The student does his homework every day. The train hasarrived. 

‘Man’, ‘she’, ‘student’ and ‘train’ are known as subjects.The subjects are all singular.The verbs ‘is’, ‘goes’, ‘does’ and ‘has’ are all singular too. 

Examples of ‘subjects’ and ‘verbs’ being plural: The men are sleeping.They go to the market. The students do their homework every day. The trains have arrived. 

‘Men’, ‘they’, ‘students’ and ‘trains’ are known as subjects. The subjectsare all plural. The verbs ‘are’, ‘go’, ‘do’ and ‘have’ are all plural too. 

Singular subject/verb Plural subject/verb

1st I am do have eat We are do have eat

2nd You are do have eat You are do have eat

3rd He is does has eats They are do have eat

She is does has eats They are do have eat

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It is does has eats They are do have eat

Other singular and plural subjects that take on singular and plural verbs:

        Subjects with words like ‘each’, ‘every’, ‘any’, ‘no’, ‘none’ and ‘nobody’ take on the singular verbs.

Examples:

Each student is given a pen.

Every child is happy watching the show. Nobody is allowed to walk on the grass.

         Uncountable nouns always take singular verbs.

Examples:

Rice is eaten in many countries.

There is oil on the floor. Salt is added to make the food taste better.

        Subjects with words like ‘both’, ‘all’, ‘many’, ‘some’, ‘several’ and ‘a number of’ take on a plural verb.

Examples:

Both of you have to come home early.

All of us want to be happy. Some of my friends are female.

         Two or more subjects joined by ‘and’ always take a plural verb.

Examples:

My brother and his friends like to play football.

His father and mother are watching television.

Transitive and intransitive verbs

The verb which needs an object to make its meaning clear or complete is called a transitive verb.

Example: He feeds a cat. The word ‘cat’ is called the object of the verb ‘feeds’. The object can be a noun or a pronoun. 

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The intransitive verb does not need an object but the meaning is clear or complete.

Example: He ran. The verb ‘ran’ does not need an object. She reads every day. (No object) He eats quickly. (No object)

The Finite verb

The finite verb changes with the subject. The subject is the person, thing, animal or place we refer to. When the subject is in the first or second person or isplural, the verb does not change. When the subject is in the third person or issingular, the verb changes from, say, ‘eat’ to ‘eats’. The verb ‘eat’ is a finite verb. Every sentence must have a finite verb.

Subject Singular subject Plural subject

First Person I eat We eat

Second Person You eat You eat

Third Person He eats They eat

Third Person She eats They eat

Third Person It eats They eat

The pen/s The pen is The pens are

The elephant/s The elephant does The elephants do not

The house/s The house has The houses have

The Infinitive

The infinitive is a verb that is followed by ‘to’ and does not change with the subject.

Subject Singular Subject Plural Subject

First Person I want to play. We want to play.

Second Person You want to play. You want to play.

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Third Person He wants to play. They want to play.

She wants to play. They want to play.

It wants to play. They want to play.

The infinitive can take on an object. For example: He likes to read book. (To read = infinitive; book = object).

Other usage of verbs to remember

1. When “and” is used to join two nouns or pronouns together, the verbis usually in the plural.

 Examples:

Beef and mutton are meat.

He and I were classmates.

 

2. When we use two nouns for the same person or thing, the verbshould be in the singular.

Examples:

My friend and classmate is very helpful.

Bread and butter is his only food.

 

3. When we use two nouns for the same person, we use the article‘the’ only once and the verb should be in the singular.

Example:

The shopkeeper and owner of the shop is my uncle.

 

4. When we refer to two different persons, we use the article twice and the verb must be in the plural.

Example:

The shopkeeper and the owner of the shop are my good friends.

 

5. When we join two nouns and treat them as a whole, the verb is in thesingular.

Example Bread and butter is his usual breakfast.

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:

 

6. When a noun is a quantity or an amount, it is treated as a whole and the verb is in the singular.

Examples:

Ten kilometers is not a long way to travel.

Nowadays, fifty dollars is not a lot of money.

 

A verb is used in different forms as follow:

Simple Present Tense eat

Simple Past Tense ate

Present Particle is eating

Past Particle has eaten

Future Tense will eat

 THE PRESENT TENSE

1.        The Present Simple

① Used for a habitual or repeated action, that is, for something that we do always, every day, often, usually, etc.

Example: He plays football on Sundays.

 

② Used for a general truth or a fact, that is, for something that is true.

Example: Night follows day.

 

③ Used for something or an action happening now.

Example: See how she walks.

 

④ Used instead of the future tense.

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Example: He arrives tomorrow.

 

⑤ Used instead of the past tense, to make something look more real.

Example: The tiger comes; it catches the boy.

 

⑥ Used instead of the present perfect tense.

Example: We hear that the king is dead.

 

⑦ Used to introduce a quotation, that is, to repeat words spoken or written by someone else.

Example: Shakespeare says: “Neither a borrower nor a lender be.”

 

 2.        The Present Continuous Tense

① Used to show that something is still happening, that is, an action is still going on at the time of speaking. It shows that the action is not yet complete.

Example: He is writing a letter.

 

② Used instead of the future tense. We usually say the time when this future action will take place

Example: He is going to Japan next week.

 

③ Used to use the phrase ‘is going’ which means ‘about to’.

Example: It is going to rain.

 

④ Used to show an action which happens many times. We often use ‘always’ with this expression.

Example: He is always getting into trouble.

 

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 3.        The Present Perfect Tense

① Used to show an action which has just been completed or a past action when the time is not mentioned. The action may be a recent one or it may be one which happened a long time ago.

Example: I have finished reading the book.There have been many changes in this country.

 

② Used for an action that has been going on from the past until now, that is, something that happened in the past but is going on still.

Example: I have lived here for ten years.

 

③ Used often with ‘just’, ‘already’, ‘recently’, ‘never’, ‘yet’ and (in questions) with ‘ever’.

Example: I have already told them about the planShe has never replied to my letter.Have you ever been to London?

④ Used often to answer questions which contain a verb in the Present Perfect tense.

Example: Where have you been? I have been to London to see the Queen.What have you lost? I have lost all my money.

 4.        The Present Perfect Continuous Tense

① Used for an action just completed or continued up to now.

Example: He has been talking for an hour.

 THE PAST TENSE

1.        The Past Simple Tense

① Used to describe a completed past action when the time of the action is mentioned.

Example: I went to the cinema yesterday.

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② Used to show for a past action that was completely done in the past.

Example: My mother made a cake and we all ate it.

 

③ Used to express a habitual past action.

Example: He always came home late.

 

 2.        The Past Continuous Tense

① Used for an action that was going on in the past when something else happened.

Example: While they were watching television, the light went out.

 

② Used to show an action that was going on at a certain time in the past.

Example: I was eating my dinner at 7 o’clock last night.

 

③ Used for two actions that were going on at the same time in the past.

Example: While his father was reading the newspaper, his mother was cooking.

 

 3.        The Past Perfect Tense

① Used for an action that was completed before another action took place.

Example: I had left the house before he arrived.

 

② Used in the Indirect or Reported Speech.

Example: “I have read the book”. He said that he had read the book.

 

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 4.        The Past Perfect Continuous Tense

① Used for an action that had been going on in the past before another action occurred in the past.

Example: She had been cooking when we visited her.

 

 THE FUTURE TENSE 

The Future Tense is used to show some action or happening in the future. Future Simple + ‘Going To”

1. Simple Future Tense is used to show future action or that something will happen in the future.

Example: We will complete the work tomorrow.

 

2. ‘Going to’ is used to express a future action that has been planned in advance.

Example: We are going to Japan next week.

 

3.        Future Continuous Tense is used to show continuous action at some future time.

Example: I shall be seeing both of you tomorrow.

 

4.        Future Perfect Tense is used for an action which will have finished by some future time or date which is mentioned or before another action has begun.

Example: I shall have finished this job by seven o’clock.I shall have finished this job by the time you arrive.

 

5.        Future Perfect Continuous Tense. This continuous tense is formed with ‘shall/will have been’ + a present particle.

Example: I shall have been married for exactly ten years next

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Saturday.

( 3)   ADJECTIVES

An adjective is a word that tells us something about a noun, that is, about a person, an animal, a thing or a place.

For example:

She is a pretty girl.A giraffe has a long neck.The table is round.That is an old temple. 

There are various kinds of adjectives:

1. An adjective which tells us about the quality of the noun.For example: the blue sky, a big house, a square table, a cold morning.

2. An adjective which tells us about the quatity of the noun.For example: The zoo has many animals.

The pen has not much ink left.

3. An adjective which tells us about the ownership of the noun.For example: That is my dog.

Those are their bicycles.

4. An adjective which poses question in an ‘interrogative’ manner.For example: Which school do you go to?

Whose car is this?

5. An adjective which specifies a noun.For example: This boy is a member of the club.

That girl is my sister.

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Adjectives which end in ‘-ing’, e.g. an interesting film, an amazing player, anannoying habit,

Adjectives which end in ‘-ed, e.g. the damaged goods, the escapedprisoners, improved version,

Forming adjectives

Adding ‘y’.Drop ‘e’.

Add ‘ful’.* Change ‘y’ to ‘i’.

Add ‘ous’ or ‘ious’. *Drop ‘y’.

Add ‘less’.

anger care mountain aimease* doubt danger endgreed peace industry harmice* beauty* mystery* senseoil pity* glory* useAdd ‘al’. * Drop ‘e’.

Add ‘able’. Add ‘ic’.*Drop ‘y’.

Add ‘ive’.

music accept acrobat attractnation comfort artist effectperson enjoy photograph actnature* fashion sympathy* instructagriculture* respect robot progress

Adjectives can be formed from Nouns.

Noun Adjectiveaccident accidentaldanger dangerouslength longstar starrywind windy

Adjectives can be formed from Verbs.

Verb Adjectiveenjoy enjoyablehelp helpfulobey obedientplay playfultalk talkative

Adjectives can be formed from Adjectives.

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Adjective Adjectivecomic comicalcorrect correctiveelder elderlyred reddishsick sickly

Comparison of adjectives

We use the Positive degree to compare two equal nouns. For example: His house is as big as my house.We use the Comparative degree to compare two unequal nouns. For example: His house is bigger than my house.We use the Superlative degree to compare three or more Nouns. For example: His house is the biggest in the neighbourhood. 

Positive Comparative Superlativebold bolder boldestdeep deeper deepestnear nearer nearestrich richer richesttall taller tallestPositive Comparative Superlativecareful more careful most carefulenjoyable more enjoyable most enjoyableforgetful more forgetful most forgetfuluseful more useful most usefulwonderful more wonderful most wonderfulPositive Comparative Superlativebad worse worstgood better bestlittle less least

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( 4)     ADVERBS

An adverb adds more to the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

.I called you last night. (called=verb; last night=adverb)

Your dress is very beautiful. (beautiful=adjective; very=adverb)

The rain stopped quite suddenly. (suddenly=adverb; quite=adverb) 

Types of Adverbs

Adverb of Time – This shows when an action or something is done or happens. It answers the question “When?” It is either placed at the beginning or at the end of a sentence.

Example: I phoned you yesterday. / I saw her walking along the river last week. 

Adverb of Place – This shows where an action or something is done or happens. It answers the question “Where?” It is placed after the verb.

Example: I live here. / He fell down. 

Adverb of Manner – This shows how an action or something is done. It answers the question “How?” It is usually placed just after the verb.

Example: She sleeps soundly. / He drives quickly.  

Adverb of Degree or Quantity – This answers the questions, “To what degree?” or “How much?” It is usually placed before the adjective and the adverb.

Example: It is too dark for us to see anything. / Last night it rained veryheavily.. 

Adverb of Frequency – This answers the question “How often?”

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Example: He will never have finished in time. / We always go to school by bus.     

Affirmative Adverb (yes) and Adverb of negation (No)

Example: yes, surely, certainly, indeed, by all means, no, not at all, by no means. 

Interrogative Adverb (Question) For example: When? Where? How? Why? How much/often?    

Relative Adverb: when, where, how, why These words are the same in form as Interrogative Adverbs; but they are not questions.

Example: The time when he arrived. / The scene where the accident occurred. / He knows how to do it. / The reason why he left. 

Comparison of Adverbs 

Similar to the comparison of adjectives, adverbs have three degrees of comparison – the Positive, the Comparative and the Superlative. Most adverbs which end in ‘-ly’ form the Comparative with ‘more’ and the Superlative with ‘most’.

Positive Comparative Superlativecomfortably more comfortably most comfortablyhappily more happily most happilykindly more kindly most kindlyloudly more loudly most loudlynoisily more noisily most noisily

 Forming Adverbs  Adverbs can be formed from nouns, adjectives andverbs. Most adverbs end in ‘-ly’.

Nouns Adjectives Verbs Adverbsbeauty     beautifullysuccess     successfully  angry   angrily  foolish   foolishly    continue continually    know knowingly

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( 5)     INDIRECT SPEECH

We can report what another person says in two ways: 

         By using the exact words of the speaker.

Example: – He said to me, “Be careful!” This is the Direct Speech. We repeat the exact words used by the speaker and keep the exact words within quotation marks. 

         By using our own words to repeat what the speaker said.

Example – Direct: He said to me, “Be careful!” Indirect: He told me to be careful. This is the Indirect or Reported Speech. Notice that the past tense is used when the main verb ‘said’ is in the past tense. Here we do not use the quotation marks. We use an infinitive and we repeat the pronoun. 

When we change Direct Speech into Indirect Speech, it is sometimes necessary to: 

        Change all Present and Future Tenses in the Direct Speech into the Past Tenses in the Indirect Speech when the main verb ‘said’ is in the Past Tense.  

Example – Direct: “Write carefully!” he said to me. Indirect: He told me to write carefully.  

        Change a pronoun or a possessive adjective, and the tense of the verb to Past Tense.

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Example – Direct: “Don’t drive so fast when you pass my school,” he said to me. Indirect: He asked me not to drive so fast when I passed his school. 

        Use more than one “speech” verb if the Direct Speech contains more than one sentence.

Example – Direct: “Don’t quarrel with your sister,” my mother said. “Get on with your school homework. ”Indirect: My mother told me not to quarrel with my sister. She told/asked me to get on with my school homework.  

In most cases, we do not change the tense of the verbs in Direct Speech when: 

        The reporting verb is in the Simple Present tense (he says), the Present Perfect tense (she has told us) or the Simple Future tense (I will tell him).Examples:  Direct: Indirect:“I’m tired,” he says every evening. Every evening he says (that) he is

tired.“They are late,” she has already told us.

She has already told us (that) they are late.

“I will tell him, “The shop is shut.” I will tell him (that) the shop is shut.

          We do not change the tense of verbs in Direct Speech if they make a statement which is always true or if the action is still continuing and a change of tense would give the wrong meaning.

Examples:  Direct: Indirect:He told us, “The world is round.” He told us that the world is round.“My brother is living in Australia.” She said that her brother is living in

Australia.

  The following changes are also made: 

1. shall to should will to would may to might  can to could has to had  

 2. Pronouns and Possessive AdjectivesThe pronoun is changed in person

from first and second to third.  I      becomes   he or she We    becomes   they You   becomes  

he, him, her or them 3. Adjectives and Adverbs:

We change:

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  this to that  these to those  now to then  today to that day  last night to on the previous night or the night before  tomorrow to the next day or the day after  here to there  yesterday to the previous day or the day before  thus to so; (in) that way

( 6)     THE ARTICLES  

Definite Article – ‘The’

Indefinite Article – ‘A’ or ‘An’  

‘A’ is used: 

        Before a word which begins with a consonant. Example: a woman 

        Before a singular, countable noun. Example: a banana 

        When we mention something for the first time. Example: I saw a dog.  

        Before a word with a long sound of ‘u’. Example: a university, auniform, a   useful book, a European, etc. 

        Before the word one. Example: a one-way street, a one-eyed man, aone-year course, a one-day holiday, etc. 

‘An’ is used: 

        Before a noun which begins with a vowel. Example: an apple. 

        Before a word which begins with a vowel sound or a silent ‘h’.Example: an hour, an honest man, an heir, an honour, an honourable man, etc 

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        Before a singular, countable noun which begins with a vowel or silent‘h’. Example: an orange 

‘The’ is used: 

1.        When the same thing or person mentioned again, that is, a particular thing or person. Example: I bought an orange. The orange is sweet.. 

2.        When there is only one such thing. Example: the earth, the sun, themoon. 

3.        Before the names of famous buildings, etc. Example: The Eiffel Tower,The Great Wall of China. 

4.        When a singular noun is used to point out a whole class, race, group, etc. Example: The bear is a strong animal. 

5.        Before the special names of a rivers, seas, oceans, mountain ranges, groups of islands, certain organizations, political parties, and countries such asthe U.S.A., the U.K., the  U.S.S.R. and the U.A.R., The Nile, The Dead Sea,The Pacific Ocean, The Himalayas, The United Nations, The Republican Party, etc. 

6.        Before the names of holy or important books. Example: The Koran,The Bible. 

7.        Before an adjective when the noun is understood. Example: The poor need help. 

Articles are not used:

1.        Before the name of a person: Example: I am a fan of Michael Jackson. (not A or The Michael Jackson) 

2.        Before the name of a place, town, country, street, or road. Example: Barcelona is a beautiful city. (not A or The Barcelona) 

3.        Before names of materials. Example: Gold is found in Australia. (not A or The gold) 

4.        Before abstract nouns used in a general sense. Example: We love all beauty. (not a beauty or the beauty)

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( 7)   PRONOUNS

A Pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. It refers to a person or thing without giving the name.

There are two types of Personal Pronouns:

(1) those used as subjects; and

(2) those used as objects.

Personal Pronouns

  Singular Plural  Subject Object Subject ObjectFirst Person I Me We UsSecond Person You You You YouThird Person He

She

It

Him

Her

It

They

They

They

Them

Them

Them

 

Reflexive Pronouns

We use the Reflexive Pronoun when the action of the doer goes back to himself so that the Subject of the sentence is the same person as the object.

Example: He has hurt himself.

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Pronouns like ‘himself' are called Reflexive Pronouns. They always end in ‘self '.

Reflexive Pronouns Singular PluralFirst Person Myself OurselvesSecond Person Yourself YourselvesThird Person Himself

Herself

Itself

Themselves

Themselves

Themselves

 

Relative Pronouns

The Relative Pronouns take the place of Nouns or Pronouns; and they are used tojoin two sentences about the same person or thing.

Examples of relative pronouns: who, which, that, whom and whose.

In most cases, we use who, whose and whom to make statements about people.

 

¨ We use who to join two sentences.

Example: "The man is an artist. He drew that picture."

"The man is an artist who drew that picture."

 

¨ We use whose to show possession or relationship.

Example: "That is my uncle whose son is my cousin."

 

¨ We use which or that in almost the same way as we use who but it refers tothings, not human beings. There is one other difference in the way we use who andwhich. After who we put a verb. After which we can put a verb, a pronoun or anoun.

Example: That is the camera which costs fifty dollars. That is the camera which hebought. That is the camera which John likes.

 

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¨ We use whom to make a statement about human beings. It is used in place of who(a) when it is the object of a verb or (b) when it comes after a preposition.

Example: (a) The man whom they caught was sent to prison. (b) The man to whomyou should speak is my uncle.

( 8)   PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions are words placed before Nouns and Pronouns. They are used to show time, position and direction.

¨ Examples of Prepositions showing time:

My birthday falls in September.

Most shops are closed on Sunday.

I have an appointment at 9 o'clock.

 

¨ Examples of Prepositions showing position:

He is standing at the door.

The glass is on the table.    

The cat is sleeping under the chair.

¨ Examples of Prepositions showing direction:

She got into the taxi.

The girl is walking towards her mother.

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I have to go to town.

 

Other examples of expressions using prepositions:

¨ The picture was drawn by his brother. ¨ She likes to go out with her friends. ¨ They say I walk like my father. ¨ Her parents give her a box of sweets.

Expressions using Prepositions:

good at get up fall off interested inclever at wake up get off involved inbad at look up set off send inpoint at clean up break off work instare at add up finish off fill in

 

fight against get into turn on made ofspeak against cash into switch on built ofvote against jump into get on a box ofhit against turn into carry on half oflean against dive into put it on many of

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( 9)   CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions join words, phrases and sentences together.

 

Conjunctions joining words:

Example: I have a car and a house.

 

Conjunctions joining phrases:

Example: The fisherman is happy walking along the beach and carrying a bucketfull of fish.

 

Conjunctions joining sentences:

¨ He walked to his car. He got into it..

He walked to his car and got into it.

¨ Will you have tea? Will you have coffee?

Will you have tea or coffee?

¨ She is tired. She cannot sleep.

She is tired but she cannot sleep.

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Besides ‘and', ‘or' and ‘but', other common conjunctions include: because, if, so,although, unless, therefore, etc.

 Conjunctions can join nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.

Example:

I have a pen and a book. (Joining two nouns)

He joked and we laughed. (Joining two verbs)She is beautiful and tall. (Joining two adjectives)He eats quickly and noisily. (Joining two adverbs)

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( 10)   POSSESSION

There are three kinds of Possession: Possessive Nouns, Possessive Adjectivesand Possessive Pronouns.

 

Possessive Nouns

Nouns that show possession are called Possessive Nouns. Possessive Nouns are formed:

 

1. By adding an apostrophe (‘s) to singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in s;

Example: my father's car; the children's toys

 

2. By adding an apostrophe (‘) to plural nouns ending in s;

Example: the boys' bicycles

 

3. By using ‘of the' with names of non-living things.

Example: the roof of the house.

 

Possessive Adjectives

Adjectives that show possession are called Possessive Adjectives. Adjectivessuch as ‘my' and ‘his' are

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used before nouns such as ‘school' and ‘bicycle' to showpossession. Such adjectives are examples of 

Possessive Adjectives.

Example: ‘This is my school' and ‘That is his bicycle'.

 

Possessive AdjectivesSingular Plural

First Person my ourSecond Person your yourThird Person his

her

its

their

their

their 

Possessive Pronouns

Pronouns that show possession are called Possessive Pronouns. Words like ‘mine' and ‘yours' are

 pronouns and as they show possession, they are known asPossessive Pronouns.

Example: ‘This is my car. It is mine' and ‘That is your van. It is yours'.

 

Possessive PronounsSingular Plural

First Person Mine OursSecond Person Yours YoursThird Person His

Hers

Its

Theirs

Theirs

Theirs 

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Lesson 11- Punctuation

PUNCTUATION MARKS 

A   full stop   or   period   ( . )  is used: 

   to mark the end of a sentence. Example: There are two sides to every question.  

   to show the shortened form of a word 

Example: exam  

   at the end of an abbreviation. Example: Dr.  

Comma ( , ) is used: 

    to separate words in a list. 

Example: We saw monkeys, lions and tigers in the zoo. 

    to show a pause in a sentence or reading. 

Example: Yesterday, as I was jogging, I saw a big snake. 

    before inverted commas of actual words spoken. 

Example: He told us, “The world is round.”  

    to separate the name of the person spoken to. 

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Example: “John, let’s start work straightaway.”  

    to separate parts of an address. Example: 99, Downing Street, Kingston.  

    to separate relative clause from the rest of the sentence. 

Example: The man, who lives next door, is a doctor. 

Question Mark ( ? ) is used at the end of a sentence to show a question. 

Example: “When will the train arrive?”  

Exclamation Mark ( ! ) is used at the end of a sentence to show surprise, excited, or angry. Example: We won! Quiet!   

Colon   ( : )  is used to introduce an example, quotation, etc. 

Example: This box contains the following items: bandages,plasters, lotion, medicines and a pair of scissors.  

Semicolon ( ; ) is used to join two sentences or two complete parts of a sentence which are closely connected in meaning.   Example: He gives up smoking; obviously, he fears smoking-related disease may strike him.  

Apostrophe ( ‘ ) is used: 

    to show that numbers or letters have been left out. 

Example: ’86 (=1986); don’t (=do not). 

    to show that something belongs to someone or something. 

Example: John’s mother; Charles’ book 

    to the plural of letters and numbers. 

Example: Your c’s / 5’s are too big.  

Hyphen ( - ) is used to join two words or more to form compound words. 

Example: good-looking, pro-American, forty-one, mother-in-law.  

Quotation Marks ( “ “ ) are used: 

    to show the beginning and end of reported speech. 

Example: “Turn on the light” she said to me. 

    to show a quoted word, phrase or title. 

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Example: “War and Peace” is a novel by Leo Tolstoy. 

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( 12) SOME and ANY 

1. We use “some” in a positive statement and “any” in anegative statement or question.  

2.      We use both “some” and “any” with countable or uncountablenouns. 

3.      We use “some” in a question if it is an invitation or a request. 

4.      We join “some” and “any” with “one”, “body” or “thing” to formpositive sentences and negative sentences respectively.  

Examples: 

1.      I have a sister. / I don’t have a sister. / Do you have any sister? 

2.      He bought some oranges. / He spent some time looking for his lost wallet.

/ There aren’t any eggs on sale here. / There isn’t any tea in the kettle. 

3.      Would you like to drink some milk? Can you do something for me? 

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4.      Someone has taken my book. / Anyone could have taken it./ There’s somebody

waiting to see you. / Has anybody seen the film? / I want something to eat. /

Would you like anything else to eat? 

( 13) USED TO 1.        “USED TO” AS A VERB We can use the expression “used to” when we wish to refer to a past habit which has now stopped. Example: I used to go to that shop but now I don’t go there anymore.     The usual question form and possible answers with “used to” are:    question: “Did you use to see them very often?”    answers: “Yes, I used to.” / “No, I didn’t use to.” / “No, I never used to.” Remember that “use” and not “used” is used after “did” and “didn’t”.            2.        “USED TO” AS AN ADJECTIVE We can show that somebody is accustomed to something by using “used to” as an adjective. It is often followed by a gerund but it can be followed by a noun or possessive. 

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Example: I am used to living in a warm climate. (followed by a gerund)                    They are used to this weather. (followed by a noun)                    He seems used to your brother’s jokes. (followed by possessive adjective)

( 14)     CAN   and   COULD

Can and could are modal verbs. They are used with other verbs to convey ideas such as possibility, permission, etc.

 

We use  can to:

talk about possibility and ability;

Example: I can ride a horse. / He can speak three languages.

make requests or give orders;

Example: Can you buy me a can of beer. / Can you complete now what you are doing.

ask for or give permission.

Example: Can I come in now?

Note: we may also use could, may and might for permission.

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Points to note:

We use can for the present. We also use it for the future when           we decide we are able to do something.

Example: We can go swimming tomorrow.

We do not use can with infinitive verb.

Example: We can play football today. NOT: We can to                     play football today.

Sometimes it is necessary to use (be) able to in place of can.

Example: I can’t contact him. / I haven’t been able to contact him for two days. (It is not possible to use can with present perfect tense).

 

Could is one of the modal verbs. We use could:

as the past tense of can.

Example: Jane said she could get the tickets for us .

to show what was possible in the past.

Example: He could cycle when he was four years old.

to ask someone to do something.

Example: Could you buy some cigarettes for me?

to ask if someone is able or allowed to do something.

Example: My grandmother could speak Spanish. / Could I          ask you a question?

 

Points to note:

Where the subject is singular, we do not add  –s to the verb

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Example: He can swim. NOT: He can swims.

We use could for actions now or in the future.

Example: It’s a nice day. We could go for a walk.

Example: When I go to London next week, I could stay                with my uncle.

Could is less sure than can, so we use could when we do not           really mean what we say.

Example: I am so hungry. I could eat the whole chicken. (NOT: Ican eat the whole chicken).

We use could do for now and could have for the past.

Example: I am so tired. I could sleep the whole day.                    (now)

Example: I was so tired. I could have slept the whole                         day. (past)

We use could with present perfect tense for things              which were possible to happen but didn’t or an event which we are not sure about.

Example: You could have taken a different route to                            avoid  the traffic jam.

Example: He could have broken the glass. She couldn’t                    have broken the glass.

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( 15)     GERUNDS   and   PRESENT PARTICIPLES

 

Gerund is a word that functions as a noun. It is derived by adding ‘–ing’ to the end of a verb (jog), e.g. “Jogging is a good way of exercising”.

 

A present participle is formed by adding ‘-ing’ to the verb, as in ‘reading’., e.g. “He may be reading the newspaper now”.

 

A gerund is used:

        as the subject of the sentence.

Example: Waiting for a bus can take a long time.

        as the object of a verb.

Example: “Will you stop crying?”

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        as a verbal noun, i.e. as a verb doing the work of a noun.

Example: Her scolding frightened her children.

        after a verb.

Example: The gate needs repainting.

        after “busy”.

Example: She is busy cooking for dinner.

        with a preposition.

Example: We are tired after walking for two hours.

        after a phrasal verb.

Example: If we carry on working, we can complete it today.

 

A present participle is used:

        immediately after a subject to which it refers.

Example: People driving in the rain have to drive carefully.

        after a verb.

Example: He went fishing with his friends.

        after a noun. It tells us what a person or thing is doing.

Example: She heard them talking about her.

Example: I saw a rock rolling down the hill.

        as an adjective.

Example: That twinkling star is much brighter than the rest.

        to show that a person is doing two things at the same time.

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Example: He is sitting outside the house, watching people pass by.

        to form the continuous tense.

Example: He is washing his car.

        when one action is followed by another.

Example: Walking on the beach, he threw a ball to his friend. 

List 1 - Forming Nouns

FORMING NOUNSNOUNS VERBS ADJECTIVES NOUNS    absent absence  act   action  add   addition  agree   agreement    angry anger  arrive   arrival  attend   attention    bad badness    beautiful beauty  begin   beginning  behave   behavior    brave bravery  breathe   breath    bright brightness    broad breadthbrother     brotherhood    busy businesschild     childhood

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  choose   choice    clean cleanliness  collect   collection  correct   correction    cruel cruelty    dark darkness    deep depth  describe   description  die   death  divide   division  do   deed  draw   drawing    dry dryness  enjoy   enjoyment  enter   entrance  explain   explanation  fail   failure    fat fatness  feed   food    fit fitness    foolish foolishness    free freedomfriend     friendship  give   gift    glad gladness    good goodness    great greatness  grow   growth    happy happiness  hate   hatred  heal   health    high height    honest honesty    hungry hunger  imagine   imagination  instruct   instruction  invent   invention  invite   invitation  judge   judgement    kind kindnessking     kingdom,

kingship  know   knowledge  laugh   laughter    lazy laziness

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leader     leadership  lend   loan  like   likeness  live   life    long length  lose   loss    mad madnessman     manhood  marry   marriagemember     membership  mix   mixturemother     motherhood  move   movement  multiply   multiplicationneighbor     neighborhood    new newness  obey   obedience  occupy   occupation  permit   permission  please   pleasurepoet     poetry    proud pride  prove   proof  punish   punishment    ready readiness  remember   remembrance    sad sadness    safe safetyscholar     scholarship  see   sight  sell   sale    sharp sharpness    sick sickness  sit   seat    slow slowness    soft softness  speak   speech    strong strength  succeed   success    sweet sweetness  teach   teaching  tell   tale    thick thickness  think   thought

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    thirsty thirst    tight tightness    true truth    valuable value    warm warmth    weak weakness  wed   wedding  weigh   weight    wide width    wise wisdom    young youth

List 2 - Forming Adjectives

FORMING ADJECTIVESNOUNS VERBS ADJECTIVESaccident   accidentaladventure   adventurousboy   boyishcare   carefulcaution   cautiouscentre   centralchild   childish  choose choosycircle   circular  collect collectivecomfort   comfortablecoward   cowardlydanger   dangerous  describe descriptive

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distance   distant  enjoy enjoyablefaith   faithfulfame   famousfather   fatherlyfool   foolish  forget forgetfulfortune   fortunatefriend   friendlygirl   girlishgold   golden  harm harmful  hate hatefulheight   high  help helpfulhero   heroic  hope hopeful  imagine imaginaryjoy   joyfullaw   lawfullength   long  love lovableman   manlymercy   mercifulmine   mymischief   mischievousmountain   mountainousmusic   musicalnation   nationalnature   naturalnoise   noisynorth   northern  obey obedientparent   parentalpeace   peacefulperson   personalpity   pitiful  please pleasantpoison   poisonous

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pride   proud  prosper prosperous  quarrel quarrelsomescience   scientificsense   sensiblesilk   silkyskill   skilfulsmoke   smokysorrow   sorrowfulsouth   southernstorm   stormystrength   strong  study studioussuccess   successfulsun   sunny  talk talkativeterror   terriblethirsty   thirstythought   thoughtfultrouble   troublesometruth   truthfulvalue   valuablevictory   victoriouswar   warlikewater   waterywave   wavywest   westernwinter   wintrywisdom   wisewood   woodenwool   woolenyear   yearlyyouth   young

 

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List 3 - Forming Verbs

FORMING VERBSADJECTIVES NOUNS VERBSbroad   broadenclean   cleanse  cloth clothe  courage encouragedark   darkendeep   deepenequal   equalizefast   fastenfat   fattenfertile   fertilize  friend befriendfull   fillglad   gladden  government govern  joy enjoy  knee kneellarge   enlargeless   lessen

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light   lightenlong   lengthenloose   loosen  product producepure   purifyquick   quickenrich   enrichsad   saddensafe   savesharp   sharpenshort   shorten  sight see  slave enslavesmooth   smoothensoft   soften  spark sparkletight   tighten  trial try  unity unitewide   widen

 

List 4 - Forming Adverbs

FORMING ADVERBSNOUNS VERBS ADJECTIVES ADVERBSaccident     accidentally    actual actually    angry angrily    annual annuallyattention     attentively    bad badlybeauty     beautifully  boast   boastfully    brave bravely    brief briefly    bright brightly    busy busily    careful carefully    careless carelessly  cheer   cheerfully    clean cleanly    clear clearly

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    clever cleverlycomfort     comfortably    complete completely  continue   continually    cruel cruelly    dangerous dangerouslyday     daily    dear dearly    dim dimly    dirty dirtily  double   doubly    dull dully    easy easily  enjoy   enjoyably    entire entirelyfaith     faithfully    fatal fatally  fear   fearfully    fierce fiercely    first firstly    foolish foolishly  forget   forgetfully    free freelyfright     frightfully    general generally    glad gladlygrace     gracefully    gradual gradually    happy happily    hard hardly  hate   hatefully    heavy heavily  help   helpfully  hope   hopefullyhorror     horribly  hurry   hurriedly  infect   infectiouslyjoy     joyfully    kind kindly  know   knowingly    last lastly    late lately    lazy lazily    light lightly

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    loud loudlyluck     luckily    mad madly    magic magically    merry merrilymonth     monthly    natural naturally    near nearly    neat neatly    needless needlessly    nice nicelynight     nightlynoise     noisily  obey   obedientlyone     once    open openlypain     painfullypart     partly    patient patientlypeace     peacefully  please   pleasantly    polite politely    pretty prettily    proud proudly    pure purely    quick quickly    quiet quietly    rare rarely    ready readily    rough roughly    sad sadly    safe safelyshake     shakilyshame     shamefully    silent silently    simple simply    sincere sincerelyskill     skilfully  sleep   sleepily    slow slowly    sound soundly    special speciallysuccess     successfully    sudden suddenly

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    sweet sweetly    swift swiftly    terrible terribly    true truly    truthful truthfully    wise wiselyyear     yearly

COLLECTIVE NOUNS 

PEOPLE

an army of soldiersa bevy of beauties/girlsa band of musiciansa band of robbersa board of directorsa body of mena bunch of crooksa caravan of gypsiesa choir of singersa class of pupilsa class of studentsa company of actorsa company of soldiersa congregation of worshippersa crew of sailors

a gang of thievesa horde of savagesa host of angelsa line of kings/rulersa mob of riotersa group of dancersa group of singersa pack of rascalsa pack of thievesa party of friendsa patrol of policemena posse of policemena regiment of soldiersa staff of employeesa staff of servants

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a crowd of spectatorsa crowd of peoplea dynasty of kingsa galaxy of beautiful womena galaxy of film starsa gang of crooksa gang of labourersa gang of prisonersa gang of robbers 

a staff of teachersa team of playersa tribe of nativesa troop of scoutsa troupe of artistesa troupe of dancersa troupe of performersa party of friends 

THINGS

an album of autographsan album of photographsan album of stampsan anthology of poemsan archipelago of islandsa bale of cottona basket of fruita batch of breada battery of gunsa block of flatsa book of exercisesa book of notesa bouquet of flowersa bowl of ricea bunch of bananasa bunch of flowersa bunch of grapesa bunch of keysa bundle of rags/old clothesa bundle of firewood/sticksa bundle of haya catalogue of prices/goodsa chain of mountainsa chest of drawersa cluster of coconutsa cluster of grapesa cloud of dusta clump of bushesa clump of treesa collection of coinsa collection of curiositiesa collection of picturesa collection of relicsa collection of stampsa column of smokea comb of bananas

a hail of bulletsa hand of bananas (each a finger)a harvest of wheat/corna heap of rubbisha heap of ruinsa hedge of bushesa heap of stonesa layer of soil/dirta library of booksa line of carsa list of namesa mass of ruins/haira necklace of pearlsan outfit of clothesan orchard of fruit treesa pack of cardsa pack of liesa packet of cigarettesa packet of lettersa pair of shoesa pencil of raysa quiver of arrowsa range of hillsa range of mountainsa ream of papera reel of thread/filma roll of film/clotha rope of pearlsa row of housesa series of eventsa set of chinaa set of clubsa set of toolsa sheaf of arrowsa sheaf of corna sheaf of grain

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a compendium of gamesa constellation of starsa cluster of diamondsa cluster of starsa clutch of eggsa crate of fruita crop of applesa fall of raina fall of snowa fleet of motor-cars/taxisa fleet of shipsa flight of aeroplanesa flight of stepsa forest of treesa galaxy of starsa garland of flowersa glossary of difficult words/phrasesa group of islandsa grove of trees 

a sheaf of papersa sheaf of wheata shower of blowsa shower of raina stack of armsa stack of corna stack of haya stack of timbera stack of wooda stock of wooda string of beadsa string of pearlsa suit of clothesa suite of furniturea suite of roomsa tuft of grassa tuft of haira wad of currency/notesa wreath of flowers

 

 ANIMALS

an army of antsa bevy of quaila brood/flock of chickensa catch of fisha cloud of fliesa cloud of insectsa cloud of locustsa colony of gullsa drove of cattlea drove of horsesa flight of birdsa flight of dovesa flight of locustsa flight of swallowsa flock of birdsa flock of geesea flock of sheepa gaggle of geesea haul of fisha herd of buffaloesa herd of cattlea herd of deera herd of elephants

a litter of kittensa litter of puppiesa menagerie of wild animalsa muster of peacocksa nest of antsa nest of micea nest of rabbitsa pack of houndsa pack of wolvesa plague of insectsa plague of locustsa pride of lionsa school of herrings/other small a afisha school of porpoisesa school of whalesa shoal of fisha skein of wild geese in flighta string of horsesa stud of horsesa swarm of antsa swarm of beesa swarm of insects

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a herd of goatsa herd of swinea hive of beesa host of sparrowsa kindle of kittensa litter of cubsa litter of piglets 

a swarm of locustsa team of horsesa team of oxena train of camelsa tribe of goatsa troop of lionsa troop of monkeysa zoo of wild animals 

List 6 - Gender

GENDER  

 

PEOPLE

MASCULINE FAMININEactorauthorbachelorboyBoy Scoutbravebridegroombrotherconductorcountczar

actressauthoressspinstergirlGirl GuideSquawbridesistercomductresscountessczarina

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daddaddydukeemperorfatherfather-in-lawfiancegentlemangiantgodgovernorgrandfatherheadmasterheirherohosthunterhusbandkingladlandlordlordmanmanagermanservantmastermayormilkmanmillionairemonitormonkMr.murdererNegronephewpapapoetpostmanpostmasterpriestprinceprophetproprietorprotectorshepherdsirsonson-in-lawstep-father

mummummyduchessempressmothermother-in-lawfianceeladygiantessgoddessmatrongrandmotherheadmistressheiressheroinehostesshuntresswifequeenlasslandladyladywomanmanageressmaidservantmistressmayoressmilkmaidmillionairessmonitressnunMrs.murderessNegressniecemamapoetesspostwomanpostmistressprietessprincessprophetessproprietressprotectressshepherdessmadamdaughterdaughter-in-lawstep-mother

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step-sonstewardsultantailorunclewaiterwashermanwidowerwizard

step-daughterstewardesssultanatailoressauntwaitresswasherwomanwidowwitch

  

CREATURES

MASCULINE FAMININEbilly-goatboarbuck (deer, hare)buck-rabbitbullbull-elephantbull-sealbullockbull-whalecob (swan)cockcockerelcock-pigeoncolt (young horse)dogdrakedronefoxganderhawkhe-bearhe-goathe-wolfjack-assleopardlionpeacockram (sheep)stagstalliontigertom-catturkey-cock

nanny-goatsowdoedoe-rabbitcowcow-elephantcow-sealheifercow-whalepenhenpullethen-pigeonfillybitchduckbeevixengoosebowessshe-bearshe-goatshe-wolfjenny-ass, she-assleopardesslionesspeahenewehindmaretigresstabby-catturkey-hen

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List 7 - Forms of Verb

FORMS OF THE VERBPRESENT

TENSEPRESENT

PARTICIPLEPAST

TENSEPAST

PARTICIPLE

arise arising arose arisenawake awaking awoke awokenbear bearing bore born,bornebeat beating beat beatenbecome becoming became becomebegin beginning began begunbend bending bent bentbid bidding bid,bade bid,badebind binding bound boundbite biting bit bittenbleed bleeding bled bledblow blowing blew blownbreak breaking broke brokenbreed breeding bred bred

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bring bringing brought broughtbuild building built builtburn burning burned,burnt burned,burntburst bursting burst burstbuy buying bought boughtcast casting cast castcatch catching caught caughtchoose choosing chose chosencling clinging clung clungcome coming came comecost costing cost costcreep creeping crept creptcut cutting cut cutdeal dealing dealt dealtdig digging dug dugdo doing did donedraw drawing drew drawndream dreaming dreamed,dreamt dreamed,dreamtdrink drinking drank drunkdrive driving drove drivendwell dwelling dwelt dwelteat eating ate eatenfall falling fell fallenfeed feeding fed fedfeel feeling felt feltfight fighting fought foughtfind finding found foundflee fleeing fled fledfling flinging flung flungflow flowing flowed flowedfly flying flew flownforbid forbidding forbade forbiddenforecast forecasting forecast,forecaste

dforecast,forecasted

forget forgetting forgot forgottenforgive forgiving forgave forgivenfreeze freezing froze frozenget getting got gotgive giving gave givengo going went gone

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grab grabbing grabbed grabbedgrind grinding ground groundgrow growing grew grownhang hanging hung hunghang (kill) hanging hanged hangedhave having had hadhear hearing heard heardhide hiding hid hiddenhit hitting hit hithold holding held heldhurt hurting hurt hurtkeep keeping kept keptkneel kneeling knelt kneltknit knitting knitted knittedknow knowing knew knownlay laying laid laidlead leading led ledlean leaning leaned,leant lean,leantleap leaping leapt leaptlearn learning learned,learnt learned,learntleave leaving left leftlend lending lent lentlet letting let letlie lying lay lainlight lighting lighted,lit lighted,litlose losing lost lostmake making made mademean meaning meant meantmeet meeting met metpay paying paid paidput putting put putread reading read readride riding rode riddenring ringing rang rungrise rising rose risenrun running ran runsaw sawing sawed sawnsay saying said saidsee seeing saw seensell selling sold sold

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send sending sent sentset setting set setsew sewing sewed sewnshake shaking shook shakenshine shining shone shoneshoot shooting shot shotshow showing showed shownshrink shrinking shrank shrunkshut shutting shut shutsing singing sang sungsink sinking sank sunksit sitting sat satsleep sleeping slept sleptslide sliding slid slidsmell smelling smelled,smelt smelled,smeltsow sowing sowed sownspeak speaking spoke spokenspeed speeding speeded,sped speeded,spedspell spelling spelled,spelt spelled,speltspend spending spent spentspill spilling spilled,spilt spilled,spiltspin spinning spun spunspit spitting spat spatsplit splitting split splitspoil spoiling spoiled,spoilt spoiled,spoiltspread spreading spread spreadspring springing sprang sprungstand standing stood stoodsteal stealing stole stolenstick sticking stuck stucksting stinging stung stungstrike striking struck struckswear swearing swore swornsweep sweeping swept sweptswell swelling swelled swollenswim swimming swam swumswing swinging swung swungtake taking took takenteach teaching taught taughttear tearing tore torn

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tell telling told toldthink thinking thought thoughtthrow throwing threw thrownwake waking woke woken,wakedwear wearing wore wornwin winning won wonwind winding wound woundwrite writing wrote written

List 8 - Objects and Sounds

OBJECTS AND SOUNDS

ObjectSound   Object Sound

aeroplanes zoom   hoofs thunderbells ring, peal   horns toot; hootbrakes screech   kettles singbugles call   leaves rustlebullets ping   paper crinkle; rustlecanes swish   raindrops patterchains clank; rattle   saws buzzclocks tick; chime   sirens wailcoins clink; jungle   steam hisscorks pop   streams murmurdishes rattle, clatter   telephones buzz

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doors bang; slam   thunder clap; rumble   peal; roar

drums beat   trains rumblefeet tramp; shuffle   trumpets blarefire crackle   watch tickglass tinkle   water bubble; lap; dripguns boom   whips crack; lashheart throb; beat   wind howl; sighhinges creak   wings whir

 

English HomophonesEnglish (especially British English) is not spelt phonetically. Two words can share none, any or all of Spelling, Pronunciation and Meaning. All languages have synonyms (words with unrelated spelling and pronunciation but the same meaning) and words with multiple meanings. However English has an exceptional disparity between spelling and pronunciation.

 The possible combinations or some but all characteristics being the same are as follows:-  

Spelling Pronunciation Meaning Classification Example

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Same Different Different Homonym refuse

Different Same Different Homophone See below

Same Same Different Multiple meanings trap

Different Different Same Synonym rare/uncommon

Same Different SameAlternative pronuncation

Schedule (British/American pronuncation)

Different Same Same Alternative spelling jail/gaol

This page is about homophones. Words with different meanings and spellings, but the same (UK) pronunciation. 

My collection

With the generous help of various contributors, I have now collected 441 homophones. This is 396 pairs, 40 triples and 5 quadruples. That is 546 pairs of homophone words.

Near misses

These are word pairs that have been suggested but rejection, for one of the following reasons:-

Not precisely the same pronunciation. I only reject on this grounds, if my dictionary gives different pronunciation (or is unclear) and I think there is a difference, or am not sure how one of the words in pronounced.

o accept, excepto acetic, ascetico advice, adviseo affect, effecto axe, actso axle, axilo deal, deleo caret, carroto close, clotheso cask, casqueo deuce, juice

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o facts, faxo formerly, formallyo halve, haveo hostel, hostileo ion, irono jota, jottero liar, layero loch, locko mana, mannao ordinance, ordnanceo paw/pore/pour, pooro pecan, pekano picture, pitchero plaintiff, plaintiveo prince, printso presence, presentso tense, tentso wan, won

The two spellings have a meaning in common. Even if each spelling has distinct meanings, any common mean classifies them as alternative spellings rather than homophones. (American, or other non-British, spellings are ignored for this purpose.)

o ambiance, ambienceo assay, essayo aught, oughto cot, coteo depositary, depositoryo forbear, forebearo forego, forgoo gage, gaugeo gel, jello genet, jenneto gibe, gybeo gray, greyo grill, grilleo groin, groyneo gunnel, gunwaleo hippie, hippyo main, maineo prise, prizeo ray, reo ton, tonne

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It would be double counting. If two forms of two words are different homophones, then I only count a single example.I list complement/compliment and hence don't list complementary/complimentary. I normally list the simplest form (singular rather than plural; present tense etc.) unless other form is a longer list.e.g. I list holey/holy/wholly rather than hole/whole.

Proper nouns and associated adjectives are not allowed, notably a lot of nations, nationalities, and place names are pronounced the same as common nouns.

o Capitol, capitalo Crewe, crewo Czech, check/chequeo Chile, chilly/chillio Dane, deigno Greece, greaseo Hungary, hungryo Lapp, lapo Nice, nieceo Pole, pollo Rome, roamo Sikh, seeko Thai, tieo Towcester, toastero Wales, whales

And many, many more.

Unsure

Alleged homophones that aren't in my dictionary. As such I am either uncertain of pronunciation, spelling or even existence of the word, so cannot include in the confirmed list.

Word Homophone(s) Comment

wether weather, whether I am told this is a type of sheep.

basinet bassinet ?A musical instrument?

hele heal,heal ?Song, from the German?

how'll howl Not really establisted enough to count

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leider leader ?Song, from the German?

lune loon The moon (if so fails as a proper noun)

meer mere

rayed raid

sice syce

sorel sorrel

velum vellum

wyrdweird

HomophonesThis is a list of British-English homophones. See the explanation page for details of the inclusion criteria.

1. accessary, accessory

2. ad, add3. ail, ale4. air, heir5. aisle, I'll, isle6. all, awl7. allowed, aloud8. alms, arms9. altar, alter10. arc, ark11. aren't, aunt12. ate, eight13. auger, augur14. auk, orc15. aural, oral16. away, aweigh

111. dew, due

112. die, dye113. discree

t, discrete114. doe, 

doh, dough115. done,

dun116. douse,

dowse117. draft,

draught118. dual,

duel119. earn,

urn

221. leach, leech

222. lead, led

223. leak, leek

224. lean, lien

225. lessen, lesson

226. levee, levy

227. liar, lyre228. licence,

license229. licker,

liquor

331. rouse, rows

332. rung, wrung

333. rye, wry334. saver,

savour335. spade,

spayed336. sale, sail337. sane,

seine338. satire,

satyr339. sauce,

source340. saw, 

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17. awe, oar, or, ore18. axel, axle19. aye, eye, I20. bail, bale21. bait, bate22. baize, bays23. bald, bawled24. ball, bawl25. band, banned26. bard, barred27. bare, bear28. bark, barque29. baron, barren30. base, bass31. bay, bey32. bazaar, bizarre33. be, bee34. beach, beech35. bean, been36. beat, beet37. beau, bow38. beer, bier39. bel, bell, belle40. berry, bury41. berth, birth42. bight, bite, byte43. billed, build44. bitten, bittern45. blew, blue46. bloc, block47. boar, bore48. board, bored49. boarder, border50. bold, bowled51. boos, booze52. born, borne53. bough, bow54. boy, buoy55. brae, bray56. braid, brayed57. braise, brays, 

braze58. brake, break59. bread, bred60. brews, bruise61. bridal, bridle62. broach, brooch63. bur, burr64. but, butt65. buy, by, bye66. buyer, byre

120. eery, eyrie

121. ewe, yew, you

122. faint, feint

123. fah, far124. fair,

fare125. farther,

father126. fate,

fête127. faun,

fawn128. fay, fey129. faze,

phase130. feat,

feet131. ferrule,

ferule132. few,

phew133. fie, phi134. file,

phial135. find,

fined136. fir, fur137. fizz,

phiz138. flair,

flare139. flaw,

floor140. flea,

flee141. flex,

flecks142. flew, 

flu, flue143. floe,

flow144. flour,

flower145. foaled,

fold146. for, 

fore, four147. forewo

230. lie, lye231. lieu, loo232. links,

lynx233. lo, low234. load,

lode235. loan,

lone236. locks,

lox237. loop,

loupe238. loot,

lute239. made,

maid240. mail,

male241. main,

mane242. maize,

maze243. mall,

maul244. manna,

manner245. mantel,

mantle246. mare,

mayor247. mark,

marque248. marshal

, martial249. marten,

martin250. mask,

masque251. maw,

more252. me, mi253. mean,

mien254. meat, 

meet, mete255. medal,

meddle256. metal,

mettle257. meter,

soar, sore341. scene,

seen342. scull,

skull343. sea, see344. seam,

seem345. sear, 

seer, sere346. seas, 

sees, seize347. sew, so, 

sow348. shake,

sheikh349. shear,

sheer350. shoe,

shoo351. sic, sick352. side,

sighed353. sign, sine354. sink,

synch355. slay,

sleigh356. sloe,

slow357. sole, soul358. some,

sum359. son, sun360. sort,

sought361. spa, spar362. staid,

stayed363. stair,

stare364. stake,

steak365. stalk,

stork366. stationar

y, stationery367. steal,

steel368. stile,

style

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67. calendar, calender68. call, caul69. canvas, canvass70. cast, caste71. caster, castor72. caught, court73. caw, core, corps74. cede, seed75. ceiling, sealing76. cell, sell77. censer, censor, 

sensor78. cent, scent, sent79. cereal, serial80. cheap, cheep81. check, cheque82. choir, quire83. chord, cord84. cite, sight, site85. clack, claque86. clew, clue87. climb, clime88. close, cloze89. coal, kohl90. coarse, course91. coign, coin92. colonel, kernel93. complacent,

complaisant94. complement,

compliment95. coo, coup96. cops, copse97. council, counsel98. cousin, cozen99. creak, creek100. crews,

cruise101. cue, kyu, 

queue102. curb, kerb103. currant,

current104. cymbol,

symbol105. dam, damn106. days, daze107. dear, deer108. descent,

dissent109. desert,

rd, forward148. fort,

fought149. forth,

fourth150. foul,

fowl151. franc,

frank152. freeze,

frieze153. friar,

fryer154. furs,

furze155. gait,

gate156. galipot,

gallipot157. gallop,

galop158. gamble

, gambol159. gays,

gaze160. genes,

jeans161. gild,

guild162. gilt,

guilt163. giro,

gyro164. gnaw,

nor165. gneiss,

nice166. gorilla,

guerilla167. grate,

great168. greave,

grieve169. greys,

graze170. grisly,

grizzly171. groan,

grown172. guesse

d, guest

metre258. might,

mite259. miner, 

minor, mynah260. mind,

mined261. missed,

mist262. moat,

mote263. mode,

mowed264. moor,

more265. moose,

mousse266. morning

, mourning267. muscle,

mussel268. naval,

navel269. nay,

neigh270. nigh,

nye271. none,

nun272. od, odd273. ode,

owed274. oh, owe275. one,

won276. packed,

pact277. packs,

pax278. pail,

pale279. pain,

pane280. pair, 

pare, pear281. palate, 

palette, pallet282. pascal,

paschal283. paten, 

patten, pattern

369. storey, story

370. straight, strait

371. sweet, suite

372. swat, swot

373. tacks, tax374. tale, tail375. talk,

torque376. tare, tear377. taught, 

taut, tort378. te, tea, 

tee379. team,

teem380. tear, tier381. teas,

tease382. terce,

terse383. tern,

turn384. there, 

their, they're385. threw,

through386. throes,

throws387. throne,

thrown388. thyme,

time389. tic, tick390. tide, tied391. tire, tyre392. to, too, 

two393. toad, 

toed, towed394. told,

tolled395. tole, toll396. ton, tun397. tor, tore398. tough,

tuff399. troop,

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dessert110. deviser,

divisor

173. hail, hale

174. hair, hare

175. hall, haul

176. hangar, hanger

177. hart, heart

178. haw, hoar, whore

179. hay, hey

180. heal, heel, he'll

181. hear, here

182. heard, herd

183. he'd, heed

184. heroin, heroine

185. hew, hue

186. hi, high187. higher,

hire188. him,

hymn189. ho, hoe190. hoard,

horde191. hoarse,

horse192. holey, 

holy, wholly193. hour,

our194. idle,

idol195. in, inn196. indict,

indite197. it's, its198. jewel,

joule199. key,

quay200. knave,

284. pause, paws, pores, pours

285. pawn, porn

286. pea, pee

287. peace, piece

288. peak, peek, peke, pique

289. peal, peel

290. pearl, purl

291. pedal, peddle

292. peer, pier

293. pi, pie294. pica,

pika295. place,

plaice296. plain,

plane297. pleas,

please298. plum,

plumb299. pole,

poll300. poof,

pouffe301. practice

, practise302. praise, 

prays, preys303. principa

l, principle304. profit,

prophet305. quarts,

quartz306. quean,

queen307. rain, 

reign, rein308. raise, 

rays, raze

troupe400. tuba,

tuber401. vain, 

vane, vein402. vale, veil403. vial, vile404. wail, 

wale, whale405. wain,

wane406. waist,

waste407. wait,

weight408. waive,

wave409. wall,

waul410. war,

wore411. ware, 

wear, where412. warn,

worn413. wart,

wort414. watt,

what415. wax,

whacks416. way, 

weigh, whey417. we, wee, 

whee418. weak,

week419. we'd,

weed420. weal, 

we'll, wheel421. wean,

ween422. weather,

whether423. weaver,

weever424. weir,

we're425. were,

whirr

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nave201. knead,

need202. knew,

new203. knight,

night204. knit, nit205. knob,

nob206. knock,

nock207. knot,

not208. know,

no209. knows,

nose210. laager,

lager211. lac, lack212. lade,

laid213. lain,

lane214. lam,

lamb215. laps,

lapse216. larva,

lava217. lase,

laze218. law,

lore219. lay, ley220. lea, lee

309. rap, wrap

310. raw, roar

311. read, reed

312. read, red

313. real, reel

314. reek, wreak

315. rest, wrest

316. retch, wretch

317. review, revue

318. rheum, room

319. right, rite, wright, write

320. ring, wring

321. road, rode

322. roe, row323. role, roll324. roo, 

roux, rue325. rood,

rude326. root,

route327. rose,

rows328. rota,

rotor329. rote,

wrote330. rough,

ruff

426. wet, whet

427. wheald, wheeled

428. which, witch

429. whig, wig

430. while, wile

431. whine, wine

432. whirl, whorl

433. whirled, world

434. whit, wit435. white,

wight436. who's,

whose437. woe,

whoa438. wood,

would439. yaw, 

yore, your, you're

440. yoke, yolk

441. you'll, yule

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Rhyming WordsRhyming words help children remember words more easily. Kids think playing with words that rhyme is fun, so they stay engaged in learning longer. Rhyme also helps them learn about language.

They learn about word families and how words are put together. Kids also begin learning about the patterns, rhythms, and structure of language through simple rhymes. Help your child succeed in reading by using the following rhyming families. This is just a sample list of rhyming words to get you started. Look in your favorite books or a children's dictionary to make your own lists. The words are listed from easiest to hardest and in alphabetical order.

ack - back, lack, pack, rack, sack, tack, yak, black, knack, quack, slack, smack, snack, stack, track, whack, attack

ail -  bale, fail, hail, mail, male, nail, pail, tale, rail, sail, stale, scale, snail, whale, detail, email

air - air, bare, care, chair, dare, fair, hair, pair, rare, wear, chair, flare, stare, scare, share, spare, square, there, where, aware, beware, compare, declare, despair, prepare, repair, unfair

ake - ache, bake, fake, lake, make, rake, take, brake, break, flake, quake, snake, steak, awake, mistake

all - all, ball, call, doll, hall, fall, tall, crawl, small, baseball, football

an - an, can, fan, man, pan, ran, tan, van, plan, scan, span, began

and - and, band, hand, land, sand, bland, command, demand, expand, stand, understand

ap - cap, gap, map, nap, tap, zap, chap, clap, flap, slap, snap, strap, trap, wrap

ar - are, bar, car, far, jar, tar, star, scar, afar, guitar

at - at, bat, fat, mat, pat, rat, sat, flat, that, splat, combat

ate - ate, date, fate, mate, late, gate, rate, wait, crate, great, plate, skate, slate, state, straight, trait, weight, create

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ed - bed, dead, fed, head, led, read, red, said, bread, fled, spread, thread, tread, instead

ell - bell, fell, sell, well, yell, shell, smell, spell, farewell, hotel, motel

en - den, hen, men, pen, ten, glen, then, when, wren, again

et - bet, get, jet, let, met, pet, set, vet, wet, yet, threat, barrette, reset, upset

in - bin, chin, in, pin, tin, grin, thin, twin, skin, begin, within

ing - king, ring, sing, wing, zing, bring, cling, fling, sling, spring, sting, string, swing, thing

it - bit, fit, hit, it, kit, lit, pit, sit, flit, knit, quit, skit, slit, spit, split, admit, commit, permit

ite - bite, kite, bright, fight, fright, knight, night, might, right, tight, white, write, delight, tonight

oh - go, hoe, low, mow, row, sew, toe, blow, crow, dough, flow, know, glow, grow, know, show, slow, snow, stow, though, throw, ago, although, below

ot - cot, dot, got, hot, lot, not, pot, rot, tot, bought, fought, knot, taught, shot, spot, squat, forgot

ound - crowned, found, ground, hound, mound, pound, round, sound, wound, around, surround

oze - bows, hose, nose, rose, toes, blows, flows, froze, grows, those

ub - cub, rub, sub, tub, club, stub, scrub, shrub

un - bun, fun, gun, one, run, son, sun, ton, won, done, none, begun, outdone, undone

Have fun with your child using rhyming words to see how many they can get for each sound.