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Leadership Overview

Leadership Overview

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Contents

Introduction ...............................................................................................................3

What is Leadership? .................................................................................................3

Leadership and Management ...................................................................................4

Top Ten Characteristics of Leaders..........................................................................8

Worksheet: Leaders and Context ...........................................................................10

Theories of Leadership ...........................................................................................11

Effective Leadership ...............................................................................................13

Leadership Styles ...................................................................................................13

Transformational Leadership ..................................................................................18

Five Fundamental Practices of Leadership.............................................................20

Worksheet: My Leadership Practices? ...................................................................21

Public Sector Leadership ........................................................................................22

Leadership in the Third Sector ................................................................................24

Can Leadership be Learned? .................................................................................27

Is Leadership Necessary? ......................................................................................31

Challenges for Leadership Development Planning?...............................................33

Main References.....................................................................................................36

Annex A: Leadership Definitions and Quotations ..................................................38

Annex B: Selected Popular Models of Leadership..................................................40

Leadership Overview


Introduction The learning points from this workshop are as follows: • Leadership is about envisioning the future and inspiring people • Exemplary leaders display certain characteristics • Management and leadership are not the same thing • There is no single way to be an effective leader – it depends on the context,

situation and follower behaviour • You can develop and practice core competencies and adjust your leadership

style to the circumstances you are in • Motivating people is a key element of leadership • Leadership can be learned • There are key practices of leadership – if you can adopt these you can

become a more effective leader. What is Leadership? Leadership is the process of motivating other people to act in a particular way in order to achieve specific goals. The emphasis is on action because although leaders may exert influence through inspirational speeches, they are judged on what they do. As the Chinese proverb quoted by John Adair (1989) says,

“Not the cry but the flight of the wild duck leads the flock to fly and follow.” The definition used in the Management and Leadership Development Strategy for Northern Ireland (MDSNI) is as follows:-

“Leadership develops vision, sets future direction, motivates positive engagement in strategy/planning and generates a culture of constructively challenging convention.”

Perhaps a more practical, if somewhat mundane, definition of leadership is provided by Hannagan (2002):-

“Leadership is the process of motivating other people to act in particular ways in order to achieve specific goals.”

As Bennis (1959, p259) observed, and this is still true today,

“Always it seems the concept of leadership eludes us or turns up in another form to taunt us again with its slipperiness and complexity. So we have invented an endless prolifieration of terms to deal with it…and still the concept is not sufficiently defined.”

Gary Yukl (2006, p8) presents a definition that encompasses a more collective approach:-

“Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives.”

Leadership Overview


See Annex A for a random selection of leadership definitions and quotations. Leaders need to have followers and to share common goals with their followers. It involves other people, who by the degree of their willingness to accept direction help to define the leader’s status. It can be argued that people can exhibit ‘qualities of leadership’ in a variety of circumstances. The question is often asked, “Are there born leaders?” If leadership is seen as a process which can be analysed and a series of actions which can be identified then it can be learned, at least to some extent. John Adair in Great Leaders (1989) suggests that,

“The common sense conclusion of this book is that leadership potential can be developed, but it does have to be there in the first place”

Leadership can be seen as the ability to: • Create a vision • Present that vision so that others are inspired to achieve it • Drive the vision forward so that, no matter what happens, the vision

becomes a reality. Leadership requires many skills, including the ability to learn from the past and anticipate the future, communicate effectively, create good relations, organise resources, constantly hold the vision for success and act courageously and ethically at all times. Leadership and Management It is important to distinguish the difference between leadership and management, both of which are considered necessary. Leadership and management are often used interchangeably, but they are two distinctive and complementary processes. There is an important aspect to the debate surrounding the differences between leadership and management and it is raised by Zaleznik (1977) in his seminal article and by Bennis & Nanus (1985) amongst others. He questions if perhaps too many studies have been at small group level and so theory has focused moreso on management issues. It does appear that there are clear distinctions between the two dimensions, with leadership being seen as outward looking and inspirational in driving for change. Yukl (1989) notes that

“…the essence of the argument seems to be that managers are oriented towards stability and leaders are oriented towards innovation; managers get people to do things more efficiently, wheresas leaders get people to agree about what things should be done.”

Strategic leadership is about giving purpose, meaning and guidance to organisations whereas supervisory leadership is concerned with guidance, support and corrective feedback on a day-to-day basis using task or people-oriented behaviours as aproppriate (House, 1997).

“Management consists of implementing the vision and strategy provided by the leaders…”.

Leadership Overview


There is a need for both functions and indeed, leaders can become managers and vice versa by virtue of their approach and behaviour. The literature would appear to support the view that managers can become leaders by providing vision, direction, strategy and inspiration to the organisation and reinforcing the vision and inherent values adopted. As Buckingham (2005, p59) states:-

“The core activities of a manager and leader are simply different”. The difference is one of focus, one outwardly focused, the other internally. John Kotter (1990), Konosuke Matsushita Professor of Leadership at Harvard Business School, argues that leadership is different from management, but if either is missing, success in today’s competitive environment will be elusive. According to Warren Bennis and Bert Nanus (1985):-

“leadership is one of the most observed and least understood phenomena on earth”.

Typically the distinction between leadership and management will be described as follows:

Leadership

“Leadership is an influence relationship among leaders and followers who intend real changes that reflect their shared purpose.” (Rost, 1993, p 102)

Management

“Attainment of organisational goals in an effective and efficient manner through planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling organisational resource.” (Daft, 1999)

Leadership is sometimes quoted as being about people whilst management is talked about in terms control and creating predictable results. Unfortunately, management is today regarded by some as being a lesser skill than leadership. The reality is that mangers must lead people also and so leadership of a kind is needed at every organisatinal level. Kotter (1990, p26) argues however that neither is better than, nor a replacement for, the other and that:-

“the real challenge is to combine strong leadership and strong management and use each to balance the other”.

Yukl (2006, p5) also observed that:

“nobody has proposed that leadership and management are equivalent, but the degree of overlap is a point of sharp disagreement.”

Richard Daft (1999)building principally on the work of Kotter (1990) has produced the following comparison between management and leadership.

Leadership Overview


Management and Leadership Comparison Management Leadership

Direction Planning and budgeting Keeping an eye on the bottom line

Creating vision and strategy Keeping an eye on the horizon

Alignment Organising and staffing Directing and controlling Creating boundaries

Creating shared culture and values Helping others grow Reduce boundaries

Relationships Focusing on objects – producing/selling goods and services Based on a position of power Acting as boss

Focusing on people – inspiring and motivating followers Based on personal power Acting as coach, facilitator, servant

Personal Qualities

Emotional distance Expert mind Talking Conformity Insight into organisation

Emotional connections (Heart) Open Mind (Mindfulness) Listening (Communication) Non-conformity (Courage) Insight into self (Integrity)

Outcomes Maintain stability Creates change, often radical change

Management is about the control process, which ensures that lapses in performance are spotted and corrected through feedback. Managerial processes therefore must be as close as possible to fail-safe and risk-free. The leadership contribution is to motivate, inspire and energise people by satisfying basic human needs for achievement, a sense of belonging, recognition, self-esteem, control over one’s own life and an ability to live up to one’s ideals. Good leaders motivate people by making the vision relevant to the particular group, supporting the employee with coaching, feedback and role-modelling, and by recognising and rewarding success. This is no less important for a team leader and supervisior as it is for a senior manager. Adair (2002) used the original word meanings to emphasise this: Leading is about deciding direction, coming from an Anglo-Saxon word meaning the road or path ahead; knowing the next step and then taking others with you to it. Managing is a later concept, from Latin 'manus', meaning hand, and more associated with handling a system or machine of some kind. This same notion of looking outwards or inwards is captured by Bennis (2003):

“I tend to think of the differences between leaders and managers as the differences between those who master the context and those who surrender it.”

Leadership Overview


Covey (2004) highlights some clear distinctions between leadership and management drawing on quotes from respected writers on the subject. This is summarised below.

Quotes on Leadership and Management Author Leadership Management Warren Bennis “Leaders are people who

do the right thing;” “Managers are people who do things right.”

John Kotter “Leadership is about coping with change.”

“Management is about coping with complexity.”

James Kouzes and Barry Posner

“Leadership has about it a kinesthetic feel, a sense of movement…”

“Management is about ‘handling’ things, about maintaining order about organisation and control.”

Abraham Zaleznik “…Leaders are concerned with what things mean to people.”

“Managers are concerned about how things get done.”

John Mariotti “Leaders are the architects.”

“Managers are the builders.”

George Weathersby “Leadership focuses on the creation of a common vision.”

“Management is about the design of work…it’s about controlling…”

Mike Hudson (2003) says that truely great Chief Executives in the third sector have to rise beyond management and provide leadership. The boundary is not crystal clear and echoing comments made by Drucker, he asserts that to be over-led and under-managed may be exciting but not effective and to be under-led and over managed, whilst efficient, may lead to obscurity as the outer world passes the organisation by. One way of looking at this continuum is illustrated in the diagram below:

Continuum of Leadership and Management

Interestingly, in the Management and Leadership Strategy for NI the authors take a practical view of the distinction stating:-

“…we have taken a pragmatic view that everyone in a managerial (or supervisory) position has the responsibility to lead as well as manage.”

The distinction used is that “Leadership develops vision, sets future direction, motivates positive engagement in strategy/planning and generates a culture of constructively challenging convention”

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“Management organises and executes the plans, operationaslises people and resources within timeframes, attains quality standards and ultimately delivers results.” (Leading the Way, 2006, p11)

It seems clear that an organisation needs both good management and leadership and in the case of micro organisations, the capacity to deliver on both probably has to reside in one person. In summary, to be successful, an organisation needs both great leadership and management, whether this comes from one person (as in a very small organisation) or from a team of people working together towards common goals. The common elements and determining factors are context and people.

Top Ten Characteristics of Leaders An Industrial Society survey (1996) showed that the top ten characteristics most admired in leaders are:

Rank Factor

1 Showed enthusiasm

2 Supported other people

3 Recognised individual effort

4 Listened to individuals’ ideas and problems

5 Provided direction

6 Demonstrated personal integrity

7 Practised what he/she preached

8 Encouraged teamwork

9 Actively encouraged feedback

10 Developed other people

Point to Ponder Every leader needs to look back once in a while to make sure he/she has followers.

Point to Ponder Management is about coping with the complexity…good management brings about a degree of order and consistency to key dimensions like the quality and profitability of products and services. Leadership, by contrast, is about coping with change.

Kotter (1990)

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In a survey of 54,000 managers Covey (2004) demonstrated that integrity was by far the most important characteristic associated with effective leaders:-

Point to Ponder He who overcomes others is powerful. He who overcomes himself can lead others.

Leadership Overview


Worksheet: Leaders and Context Form into groups and nominate a well-known community, business, political, sports or local leader and identify the key characteristics associated with that person. What were the circumstances that brought this individual to the fore?

Nominated Leader: Characteristics: Context:

Leadership Overview


Theories of Leadership Mintzberg (1991) describes leadership as a “mysterious chemistry”. In seeking to understand why and how some people lead successfully and others follow, it is useful to look at some of the basic theories of leadership. Goleman (2000) writes about leaders having the “right stuff”. The first systematic effort by researchers to understand leadership was the attempt to identify the personal characteristics of leaders. It can be argued that there is a predisposition to consider leaders to be naturally braver, more aggressive, more decisive and more articulate than other people so that they stand out from others. This traditional view of leadership implies that leaders are born and not made. Trait theories suggest that there are certain personal qualities which are essential for leaders and these can be listed. The research into personality traits, or set of qualities that can be used to discriminate leaders from non-leaders has failed to produce any consistent position. It appears that no trait or combination of traits guarantees that a leader will be successful. Behavioural leadership theories are largely concerned with attempting to draw conclusions about which leadership style is most effective. The research on this tries to understand the behavioural patterns of successful and unsuccessful managers. Research by Ralph Stogdill (1957) identified two principal dimensions to leader behaviour – concern for people and concern for task (production). The thinking here is that highly effective leaders will have both a high level of concern for achieving tasks and for maintaining high quality relationships with their staff. According to contingency theory effective leadership is seen as dependent not just on style of leadership but on the context and situation in which the style was used. In other words, in a manufacturing unit there is likely to be more emphasis on directing subordinates to complete tasks whereas in a service industry relationship building is important. Unlike the trait and behavioural views of the leadership, the contingency view suggests that there is no universal style which works in all situations and that the level of effectiveness is best evaluated in a unit’s success in achieving its objectives. Different styles will be more or less effective depending on the situation in which leaders find themselves. And so, the style of the leader in the army may be very different from that of a church leader. The path-goal theory of leadership (Evans, 1970; House, 1971) was developed to explain how the behaviour of a leader influences the satisfaction and performance of a subordinate. According to House and Dressler1:-

“ …leader behavior will be viewed as acceptable to subordinates to the extent the subordinates see such behavior as either an immediate source of satisfaction or as instrumental to future satisfaction”.

This is an approach based on expectancy theory of motivation (Vroom, 1964). This holds that a person makes a rational choice regarding how much effort to devote to the job at a given point in time. They take into account the likelihood

1 House and Dressler, 1974, p13

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of completing the task satisfactorly whilst achieving desirable outcomes (e.g. pay, promotion and/or recognition) and avoiding undesirable outcomes (e.g. reprimand, rejection, stress). The leader’s role is to modify these perceptions and beliefs in a way that motivates the individual. As House (1971, p34) explains it:-

“The motivational function of the leader consists of increasing personal pay-offs to subordinates for work-goal attainment and making the path to these pay-offs easier to travel, by clarifing it, reducing roadblocks and pitfalls, and increasing the opportunities for personal satisfaction en route.”

The theory, again updated in 1974, promotes four broadly defined leadership behaviours or styles:- Supportive leadership (leader is affiliative and considerate) Directive leadership (leader guides and coordinates) Participative leadership (leader consults and involves) Achievement-oriented leadership (leader challenges and promotes

excellence).

According to the path-goal theory the effect leader behaviour has on subordinate satisfaction and effort depends also on situational factors such as task and subordinate characterisics and vice versa. The main issues raised about the reliability of the model are concerned with its complexity and rational decision biases which seem to take little account of the emotional reactions that influence motivation. House (1996) has tried to address these points by incorporating transformational behaviours into the model but it remains complex and complicated for practicioners to use. Situational leadership theory (Hersey and Blanchard, 1982) addresses the problem of management effectiveness by prescribing the appropriate leadership behaviour for a situation. As a subordinate’s “level of maturity” increases, the leader should use more relationship and less task behaviour. However, leadership of this nature requires considerable judgment by the manager in assessing the current maturity of his/her subordinates or team. This is supported by more recent publications by Paul Hersey (1998) and Ken Blanchard (2004). The leader can of course design development interventions in an attempt to boost maturity levels.

Leadership Overview


Effective Leadership What then makes an effective leader? A review of the principal theories (Trait, Behavioural, Contingency) emphasises that there is no single way of being an effective leader. To be an effective leader, you either have to be capable of behaving differently in different circumstances or be matched to situations that will likely respond positively to your preferred pattern of leadership behaviour. According to Yukl (2006, p456) an effective leader will:- Help interpret the meaning of events Create alignment on objectives and strategies Build task commitment and optimism Build mutual trust and co-operation Strengthen collective identity Organise and control activities Encourage and facilitate collective learning Obtain necessary resources and support Develop and empower people Provide social justice and morality. Leadership Styles A great deal of work has been done on the classification and categorisation of the different kinds of leadership styles including: Tannenbaum & Schmidt, (1958) Blake and Mouton (1964) Evans and House & Dressler, Path-Goal Theory (1970; 1974) Vroom and Yetton, Autocratic to Democratic Leadership (1973) Hersey and Blanchard, Situational Leadership (1977; 1984).

Point to Ponder Love ‘em and lead ‘em” Major General John F Stanford, US Army

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Participative Leadership Making decisions is one of the most important functions performed by a leader. Participative leadership involves efforts by a leader to encourage and facilitate participation by others in making important decisions. There is no agreement on the optimum number of decision procedures however most theorists agree on the following four: Autocratic decision (leader ‘decides and announces’; no participation) Consultation (leader seeks opinions and then decides; partial participation) Joint decision (leader involves and joint decision; equal participation) Delegation (leader empowers others to make decision; full participation) This involves a continuum ranging from no influence (autocratic) to high influence (delegation) on decisions. This is represented by Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958) as leadership styles which range from telling, selling, consulting and empowering. Vroom and Yetton (1973) distinguish between consulting with individuals and consulting with a group. Managerial Grid for Leadership Effectiveness Blake and Mouton (1964) developed a managerial grid that focused on job-centred (production/task) and employee-centred (people/relationship) dimensions. The ideal leader was seen to have high concern for production and high concern for people. Of eight-one possible combinations (see the grid below) the research focused on five major styles:

• The impoverished manager (grid ref. 1,1) is uninvolved in the work and withdrawn from people

• The sweatshop manager (grid ref. 9,1) is results driven and sees people as tools to that end

• The country club manager (grid ref. 1,9) is focused on being agreeable and smoothing relations

• The status quo manager (grid ref. 5,5) is moderately concerned with both work requirements and people’s needs

• The fully functioning manager (grid ref. 9,9) is intensely interested in task and cares deeply about people.

More recently two new styles have been added to reflect observations on the model. These are the paternalistic manager who uses high concern for task (9,1) combined with use of rewards (1,9) in exchange for compliance and loyalty. The other is the opportunistic manager who uses whichever style will promote his or her advancement (1,9 to please employees; 5,5, in interaction with peers; and 9,1 to gain favour with results-oriented bosses (Manning and Curtis, 2006, p21).

Leadership Overview


Managerial Grid for Leadership Effectiveness

Autocratic-Democratic Leadership The Normative Decision Model of leadership styles developed by Vroom and Yetton (1973) and others is a form of contingency approach and is presented as an autocratic-democratic leadership2 decision making model. It focuses on the situational factors which influence leadership. Managers need to consider certain practical considerations before deciding how to manage. Vroom and Jago (1978) revised and updated the model. They have suggested that there are three main ‘forces’ at work in determining whether a manger should act alone or involve subordinates in problem solving. These included:

Leaders-Manager maturity (a manager’s competence and confidence)

Subordinate maturity (their ability and willingness) Situation or context (issues of task, time and culture).

This model assumes that every leadership situation can be placed somewhere on a continuum between “autocratic” decision making and “democratic” decision making. This continuum suggests that a manager should consider a full range of options before deciding how to act. It must be remembered though that there is a distinction between overt procedures and actual influence and in practice there are other informal interactions that also affect and influence decisions.

2 This terminology of autocratic,democratic and laissez-faire derives from a classic study of leadership behaviour by Kurt Lewin et al. in 1939. This later influenced Ralph Stogdill (c1945) and others at Ohio State University who studied leadership behaviour around two dimensions – initiating structure (role and task oriented) and showing consideration (relationship and support).

Leadership Overview


Leadership-Behaviour Continuum3

Autocratic……………………………………………………………………..Democratic

1 2 3 4 5 6

Leader decides alone and (tells) announces the decision.

Leader decides alone and sells the decision.

Leader presents the issue for discussion and pretends to consult (but has already chosen the preferred decision).

Leader presents the issue and consults before making the decision.

Leader joins others in a (joint) decision making process.

Leader presents the issue and (delegates) asks others to decide - subject to certain limits or boundaries

The proven benefits of participative leadership based on research findings are inconclusive however qualitative research does appear to confirm that it sometimes leads to:

Improved decision quality Better decision acceptance Satisfaction with decision process; and Development of participants’ skills through the process.

Research carried out by Fielder (1971) was based on the view that managers have difficulty in altering the style which helped them to achieve success and that they are not very flexible. It follows from this that trying to change a manger’s style to suit the situation may be both useless and inefficient. If this is the case then it may be that instead of a manager changing style to suit a situation, it might be better to change the manager. This would mean choosing an authoritarian manager for a situation that requires strong directive leadership and so on. For those, and there are many, who believe in the ability of leaders to adapt to situational factors there a range of models to follow including Blanchard’s situational leadership which suggests four broad styles of leadership that can be adopted when working with individuals depending on their development level relating to competence and commitment. These are described as:

Directive Coaching Supporting Delegating

The successful leader, when choosing the appropriate leadership style to use with an individual, is encouraged to ask:

3 Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958)

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How competent is this person? How good are they at their job? How much direction do they need?

How committed is this person? To what extent do they work willingly and well? How much support and encouragement do they need?

In terms of competence and commitment, each person in a group will fit into one of the four development levels shown below.

Development Level 1 Low competence Inexperienced; needs additional training and development opportunities; needs updating on skills or knowledge; needs supervision

High commitment Enthusiastic, confident, hard-working, eager to learn and develop, highly motivated

Development Level 2 Some competence: Some experience; additional training and development opportunities would be useful and helpful; needs some supervision

Low commitment Not particularly enthusiastic or confident or hard working or eager to learn and develop; not particularly motivated

Development Level 3 High competence Highly skilled, competent and experienced; knows precisely what they are supposed to do and how to do it; capable and competent; can work unsupervised

Variable commitment Sometimes enthusiastic, confident, hard-working, eager to learn and develop, highly motivated - and sometimes not

Development Level 4 High competence Highly skilled, competent and experienced; knows precisely what they are supposed to so and how to do it; capable and competent; can work unsupervised High commitment Always enthusiastic, confident, hard-working, eager to learn and develop, highly motivated

Which style works best? Listed below are some pointers:

People who fall into Development Level 1 (low competence/high commitment) tend to respond best to a directive style of leadership – high on direction, lower on support. Their motivation is high but they need clear direction and some supervision to compensate for their lack of skills and knowledge.

People who fall into Development Level 2 (some competence/low commitment) tend to respond best to a coaching style of leadership – high on direction, lower on support. They need some direction and supervision, plus regular praise and encouragement to build motivation.

Leadership Overview


People who fall into Development Level 3 (high competence/variable commitment) tend to respond best to a supporting style of leadership – low on direction, higher on support. They know what they are doing, so need little supervision, but they do need a fair amount of encouragement.

People who fall into Development Level 4 (high competence/high commitment) tend to respond best to a delegating style of leadership – low on both direction and support. Even so, do not make the mistake of always leaving Category 4 people just to get on with it. They need feedback and encouragement just as much as anyone else.

The way in which the four main leadership styles (directing, coaching, supporting, delegating) relate to the four categories of competence and commitment is shown below:

Development Level 1 Low can-do High want-to-do

Development Level 2 Some can-do Low want-to-do

Style 1: Directing Giving clear instructions

Style 2: Coaching Talking things through

Style 4: Delegating Trusting people

Style 3: Supporting Showing interest

Development Level 4 High can-do High want-to-do

Development Level 3 High can-do Variable want-to-do

Transformational Leadership It is argued that charismatic leaders4 are able, through personal vision and energy, to inspire followers and have a major impact on an organisation. This view of leadership treats it as a mysterious and powerful quality that can be used for good and evil (what Bass calls the ‘dark side’)5. Through emotional and symbolic gestures they are able to influence followers to make self-

4 Charisma is a Greek word that means “divinely inspired gift” e.g. the ability to predict the future. 5 Bass & Steidlmeier (1999)

Leadership Overview


sacrifices and subordinate self-interest to serve a higher (organisational) mission. Although transformational and charismatic leadership are often used interchangeably, they are now treated as related but different (Bass & Riggio, 2006). To their followers, charismatic leaders transform their lives in one way or another and they often do not ask too many questions about how this is achieved. The fact is that some people are able, for a time, to exert great influence using charismatic qualities. The theory of transformational leadership was strongly influenced by James McGregor Burns (1978) who contrasted transformational (mobilising on the basis of moral values) and transactional (motivated by self-interest and exchange) leadership in a political context. Burns also wrote of a third dimension – legitimate authority – which was leadership based on respect for bureaucracy, rules and traditions. In analysing the concept of transformational leadership in the corporate world, Bass (1985; 1996) contrasted two types of leadership: transactional and transformational. Transactional leaders determine what subordinates need to do to achieve their own and organisational objectives and create the support needed to enable them to act appropriately. Transformational leaders motivate people to do better than they would have expected by raising motivation and the importance of the value of people’s tasks within the organisation. These leaders go beyond transactional leadership by using their personal vision and energy to inspire their followers. Using factor analysis and with a Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) Bass and Avolio (1997) identified a range of transformational and transactional behaviours practiced by leaders. A third ‘non-leadership’ category was added based on research (Avolio, 1999). The behaviours are listed as:- Transformational Leadership Behaviour Idealised Influence Individualised Consideration Inspirational Motivation Intellectual Stimulation Transactional Leadership Behaviour Contingent Reward Active Management by Exception Passive Management by Exception Laissez-faire Inactive Passive and disengaged This model is known as the Full Range Leadership (FRL) model and is well regarded but not proven in its entirety (Antonakis & House, 2002). Most studies do however find support for the basic distinction between transformational and transactional as effective leadership behaviours. It is interesting to note that

transformational

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leadership is considered effective in any situation or culture (Bass, 1996; 1997). It is likely to be more important in a dynamic, unstable environment that increases the need for change and such leadership is more likely when leaders are encouraged and empowered to be flexible and entrepreneurial e.g. in a decentralised and entrepreneurial culture.

Transformational Leadership and Effectiveness Taking all of the findings from research, in the round, Yukl (2006, p.274) offers the following guidelines for leaders who seek to inspire followers towards achieving organisational goals:

• Articulate a clear and appealing vision • Explain how the vision can be attained • Act confident and optimistic • Express confidence in followers • Use dramatic, symbolic actions to emphasise key values • Lead by example.

Five Fundamental Practices of Leadership James Kouzes and Barry Posner (2002) identified five practices which, in their view, are associated with what they call ‘exemplary leaders’. Their five fundamental practices of leadership are:- Challenge the process

• They search for opportunities • They experiment and take risks • They challenge other people to exceed their own limitations

Inspire a shared vision • They envision an ennobling future • They enlist people to join in that new direction

Enable others to act • They strengthen others • They foster collaboration

Leadership Overview


Model the way • They set the example for people by their own leadership behaviour • They plan small wins to get the process moving

Encourage the heart • They regard and recognise individual contributions • They celebrate team successes

See Annex B for a summary of selected, popular, models of leadership.

Worksheet: My Leadership Practices?

Leadership Action Plan

Leadership Overview


Public Sector Leadership

Whatever differences there may be about a precise definition of leadership, it is clearly about people as followers and the extent to which they can be motivated to behave in particular ways. (Rose and Lawton,1999). Adair, speaking at a conference in 1996 for public sector managers talked of twenty-first century managers requiring vision, empathy and concern for people and issues , lack of reliance on position and rank for status and the ability to be a team builder and team maintainer.6 John Monks, former General Secretary of the TUC expressed the view that leadership was about listening, inspiring and morale building. One public service manager, quoting Rose and Lawton,

“promotes the CHILTERN principles of leadership: communication; honesty; involvement; listening; trust; enthusiasm; results and no games!”

The 2002 Strengthening Leadership in the Public Sector report highlighted some real deficiencies in leadership development with the sector. It concluded, as did the Review of Public Administration in Northern Ireland, that the sector faced new challenges including:

• Modernisation with much better customer focus • Higher and increasing public expectation for quality of service • More opportunities and requirements for partnership working within

and across sectors • Pressures to harness ICT and deliver services electronically.

Although the report acknowledges examples of excellence it concludes that: • The public sector is not attracting and keeping the best leaders • Leadership development does not give enough emphasis to working

across boundaries and learning between sectors • Potential leaders are not being given the freedom to lead.

The report also highlights the difficulty created by having many and often contradictory interpretations of theories of leadership. This can lead to confusion about what works and doesn’t work and makes it difficult for leaders to transfer their knowledge to others. Leading the Way, a new Management and Leadership Development Strategy for Northern Ireland (MLDSNI, 2006)7 has published a cross-sectoral strategy:-

“to create a cohesive and comprehensive approach to building world class management and leadership capabilities aligned to the vision for Northern lreland…”

6 Rose, A. & Lawton, A (1999) Public Services Management p153-158, Essex, Pearson Education Ltd. 7 Coordinated by the Management and Leadership Network and available on www.mln.org.uk

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Against the background of the Review of Pubic Administration it was reported that:

“Research in each sector, combined with the number of ‘strategic objectives’ dependent upon these factors, point to a need for a significant and urgent effort to address a ‘management and leadership deficit’.”8

The policy drivers for the MLDSNI strategy include: Corporate Plan and New Skills Strategy (DEL); Corporate Plan and New Economic Vision (DETI); Positive Steps (DSD); RPA (NICS & NILG; and linked to the UK agenda through Management and Leadership Corporate Plan (SSDA). Research and feedback consistently highlights the integration of strategy and the management role in implementation as a key issue:-

“In a recent CIPD survey, 86 per cent of respondents said that the biggest challenge for organisations was “integrating management development with the implementation of organisational goals”.9

Whilst the Mabey Report (2005) is more positive, saying that organisations are now taking the issue of leadership and management more seriously. Focusing more closely on Northern Ireland, the MLN Survey of NI Top 100 Companies (2004) concluded that:-

“Encouragingly more than 80 per cent stated that they have a formal written business strategy but almost half indicated that this didn’t include any reference to management development”.

The cross sectoral challenges for organisations in Northern Ireland appear to be:

• Lack of investment in leadership development • Promoting leadership and not functional management competencies

only • Getting senior managers to see the link between development and

performance • Increasing the very small pool of high calibre people • Increasing the number of qualified and experienced coaches and

mentors • Getting people to learn and exchange knowledge across sectors.

Peter Shaw (2006, p25), who has spent most of his working life in senior public sector management roles, believes strongly in the servant leadership model and he recommends a balance between:-

“leading from the front in terms of taking direct action and enabling and serving others to fulfil their own visions and providing a healing role in building and renewing relationships.”10

He references a very practical and real model of leadership (applied by AstraZeneca, one of the world's leading pharmaceutical companies) that he believes the public sector could learn from especially where it seeks symmetry

8 Council for excellence in Management and Leadership (CEML) Report and Government Response 2002 & Skills Sector Development Agency (SSDA) Corporate Plan 2002 9 Developing Managers for Business Performance – Key Findings (CIPD, November 2005). 10 Shaw, Peter, (2006) The Four Vs of Leadership Chichester, Capstone Publishing

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between the vision of the organisation and that of individuals within it. The six global leadership capabilities promoted across the organisation are:

Clarity of strategic direction Commitment to vision Focus on delivery Build relationships Develop people Demonstrate personal conviction.

Leadership in the Third Sector Research on leadership shows that whilst there is some agreement about the elements of leadership, there is no one agreed definition of what is a leader. In a recent review of the literature around leadership Northouse (2004) identified four common themes that run through much of leadership theory:

• process • influence • group context • goal attainment.

Based on this analysis, leadership in the third sector could simply be defined as

“a process whereby an individual influences a group or individuals to achieve a common goal”. (Hailey, 2006)

But as Hailey also points out, it is accepted that no one definition can cover all aspects of leadership. Taking a third level perspective leadership also incorporates:

• mobilising of others • getting things done, willingly, through other people • empowering others • articulating vision and embodying values • creating an environment within which things can be achieved • shaping and sharing a vision which gives point to the work of others.

Typical of the competencies commonly associated with leadership are the ability of a leader to communicate vision or strategy, inspire teams, motivate individuals, and identify opportunities and initiate transformation. It begs the question: is this any different for the third sector? Recent research for the Association of Chief Executives of Voluntary Organisations (ACEVO)11 suggests that third sector leaders exhibit an unusually broad range of competencies compared to leaders in the public and private sectors (Bolton & Gosling, 2003). The research findings state12:

11 http://www.acevo.org.uk: Last Accessed 12 October 2006 12 Passionate Leadership – The characteristics of outstanding leaders in the voluntary sector – What sector leaders think’ (ACEVO, 2003)

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“As workers within the sector tend to be either low paid or voluntary staff, visionary leadership and inspiration are likely to be important aspects of the role regardless of size.”

The report refers to the following behavioural characteristics of third sector leaders:

Emotional attachment • a strong emotional affinity with the raison d’etre of the organisation. A

passion for its beliefs. A desire to succeed for the greater good of the organisation. A high degree of personal energy and enthusiasm for the cause.

Personal integrity. • trustworthiness. Strategic perspective • conceptual and analytical thinking. Recognises changes in the

broader environment and responds accordingly. Keeps up to date with issues/current thinking. Responds flexibly whilst remaining mindful of the core mission of the organisation.

Visionary and inspirational communicator • the ability to paint a picture of the future that appeals strongly to

others. Shows passion and emotion in visioning and representing the work of the organisation to others. A powerful communicator in all forums from one-to-one to public speaking. Visible and seen to speak out and represent the organisation.

Personal humility • not in the role for self-aggrandisement. Wants to make a difference

through others rather than by themselves. Motivating a team

• being seen to understand the problems of and support staff and/or volunteers in their work ‘on the ground’.

Networking • a structured yet opportunistic approach to identifying those whose

support could be useful to the organisation and seeking effective relationships with them. Maintaining and building those relationships appropriately to increase the effectiveness of their own organisation. Actively engaging in groups/on committees that will usefully further personal network. At the higher levels, building alliances with other organisations to work together to fulfil mutual objectives.

Influencing • a strong desire and capacity for influencing others to further the

mission of the organisation. Includes high level influencing – building coalitions, influencing through 3rd parties, etc. Politically astute: knows where the power lies and how to influence it.

Resilience • an ability to ‘bounce back’ quickly after setbacks; dealing with

personal and emotive criticism that may be made public. Self confidence

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• confident in highly visible and stressful situations (eg) public forum, debates, media. Person presentation: fulfilling the ambassador role confidently at all levels both internally and externally. Courage to take tough and unpopular decisions, to acknowledge when one has ‘got things wrong’.

Customer service orientation • a genuine empathy with the end-user and a focus on service delivery.

An appetite for the detail of providing quality service. Knowledge of subject matter

• sufficient knowledge to represent the charity credibly and to show empathy with staff, volunteers and beneficiaries.

In large part because of the complexity that leadership demands, Civicus, an international alliance of civil society organisations, has identified the lack of NGO leadership talent and this is of course seen as a matter of particular concern (Civicus, 2002)13. One of the reason for this is that the sector’s leaders need a rare balance of inward-looking (management) and outward-looking (influencing) skills, with exceptional communication and networking skills, as well as resilience and emotional intelligence. International research into the character and capabilities of third sector leaders in developing countries also supports these conclusions (Hailey & Smiley, 2001; James 2005). What is striking from any review of this research is the variety of different roles that such leaders have to play whatever the culture or context. Their success is partly determined by their ability to play different roles and adapt different leadership styles. They can be characterised as being “value-driven, knowledge-based, and responsive” (Hailey & Smiley, 2001). Just as NICVA has argued in Leading the Way, they display an extraordinary range of skills and competencies. One of the issues for third sector leaders, supported by NGO research, is the way that successful third sector leaders must manage the tensions inherent in being both a strong individual lead while still appearing to be highly participative in they way they manage. It may seem somewhat counter-intuitive that third sector organisations need to be both highly participative and yet accept the presence and role of a strong leader. At first glance, the concepts of leadership and participation seem incompatible and yet what the research shows is that strong leadership and participatory management can be complementary and compatible. Looking back at the literature review and applying the theoretical models, it is certain that third sector leaders need to be adaptive in style, build strong follower relationships and envision the future as a motivator. Collins (2005, p10) in his monograph on the social sector tackled the question of difference between leadership across sectors saying:-

“Social sector leaders are not less decisive than business leaders as a general rule; they only appear that way to those who fail to grasp the

13 Civicus, (Aug 2002) Connecting Civil Society Worldwide, Newsletter No 175, Johannesburg

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complex governance and diffuse power structures common to social sectors.”

There is now a small, but growing body of research into the challenges faced by third sector leaders in the uncertain and volatile political and economic environment of the developing world (Lewis, 2001; Hailey & James, 2004). Drawing on these bodies of work, we are better informed it of leadership types and the distinguishing the mix of skills and competencies needed by third sector leaders whatever the environment in which they operate. John Hailey develops the concept of what he calls “catalytic” leaders who typically act strategically and have the ability to promote and implement change. They demonstrate the capacity to take a longer-term strategic view while balancing tough decisions as to strategic priorities with organisational values and identity. Their success as change agents depends on their ability to delegate work to talented colleagues, so freeing time to invest in social capital building networks. The question of how to assess what leadership type is best suited to the demands facing the third sector in the future maybe partly addressed by the degree to which leaders engage internally or externally, and the effectiveness of their ability to manage performance. Hailey (2004) suggests that third sector leaders:

“with their ability to both engage with the external world and manage performance are the “type” of leader that future leadership development programmes should be promoting and encouraging”.

In a noteworthy conclusion, Collins (2005) reaffirms his findings that Level 5 leaders differ from Level 4 in that they are ambitious first for the cause, the mission and not for themselves and they have the will to see through a strategy to accomplish the mission. This combination of personal humility and professionalism is a key factor in creating legitimacy and influence. He goes on the say:

“Level 5 ledaership is not about being ‘soft’ or ‘nice’ or purely ‘ inclusive’ or ‘consensus-building’. The whole point of Level 5 is to make the right decisions happen – no matter how difficult or painful – for the long term greatof the institution and the accomplishment of its mission, independent of consensus or popularity”.

Can Leadership be Learned? Having knowledge of leadership and knowing what makes one person a better practicing leader than another will not be of real use in driving performance improvement unless people are able to learn from this and change their behaviours accordingly. Adair was probably the first to demonstrate that leadership is a trainable, transferable skill, rather than it being an exclusively inborn ability. In Great Leaders (1989) he suggests that,

“The common sense conclusion of this book is that leadership potential can be developed, but it does have to be there in the first place”

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According to Capowski,

“Leaders are not born. Leaders are made, and they are made by effort and hard work”.14

In other words, everyone has the basic seeds of leadership within them and how these are developed and cultivated will determine whether leadership qualities develop in an individual. It has been argued that

“more leaders have been made by accident, circumstance, sheer grit, or will than have been made by all the leadership courses put together. Leadership courses can only teach skills. They cannot teach character or vision…”15

He goes on the say that,

“The ingredients of leadership cannot be taught, however. They must be learned.”

It is argued that learning how to be a leader is a highly personal process dependent on the particular background of the individual. Leadership is about creating a compelling vision, and influencing people so that they want to follow that vision, however, it is also about ‘softer’ people skills and these need to be learnt also. People also need to learn how to lead in today’s ever-changing environment, i.e. how to empower, to facilitate change, and to challenge the status quo. Just as with most skills, leadership needs to be practised and refined. This requires a combination of feedback and self-knowledge to help maximise this feedback and learn effectively. As Bennis says,

“…people begin to become leaders at the moment they decide for themselves how to be.”16

The key to unlocking leadership is learning and as Bennis and Nanus, authors of Leaders, found of the ninety leaders they studied they regard almost:-

“every false step as a learning opportunity and not the end of the world”.17

There is a range of ways to transfer knowledge within an organisation and because tacit knowledge is associated with largely uncoded know-how and know-who it can be difficult to achieve the learning needed to enable and empower others. The real trick is to get ‘deep smarts’ (i.e. those people with an extensive experience repertoire) to transfer knowledge and according to Leonard and Swap (2004) this requires practice, observation, problem solving and experimentation to be effective. It will require a variety of approaches as

14 Capowski, Genevieve, ‘Anatomy of a Leader: Where are the Leaders of Tomorrow?’ Management Review (March 1994), p 12. 15 Bennis (2003, p34). 16 Bennis (2003, p34). 17 Bennis W., and Nanus, B. (1985) Leaders: The Strategies for Taking Charge. New York: Harpers & Row

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illustrated below with learning by doing or active learning being the most effective transfer technique for acquiring tacit knowledge from a ‘deep smart’. Moving Towards Transferred Tacit Knowledge Much of our traditional learning experience has led us to believe that we learn best by listening to experts. It would be great for us if that were the case. The reality is that effective learning, leading to increased self-awareness, changed behaviour, and the acquisition of new skills, must actively engage people in the learning process. Research demonstrates that leaders and managers, just like any other adult learners, learn more and retain more if they are actually doing or experiencing things. Adult learning specialist, David Kolb (1984), has described this learning process as a “learning cycle” in which the learner: (1) does something concrete or has a specific experience which provides a basis for (2) observes and reflects on the experience and their own response to it; these observations are then (3) assimilates learning into a conceptual framework or relates to other concepts in the their past experience and knowledge from which implications for action can be derived; and (4) tests and applies the learning in different situations.

Kolb’s Learning Cycle The adult learner assimilates useful information into their personal "experience bank" against which future learning events will be compared and to which new concepts will be related. Unless what is learned can be applied to actual work or life situations the learning will not be effective or long lasting. When designing leadership and management programmes it is important to apply this learning cycle to help managers understand and be able to use their new knowledge and/or skills

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A cautionary note is provided in the following observation:-

“…there is reason to believe that many individuals are not able to substantially vary their cognitive style or orientation, their dominant motives , or their global behaviour patterns (Fielder, 1967; Sherif, Sherif & Nebergale, 1965). There is no available evidence that shows that individuals can substantially alter autocratic, participative, charismatic, task-oriented or person-oriented behaviour patterns.” (Zacarro et al, 1997).

Finally on the question of learning to lead, there are two points worth reflecting on. Firstly, there is some evidence that those most interested will profit most from development training. This may give further justification to the process of induction whereby programme participants are encouraged to ‘buy into’ programmes as well as learn more about the detail of the programme itself. Secondly, learning is best achieved in a stress-free environment and indeed leaders perform better when stress-free and so stress reduction is an area that needs much more prominence in any discussion on leadership development planning.

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Is Leadership Necessary? It may seem a little too obvious to ask, but does leadership actually matter? Do leaders have a substantive effect on the performance of the organisations they lead? Actually, there is some empirical evidence to suggest that it does matter. A series of studies (e.g. Fielder, 1996; House, Spangler & Woycke, 1991; Thomas, 1988; Waldman, Ramirez & House, 1996) have all concluded that leaders of organisations have a significant influence on overall organisational performance. They conclude that top managers do indeed matter but are constrained by environmental and organisational factors such as inertia, incompetence around them and lack of freedom to invest for growth. Because leadership has so many definitions and means different things to different people some question its usefulness as a construct (Alvesson & Sveningesson, 2003) but most academics and practitioners do believe that it is real and is important for effective organisations (Yukl, 2006, p3). There have been a number of studies of the effects of top management succession on the organisational performance in both profit and non profit sectors. A review of these studies (House & Singh, 1987) shows that executive succession makes a substantial difference in the performance of organisations. Waldman et al (2001) argue that transactional and transformational leadership characteristics do matter and in particular, transformational leadership is a better predictor of performance under conditions of uncertainty, but not under conditions of certainty. It may be worth pointing out that transactional leadership is a perfectly legitimate form of strategic leadership, especially when operating within a stable system and culture (Pawar and Eastman, 1997). This approach promotes exchanges and contingent reward and closely monitors deviation from agreed plans. Far from being a wrong approach, it can actually strengthen existing structures and culture whilst achieving strategies (Trice & Beyer, 1993). Both transactional and transformational leadership are important at a strategic level. Bass (1985) viewed them as complementary in that both could be displayed in the same leader. One way of looking at it is that charisma adds value to transactional characteristics. Transforming leaders are high performing in uncertain conditions but may be dysfunctional in a certain and stable environment. The lesson must be that striving to be transformational should not be the holy grail for all emerging leaders, in all circumstances. Finkelstein (1992) suggests that the role of personality needs to be taken into account also and suggested that

“power may emanate from a manager’s personality”. Taking an example from public sector, Ofsted found that

“changing the headteacher has been found to be the most successful means of taking a failing school out of ‘special measures’”.

This demonstrates the power of leadership to improve performance and the role of the leader in this process. It can be argued that leaders only emerge in response to a perceived need by followers. This implies that leadership can be turned on and off as required. It

Leadership Overview


suggests that leadership is a choice and not a position. At the same time the development of participative management and self-managed work groups may have reduced the need for leadership in the old sense. The creation of self-managed teams and groups requires the nurturing of a better organisational culture which enables this process to work. Of course it is also reasonable to argue that leadership is still required to establish this situation and to provide the support necessary for this culture. According to Charles Handy (1993) the modern organisation requires us:

“To learn new ways and new habits, to live with more uncertainty, but more trust, less control, but more creativity”.

He argues that leadership remains as difficult to pin down as ever and it has to be seen in action to be recognised.

“The studies agree on very little but what they do agree on is probably at the heart of things. It is this: ‘A leader shapes and shares a vision which gives point to the work of others’.”

The questioning of the need for leadership puts an emphasis on the argument that leadership is not by itself good or desirable. Perhaps a way to look at it that it is a means to an end, that is, to achieving certain objectives. Drucker has suggested that leadership is more about results – what is achieved - than personal qualities:

“Leadership is not by itself good or desirable. Leadership is a means. Leadership to what end is the crucial question. History knows no more charismatic leaders than this century’s [20th century] triad of Stalin, Hitler and Mao – the misleaders who inflicted as much evil and suffering on humanity as have ever been recorded.”

The feature which distinguishes what Drucker terms ‘misleaders’ from the leaders is their goals. As Peter Drucker (1992) has written,

“the leaders first task is to be the trumpet that sounds a clear sound.” He says that the second task of the leader is to accept that leadership is about responsibility rather than rank or privilege – a choice, not a position. Drucker argues that a third requirement of effective leadership is to earn trust. Without trust there are not any followers and there is, therefore, not the leader. Trust is belief in the vision of leaders and the conviction that they mean what they say. Peters and Waterman (1982) believe that in almost every excellent company there is somewhere in its history an example of transforming leadership, most likely when the company was relatively small. And finally, as Goleman has said (2000),

“Ask any group of business people the question, ‘What do effective leaders do?’ and you’ll hear a sweep of answers. Leaders set strategy; they motivate; they create a mission; they build a culture. Then they ask, ‘What should leaders do?’ If the group is seasoned, you’ll likely hear one response: the leader’s singular job is to get results.”

Leadership Overview


Challenges for Leadership Development Planning? The challenge for any new Leadership Development Programme (LDP) will be to both mobilise existing talent and also develop new leaders. This requires that any LDP must help prepare individuals to play roles beyond their normal experience or frame of reference. Therefore, one measure of the success of any LDP is to what degree it helps transform personal behaviour and change attitudes within the sector. Individuals in leadership positions have to become more self-aware and change their own behaviour and attitudes if genuine change is to take place. In other words leaders have to change themselves, not just try to change the organisations. As Nelson Mandela famously commented:-

“You can never change society if you have not changed yourself”. Another way of seeing it is summed up by Ghandi who said:-

“You must be the change you wish to see in the World”. The crucial question is how to ensure such personal change occurs? This is another challenge to be faced in designing and running leadership development programmes. Personal change and transformation is dependent on greater self-awareness and willingness to engage in new ways of working or thinking. This is the stuff of emotional intelligence and transformational thinking. Raising awareness and promoting personal change is therefore a crucial component of any successful LDPs (Bolden & Gosling, 2006). There must be a shift away from formal, structured, one-off training courses to more process-based, experiential programmes with an emphasis on personal development and self-directed learning. This will mean a greater appreciation that more holistic, self-learning programmes spread over time are better able to develop personal confidence and new leadership competencies. There is now much greater recognition of the importance of personal change, individual empowerment, experiential learning, and face to face support. Bennis and Linkage Inc (1999) surveyed 350 companies to ask about best practice in leadership development. Leaders report most learning from practical components such as 360-degree feedback, action learning and exposure to senior colleagues. Since these programmes are delivered to adults, then the conclusion must be that good practice in adult learning should drive methodology. This means being:

• action-oriented; • hands-on with learning; and • giving time to reflect and absorb new information.

Experience suggests that leadership insight can be best developed through some process that builds on participants’ own experience, and provides feedback through mentoring and coaching sessions, appraisals, learning sets, or team building exercises (James, 2005). Kouzes and Posner (1987, p283) suggested three major categories of opportunities for learning to lead: trial and error (experience); other people (role models); and education and formal training.

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Leadership development therefore isn’t about a single event, it is about a process that incorporates a range of activities including:

• reading and self-directed learning • formal, targeted, courses and workshops • interactive workshops • coaching and mentoring • self-assessment questionnaires • diagnostic tests • 360 degree feedback • psychometric testing (such as Myers Briggs or 16PF) • journaling and narrative description • photographs and video dairying • communities of practice and networking • cases and simulation exercises • transformative events, tests and experiences • specialist workshops and seminars • learning sets and peer group support • secondments, attachments, and observation exercises • leader shadowing.

This mix of inputs and approaches will not only provide participants with specific skills and experiential learning, but also insights and feedback that help promote greater self-awareness and self-confidence in their role as a leader. Of the activities identified it is apparent that coaching and mentoring plays an increasingly important role in leadership development - to the extent that it is commonly expected that most individuals in leadership positions should have the support of some kind of coach or mentor. In an Accenture study of leaders under the age of 35 years and over the age of 70, which included social activists and elected politicians, it was unanimously agreed that they had learned more about leading from real work and life experiences than from leadership development courses and MBA programmes. These leaders had been taught technical skills but not how to ‘extract wisdom from experience’ (Thomas & Cleese, 2005). One of the key findings of the study is that LDPs should not be so much focused on how to learn about leadership, rather, on how to learn from experience and gain insight into how individuals learn.

“Helping people understand their own best learning style is one of the keys to preparing leaders; the other is helping them to understand what kind of lenses they use as observers.”

This implies using personality tests and learning styles inventories as instruments or tools as part of the “preparing to learn phase” of any development programme. This suggests going further with phases for leadership development which might include developing and preserving phases. The developing phase is fairly traditional but the preserving aspect might grow

Leadership Overview


to include knowledge management tactics including building advice networks and communities of practice within which experience can be honed, personalised and shared for mutual benefit. John Hailey, writing in 2006, suggests that:-

“one should not underestimate the role of “followers” (colleagues, subordinates, or team members) in developing effective leaders. Such “followers” play a crucial role in reinforcing the power of individual leaders, influencing their behaviour, and helping construct internal systems and structures that act to enhance the status of those they see playing a leadership role (Howell & Shamir, 2005). The success of most leaders is determined in part by the resources, energy, expertise and knowledge that such “followers” can muster.

Appreciation of the influential role of such “followers” is critical in informing our understanding of the socialisation process that shapes the leadership style adopted, and suggests that leadership is a collective task based on shared decision-making and delegated authority. Leadership is therefore a social process in which everyone is engaged. As such leadership development should also be seen as an investment in building human capital and developing the collective capacity of staff and volunteers to interact and work together in meaningful ways.” 18

Current thinking suggests that leadership development should be seen as being an emergent, experiential and bespoke process. LDPs should be seen as providing a safe space to explore new issues, receive feedback and reflect on personal performance and behaviour. Because of the emphasis on experiential learning, many successful programmes incorporate a planned programme of secondments, attachments and job rotation. As such they should not be seen in the same light as traditional training courses, but more a mix of methodologies that help generate self-awareness, build confidence, analyse options and explore ways of implementing alternative solutions. Ready (2003), writing for MIT Sloan Management Review, offered three reasons why leadership development programmes fail: lack of top management ownership; choosing off-the-shelf product over evolving processes; and focusing measurement on inputs and immediate outputs rather than outcomes and impact. He warns against these pitfalls which he say will result in organisations ‘getting burnt’ and failing to invest in leadership.

18 http://www.centreforcharityeffectiveness.org/Newsletter_Sept06/Sept06hailey.htm: Last accessed 9 Sep 06

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Main References

Adair, J. (2005) How to Grow Leaders: The Seven Key Principles of Effective Leadership Development London, Kogan Page.

Bass, B and Riggio, R (2006) Transformational Leadership 2nd Ed., London, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Belbin, R. M. (1993) Team Roles at Work Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Bennis, Warren and O’Toole, James (2000) Don’t Hire the Wrong CEO Harvard Business Review May/June. Blake, R. and Marston, J (1964) The Management Grid. Gulf Publishing Co.

Buckingham, Marcus & Coffman, Curt (1999) First, Break All The Rules London, Simon & Schuster.

Collins, Jim (2001), Good to Great: Why Some Companies Make the Leap and Others Don’t New York, Harper Collins. Covey, Stephen (2004) The 8th Habit London, Simon & Schuster. Drucker, Peter (1992) Managing for the Future Oxford: Butterwork-Heinmann. Goleman, Daniel (2000) Leadership that Gets Results Harvard Business Review March/April. Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R. and McKee, A., (2003), The New Leaders: Transforming the Art of Leadership into the Science of Results London, Time Warner Paperbacks

Goleman, Daniel, (2006), Social Intelligence: The New Science of Human Relationships London, Random House Group Ltd

Handy, Charles (1993) Understanding Organisations London: Penguin Books. Hannagan, Tim (2002) Management Concepts and Practices 3rd Ed., Prentice Hall. House, R.J. & Dressler, G. (1974) The Path Goal Theory of Leadership in: J.G. Hunt & L.L. Larson (Ed.s) Contingency Approaches to leadership South Illinois, University Press. Kouzes, J. M. and Posner, B.Z., (2002) The Leadership Challenge (3rd ed.), Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Blanchard, K. et al, (2004) Leadership and the One Minute Manager London, HarperCollins.

Manning, G. & Curtis, K. (2005) The Art of Leadership, 2nd Ed., Intl. McGraw-Hill.

Massie, J. L and Douglas, J. (1977) Managing: A Contemporary Introduction Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Peters, T. and Waterman, R. (1982) In search of Excellence New York:Harper & Row

Quinn,R.E., Faerman,S. R., Thompson, M.P. and McGrath, M.R., (2003)

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Becoming a Master Manager: A Competency Framework 3rd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, London.

Stogdill, R and Coons, A (1957) Leader Behaviour: Its Description and Measurement Columbus: Ohio State University, Bureau of Business Research Tannenbaum, R.and Schmidt, W. (1973) How to Choose a Leadership Pattern Harvard Business Review May/June. Vroom, V.H. and Yetton, P, (1973) Leadership and Decision Making Pittsburg, PA: University of Pittsburg Press. Vroom, VH and Jago, AG (1988) The New Leadership: Managing Participation in Organisations Englewood Cliff NJ: Prentice Hall. Wheatley, Margaret,J. (2001) Leadership and the New Science: Discovering Order in a Chaotic World San Francisco, Berrett-Koehler. Yukl, Gary, A. (2006) Leadership in Organisations 6th Ed., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice-Hall.

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Annex A: Leadership Definitions and Quotations

Professor John Hailey (2006) A process whereby an individual influences a group or individuals to achieve a common goal.

Stephen Covey (2004) Leadership is communicating to people their worth and potential so clearly that they come to see it in themselves.

Rose and Lawton (1999) ...whatever disagreements there are about the precise definition about the term, it is indubitably about people and the extent to which they can be motivated to behave in particular ways.

Manning and Curtis (2005) Leadership is social influence. It means leaving a mark. It is initiating and guiding and the result is change.

Gareth Jones et al. (2000) The process by which an individual exerts influence over other people and inspires, motivates and directs their activities to help achieve group or organisational goals

Tim Hannagan (2002) Leadership is the process of motivating other people to act in particular ways in order to achieve specific goals.

Doherty and Thompson (2003) Leadership is not a thing. It is the ability to lead. The ability to generate ideas, communicate them and create belief in followers that the idea or mission is worthwhile.

Leading the Way, MLDSNI Leadership develops vision, sets future direction, motivates positive engagement in strategy/planning and generates a culture of constructively challenging convention

Kevin Cashman

The role of the leader is to take us on journeys to places we have never been before.

James MacGregor Burns The ultimate test of practical leadership is the realisation of intended, real change that meets the people’s enduring needs.

Mahatma Ghandi You must be the change you wish to see in the World.

Daniel Goleman …the leader’s singular job is to get results.

Peter Drucker Effective leadership is not about making speeches or being liked; leadership is defined by results not attributes.

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Kenneth Blanchard The key to successful leadership today is influence, not authority.

Dwight D. Eisenhower Leadership is the art of getting someone else to do something you want done because he wants to do it.

Mohandas Gandhi I suppose leadership at one time meant muscles; but today it means getting along with people.

John F. Kennedy Leadership and learning are indispensable to each other.

Norman Schwarzkopf Leadership is a potent combination of strategy and character. But if you must be without one, be without the strategy.

Margaret J. Wheatley

I believe that the capacity that any organisation needs is for leadership to appear anywhere it is needed, when it is needed.

Max de Pree

The signs of outstanding leadership appear primarily among the followers. Are the followers reaching their potential? Are they learning? Serving? Do they achieve the required results? Do they change with grace? Manage conflict?

Peter Drucker Management is doing things right; leadership is doing the right things.

Warren G. Bennis

The most dangerous leadership myth is that leaders are born-that there is a genetic factor to leadership. This myth asserts that people simply either have certain charismatic qualities or not. That's nonsense; in fact, the opposite is true. Leaders are made rather than born.

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Annex B: Selected Popular Models of Leadership Action-Centred Leadership John Adair's action-centred leadership model (Adair, 1983) provides a blueprint for leadership and the management of any team, group or organisation. It can be applied at many levels. Action-centred leadership is a simple ‘three circles’ leadership and management model, which makes it easy to remember, apply and adapt. It has been taught on formal courses in the UK for more than twenty years. It maintains that good managers and leaders should have full command of the three main areas of the action-centred leadership model, and should be able to use each of the elements according to the situation. According to Adair, being able to do all of these things, and keep the right balance, gets results, builds morale, improves quality, develops teams and productivity, and is the mark of a successful manager and leader. The model is illustrated below:- Action-Centred Leadership Model

The three parts are: achieving the task managing the team or group managing individuals

Adair's action-centred leadership model, despite its age, appears to sit well with the demands of modern management. Carol Kennedy's Guide to the Management Gurus (2002) supports the view that John Adair's ideas are fundamental and very significant in the development of management and leadership thinking. Importantly as well, Adair set out the following core functions of leadership and says they are vital to the Action Centered Leadership model:

Planning - seeking information, defining tasks, setting aims Initiating - briefing, task allocation, setting standards Controlling - maintaining standards, ensuring progress, ongoing decision-making Supporting - individuals' contributions, encouraging, team spirit, reconciling,

Leadership Overview


morale Informing - clarifying tasks and plans, updating, receiving feedback and interpreting Evaluating - feasibility of ideas, performance, enabling self assessment

The action-centred leadership model therefore does not stand alone. It must be part of an integrated approach to managing and leading, and also which should include a strong emphasis on applying these principles through training. Adair also promotes a '50:50 rule' which he applies to various situations involving two possible influences, e.g. the view that 50% of motivation lies with the individual and 50% comes from external factors, among them leadership from another. This questions the idea that most motivation is from within the individual. He also suggests that 50% of team building success comes from the team and 50% from the leader (Moorecroft, 2005). Five Practices of Leadership The Leadership Challenge (Kouzes and Posner 1987, 2001) is about people power and its themes, in the words of Tom Peters, are no longer “nice to do”, they are “must do” (Peters, 1979). The breakthrough in this approach is to demystify leadership by offering a practical framework that managers may aspire to follow in search of leadership. The authors contrast management and leadership and like Adair they go to the root definitions (Kouzes and Posner, 1987, p32) to explain that one is unemotional and about order and stability whilst the other is all about passion, challenge, change and vision. The model, as presented, deals with what are described as the myths of leadership: that it is about charisma, superiority and magical vision. The authors contend that it is about behaviour and practical application of “disciplined passion”. This is not dissimilar to Collins’ idea of a Level 5 leader as discussed below. It began as a research project in 1983 to find out what leaders actually did and whether or not the findings could be used to inform and maybe create future leaders. What they discovered was that leaders, when they are doing their best, do exhibit certain practices. They discovered that the findings were consistent across industries and sectors.

“Leadership, we concluded, is not the private reserve of a few charismatic men and women. It is a process ordinary managers use when they are bringing forth the best from themselves and others.”

The conclusion is that the five practices of leadership are available to all who want to take up the challenge of leadership. In summary, the five practices of leadership are as follows:

Challenging Process Inspiring a Shared Vision Enabling Others to Act Modelling the Way Encouraging the Heart.

Leadership Overview


Level 5 Leadership According to the results of a five year research project published in the book Good to Great in 2001 by Jim Collins, an organisation’s success is even more closely connected with the quality of its leader than initially believed. The results of Collin’s research suggest that a highly specific combination of leadership style and personality is responsible for seldom found transformation, personified by what Collins terms a ‘Level 5 Leader.’ Five Levels of Leadership

The Level 5 Leader deflects effortlessly the stereotypical representations of great leaders. These are not the charismatic characters so often profiled in the business press. Instead Collins believes Level 5 leaders are characterised by an apparent dichotomy of personal humility and professional will. These are leaders who are modest yet wilful, shy yet fearless. They embody a contradiction which makes them stand out in terms of their personalities, and the results they bring with them. In some ways they resemble the servant leader profile described by Greenleaf (1991), but in an altogether more disciplined and even ‘brutal’ manner i.e. when it comes to decision-making and strategy execution. On the one hand then, Level 5 leaders are complex and withdrawn. They are enthused with a profound ambition, but it is an ambition channelled away from them and into the organisation. They are determined, yet quietly so, and they motivate their staff, not via an infectiously charismatic personality (what Collins refers to as a Level 4 Leader) but rather through a quiet devotion to high standards and added value. Yet on the other hand, this personal humility is countered by an almost obsessive desire for the highest possible standards. This makes them champions of continuous improvement. The leader’s strong professional will means that decisions, no matter how difficult, are usually taken quickly and stuck to determinedly. They display a strange and unexpected mix of transactional and transformational characteristics, blended in a way that Covey (2004, p273) describes as focus (modelling and pathfinding; setting direction) and execution (aligning and empowering; making it happen). The model flowing from Good to Great is summarised below.

Leadership Overview


Leadership Model from Good to Great

Framework Elements What this Means…

Level 5 Leadership Building enduring greatness through a paradoxical blend of personal humility and professional will.

First Who…Then What Good-to Great leaders do not start by setting a new vision and strategy. Instead, they first get the right people on the bus, the wrong people off the bus and right people in the right seats - and then they figure out where to drive it. (Collins, 2001, p41)

Confront the Brutal Facts Level 5 leaders confront the brutal facts about current realities. This makes decision making more honest and grounded. At the same time, they maintain an unwavering faith that the organisation and its strategy will prevail in the end, regardless of the difficulties.

Hedgehog Concept Not relying on competence and the core business of the past. Rather it means focusing on what the organisation can be best at (not what it wants to be best at) and is passionate about, whilst sticking to its fundamental purpose.

Culture of Discipline The culture of discipline is so strong that there is little need for bureaucracy and control. There is no need for hierarchy and disciplined people will, of themselves, generate great performance.

Technology Accelerators Good-to-Great organisations think differently about the role of technology. They do not use technology as the primary means of transformation, yet they are all pioneers of selected technologies to enhance performance.

The Flywheel The essence of the Good–to-Great concept is that there are no dramatic change programmes or revolutions. The breakthrough in performance, the transformation from good to great comes from relentlessly pushing in one direction, turn upon turn, building momentum, until a point of breakthrough and beyond.

Leadership Overview


Conceptual Framework from Good to Great Collin’s conceptual framework is illustrated below.

Principle-centred Leadership Covey (2004, p354) identifies some twenty-four leadership theories (citing 108 indicative references). This is the tip of the iceberg. A quick search of Google will reveal over 33 million on-line ‘hits’. Covey lists four roles of a leader which he sees as providing twin track guidance on focus (on what needs to be achieved) and execution (making it happen). The four roles are:

• Modelling (inspiring trust and value base) • Pathfinding (setting priorities, giving direction and creating order) • Aligning (enabling through structures, systems and processes) • Empowering (giving freedom motivating.

The model is illustrated in the two dimensions of providing Focus (vision, strategy and planning) and Execution (implementation and action.

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Four Leadership Roles

He believes that leadership is first about adopting a strong set of principles, which give moral authority. He believes in a sequential approach that starts with personal development before attempting the type of relationship building and trust required for “principled leadership”. He contends that with the will to do it, leaders can develop knowledge, skills and habitual behaviours associated with leadership character traits: vision; discipline; passion and conscience. Covey’s model can be applied by adopting and practicing what were 7 and are now 8 habits of behaviour to secure personal mastery and ability to lead. The eight habits are:-

• Be proactive • Begin with the end in mind • Put first things first • Think win/win • Seek first to understand, then to be understood • Synergise • Sharpen the saw. • Find your voice and inspire others to find theirs.

Leadership Overview


Primal (Emotionally Intelligent) Leadership One of the most recent developments in leadership theory has been in the field of Emotional Intelligence (Goleman, 1999; Caruso & Salovey, 2004). According to the theory, a leader who demonstrates a high degree of emotional self-awareness, particularly in four key categories – self-awareness, self-management, social awareness and social skill – is more likely to be successful (Goleman, 2000). Four Fundamental Capabilities of Emotional Intelligence (and associated management competencies)

Self Awareness Self Management Social Awareness Social Skills

Emotional

self awareness

Accurate

self assessment

Self confidence

Self control

Trustworthiness

Conscientiousness

Adaptability

Achievement oriented

Initiative

Empathy

Organisational awareness

Service oriented

Visionary leadership

Influence

Developing others

Communication

Change catalyst

Conflict management

Building bonds

Team work, and

Collaboration

When most people think of intelligence, they think of aspects such as memory, problem-solving and the ability to process ideas, grasp concepts and manage information in a variety of forms. This is the kind of intelligence broadly measured by Intelligent Quotient (IQ) tests. In short, emotional maturity is a crucial ingredient to good leadership. However, there are many kinds of intelligence not covered by IQ tests that are just as valuable, so-called ‘non-cognitive’ aspects that include creativity, communication, sensitivity, initiative and interpersonal skills (Gardner, 1983). Howard Gardner wrote about the idea of ‘multiple intelligence’, arguing that non-cognitive aspects were equally as valuable as cognitive ones. For instance, when predicting job performance, the contribution of IQ has been estimated as low as 4% and no higher than 25%. Doing well at your job therefore has a lot more to do with other factors, and emotional intelligence figures strongly among them. A study of the relevance of emotional intelligence for leadership performance (Dulewicz et al, 2005) concluded that Emotional (EQ) competencies were more important than Intelligence (IQ) and Managerial (MQl) competencies for leadership performance, especially at top levels. This latter point is supported also by Golemen, Boyatzis and McKee (2004). EQ, IQ and MQ are each important to performance and necessary to effective leadership regardless of style adopted. The study underlined that organisational context is an important determinant of leadership (Bass and Avolio, 1996; Higgs, 2003; Gill, 2002; Grint 2002). The relationship between the leader and organisation is dynamic and it is said that, “Different organisational strategies may require changes in leadership behaviours and styles” (Dulewicz and Higgs,

Leadership Overview


2003). The implication, supported by the study, is that if a manager possesses EQ competencies as well as IQ and MQ, “it may well indicate that he or she is more likely to be a good leader, irrespective of the situation”. Goleman (2000, p78-90), drawing on research carried out by Hay/McBer, traces emotional intelligence threads to six distinct and reputedly effective leadership styles as illustrated below. The key finding of Goleman is that the best leaders are able to deploy at least four of these styles as and when needed.

Six leadership Styles Using Emotional Intelligence

Style Typical Approach EI Competencies

Authoritative This is what I see. I want you to see it too. I need your help to get us there

Empathy Self Confidence Managing Change

Affiliative Okay guys, let’s work together on this

Empathy Relationship building Communication

Coaching How about doing it like this Empathy Developing others Self-awareness

Democratic What do you think? Collaboration Communication Team leadership

Coercive Just do it Drive to achieve Initiative Self control

Pace-setting Come on. Keep up! Drive to achieve Initiative Conscientiousness

The good news for leaders is that, in theory, emotional intelligence capabilities can be learned. The bad news though is that they are little different from some of the ideals of the Human Relations school of the 1930s and in that guise they were only marginally successful in developing distinguishing leaders (Grint, 1998). The continuing pursuit of psychometric data has not yet provided a leadership predictive tool although Sulloway (1996) has produced some results in regard to birth order and family dynamics in the creation, or subversion, of leadership tendencies. A crucial element that may need to be embodied is the skill-will mix. A leader may have capability and competence and lack the will to achieve. This has implications for the development of leaders and to draw on learning from coaching, a different response may be required depending on where a leader sits in the skill-will matrix (using high/low skill and high/low will as the axis) as illustrated below.

Leadership Overview


Skill-Will Coaching Matrix

Leadership Overview


NHS Leadership Framework Introduction There are fifteen qualities within The Leadership Framework covering a range of personal, cognitive, and social qualities. They are arranged in three clusters:

• Personal Qualities • Setting Direction • Delivering the Service

The qualities are grouped together within the three clusters as illustrated below: An outline description of each cluster of qualities is explained below:- Personal Qualities Personal qualities and values are at the core of The Leadership Framework. The scale and complexity of change and the level of accountability required in organisations means that leaders need to draw deeply upon their personal qualities to see them through the demands of the job. Self Belief Outstanding leaders maintain a positive ‘can do’ sense of confidence which enables them to be shapers rather than followers, even in the face of opposition. This prime personal quality is built upon success and learning in a broad range of varied situations over time.

Leadership Overview


Features of this quality include: • Relishing a challenge. • Being prepared to stand up for what they believe in. • Working beyond the call of duty, when this is required. • Speaking up if this is needed. In doing so, their integrity and their

motivation for service improvement will sustain them. Self awareness Outstanding leaders have a high degree of self awareness. They know their own strengths and limitations, and they use failure or misjudgement as an opportunity for learning. Features of this quality include:

• Being aware of their own emotions. • Being aware of their personal impact on others, particularly when they

are under pressure as they have an understanding of the ‘triggers’ to which they are susceptible.

Self Management Outstanding leaders are able to pace themselves, staying for the long haul when necessary. Self management, supported by emotional self awareness, enables them to regulate their behaviour, even when provoked. Features of this quality include:

• Being tenacious and resilient in the face of difficulty. • Being able to cope with an increasingly complex environment – with

the blurring of organisational boundaries and the requirement to work in partnership across sectors.

Drive for Improvement Outstanding leaders are motivated by wanting to make a real difference by delivering a high quality service and by developing improvements to service. Features of this quality include:

• A deep sense of commitment driven by an identification with the client or customer needs.

• A primary focus on achievement of goals for the greater good of others, and not the leader’s own reputation.

• Investing their energy in bringing about improvements – even to the extent of wanting to leave a legacy which is about things like effective partnership, cross-sector working and user or community involvement.

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Personal Integrity Outstanding leaders bring a sense of integrity to what they do that helps them to deliver to the best of their abilities. Features of this quality include:

• Believing in a set of key values borne out of broad experience of, and commitment to, their chosen field which stands them in good stead, especially when they are under pressure.

• Insistence on openness and communication, motivated by values about inclusiveness and getting on with the job.

• Acting as a role model for staff in the way you expect people to be treated.

• Resilience that enables them to push harder, when necessary, in the interests of developing or improving service.

Setting Direction The outstanding leader sets a vision for the future, drawing on their political awareness of the operating environment and the wider context. This political astuteness and their vision for the future is underpinned by Intellectual flexibility. Coupled with drive for results, this sense of seizing the future is key in inspiring and motivating others to work with them. Seizing the Future High performing leaders act now to shape the future. They are motivated to take action to achieve a radically different future – in the interests of the client. Features of this quality include:

• Making the most of current opportunities to bring about improvements that are of benefit to clients and other stakeholders.

• Being able to interpret the likely direction of change internally and in the wider environment – using their political astuteness.

• Using their insights into broad strategic direction in the sector to help shape and implement the approaches and culture in their organisation, and to influence developments in a wider context.

• Underpinning their vision and action with a strong focus on local needs.

• Being prepared to undertake transformational, rather than just incremental, change where this will achieve service improvement.

Intellectual Flexibility High performing leaders are quickly able to assess a situation and to draw pragmatic conclusions. They are able to switch between the significant detail and the big picture to shape a vision – for their own service, organisation or across the sector.

Leadership Overview


Features of this quality include: • Being receptive to fresh insights and perspectives from diverse

sources, both internal and external to the organisation (driven by their values of inclusiveness and service improvement).

• Understanding that change may have to be radical to achieve improvement.

• Being open to innovative thinking and encouraging creativity and experimentation in others too.

Broad Scanning High performing leaders demonstrate high levels of seeking and networking for information. By keeping abreast of developments, both locally and nationally, they are best positioned to shape the vision for a service or organisation as well as understand how to influence others. Features of this quality include:

• Making it a priority to know about how services are being delivered and what the experience is of clients and other stakeholders on the ground.

• Being persistent in getting the key facts of a situation. • Having systematic ways of informing themselves about key

developments. Political Astuteness Outstanding leaders demonstrate a political astuteness about what can and cannot be done in how they set targets and identify service improvements. Features of this quality include:

• Understanding the climate and culture in their own organisation and in the wider environment.

• Knowing who the key influencers are – both internally and externally to the organisation – and how to go about involving them, as required.

• Being attuned to strategy and policy at a national and local level and being able to plan a way ahead that takes account of these strategies.

• Understanding that the role of leader is now broader than simply being responsible for one organisation and that no one organisation can be ‘stand alone’.

Drive for Results High performing leaders are motivated to transform the service experience of their clients thereby to improve quality. The personal qualities at the core of the framework provide the energy and the sheer determination which fuel drive for results. Features of this quality include:

• Setting ambitious targets which may exceed the minimum standard required and taking calculated risks – all with the aim of delivering added value to the service.

• Focusing their own, and others’, energy on what really makes a difference, rather than being constrained by methods

Leadership Overview


which were used in the past. • Actively seeking out opportunities to improve delivery of service

through partnership and new ways of working.

Delivering the Service High performing leaders provide leadership across the organisation as well as the in the wider sectoral context to make things happen – to deliver service results. They use a range of styles which challenge traditional organisational boundaries and ways of working and emphasise integration and partnership. The very best of these leaders at senior levels also help to shape national policy.

Leading Change Through People Outstanding leaders are focused on articulating the vision with compelling clarity, keeping the focus on change and inspiring others to be positive in their support of service improvement. Features of this quality include:

• Gaining the support of others by ensuring that they understand the reasons behind the change.

• Sharing leadership – with the team and others in the organisation and in partner organisations.

• Encouraging others, especially front line staff, to find new ways of delivering and developing services and to take the lead in implementation of change.

• Demonstrating a highly visible, authoritative and democratic leadership style which is underpinned by strongly held values around equality, diversity and openness.

• Taking a collaborative or facilitative approach in working in partnership with diverse groups.

• Enabling teams, within the organisation and across the sector and beyond, to work effectively together. Helping to unblock obstacles, identifying and securing resources, and taking care of teams and of the individuals within them.

Holding to Account Effective leaders have a strength of resolve that they can use in both holding others to account, as well as being held to account, for targets to which they have agreed. Features of this quality include:

• Setting clear targets and standards for performance and behaviours, ensuring the processes are in place to support individuals in achieving these standards.

• Insisting upon improved performance if standards are slipping • Creating a climate of support and accountability, rather than a climate

of blame. • Holding people to account for what they have agreed to deliver.

Leadership Overview


• Being prepared to be held to account by others for what they have contracted you to do as the leader.

Empowering Others Outstanding leaders support the long-term capability of their own and other organisations that is essential for future development of services by empowering others. Features of this quality include:

• Having the humility to work in the background, creating the space for others to take the lead on particular issues and to grow in confidence and capability.

• Being able to spot potential and support the development of people across the organisation.

• Taking personal responsibility for ensuring that diversity is respected and that there is genuine equality of opportunity.

• Fostering the development of others so that improvement and service development agendas can be created and owned by a wider set of people.

• Engaging and involving clients, customers and/or users in service improvement.

• Developing relationships with service customers/users which are equal, open and honest, and modelling the power-sharing which is required if solutions are truly to be customer-focused and responsive to need.

Effective and Strategic Influencing Leadership across all sectors, but particularly in public and voluntary service, is characterised by a high and complex level of influencing. This particular quality runs through the whole framework; the most effective leaders make things happen by using particularly high levels of influencing. Features of this quality include:

• Getting results by working in partnership, within their organisation and with a wide range of other agencies and individuals over whom they have no formal authority.

• Influencing relationships which are critical to achieving change in terms of service improvement.

• Being able to cope with ambiguity, as organisations continue to change role and shape, and the agenda for change gathers pace.

• Employing a range of influencing strategies – ones that will work for the long term and bring about change in modernising the service delivery.

• Combining effective and strategic influencing with empowering others, to ensure that the organisation’s agenda is driven and owned by local people, by staff throughout the organisation, and by other agencies.

Leadership Overview


Collaborative Working Leaders work with a wide range of internal and external stakeholders. Effective leaders understand that truly collaborative working is therefore essential. Features of this quality include:

• Ensuring that their strategy for service improvement, and the planning, development and provision of services, are cohesive and ‘joined up’.

• Understanding and being sensitive to diverse viewpoints. • Striving to create the conditions for successful partnership working.

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