) LEADERSHIPMONOGRAPH SERIES

o MONOGRAPH #9

ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP

OL TASKS FOR ARMY LEADERSHIP

TRAINING

MAY 1977

LEADERSHIP FOR THE 1970s

APProv.1 j fo ubi

IV U.S. ARMY ADMINISiRATION CEr.' R

"/,STUDIES OF LEADERSHIP FOR THE PROFESSIONAL SOLDIER

80 10 10 0o-0 %A

LEADERSHIP MONOGRAPH SERIES

Thisonograph is the third in a series whose focus is on identify-

ing and clorifying dimensions of organizational leadership. The previousmonographlidentified discrete leadership tasks within nine dimensions.These di mtnsions varied in degree of importance and focus at each of fiveorganizational levels. The dimensions and the levels when combined com-prised a matr'ix of organizational leadership behaviors.

The present monograph explores and develops the concepts contained Inthe organizational leadership matrix. Each task contained in the originalmatrix is described in terms of subtasks which are implicit in the primarytask. The following analysis is based upon a theory of learning transfer,that is different from that upon which Job analyses are traditionallybased, Thus, an all-inclusive job listing is not provided. Enough detailis present, however, to permit curriculum developers to complete the train-ing development process.

The views expressed in this monograph are those of the authors and notnecessarily those of the Department of Defense, Department of the Army, orthe U.S. Army Administration Center.

Your-comments, criticisms and contributions which would be beneficialin improving this publication as well as identifying future topics for con-sideration are welcome. Correspondence should be addressed to this Head-quarters, ATTN: ATZI-CD-HRD

VW-ILLIAM L. MUND EMajor General, USACommanding

Ar'cu-".'J n .o

l~A-" n A" I

1 -) J.:. t i t ;ý1 qju -11

WIM¶OGRAPH 9

U.S. ARMY ADMINISTRATION CENTER

LEADERSHIP MONOGRAPH SERIES .

K4 ,)I ORGANIZATIONALWEADERSHIP TASKS FOR

"L_ ,1.ARMY LEADERSHIP TRAIMNG.

by

,1j 6 )•.........................S//

Major Stephen D. lement ,.

ýDonna B. Ayres 1

~4$ /6

/1 May ;77

ii

(Ii/! ' MC'NOGRAPH 9ONa

iI

TABLE OF CONTENTS

paqeList of Figures iv

Section I - Introduction 1

Section II - Methods and Procedures 4

Section III - Task Listings by Organizational Level 9

Precommiussioning 10

Officer Basic Course 11

Officer Advanced Course 40

Command and General Staff College 81

Army War College 124Section IV - Summary, Conclusions, Implications 182

iii N AMONOGRAPH9

FIGURES

Page

Figure I TRADOC Training Model 5

Figure 2 Organizational Leadership Discussion 6

and the TRADOC Model

Figure 3 Curriculum Development Methodology 7

Figure 4 Precommissioning Educational Determinants 8

Iiv

MONOURAPH 9

t:-

INTRODUCTION

Background

This monograph is an outgrowth of a previous Leadership seriesMonograph, No. P, "A Matrix of Organizational Leadership Dimensions."Monograph No. 6 identified nine skill components (dimensions) of theleadership role: Communication, Human Relations, Counseling, Super-vision, Technical Expertise, Management Science, Decision Making, Planning,and Ethics. Each dimensions was examined in terms of identifiable tasksactivities (processes and behaviors) in relation to five organizationallevels from Lieutenant to General Officer. The present monograph, No. 9,is an attempt to clarify these task activities in more explicit detailby listing critical leadership tasks by level and describing their relatedenabling tasks.

Whereas Monograph No. 8 was a theoretical foundation for a develop-mental organizational leadership model, this work aims to provide a frame-work for a sequential development of curriculum in the leadership area.As such, this document is a baseline guide for training developers engagedin formulating leadership instruction. The matrix of organizationalleadership, resulting from Monograph No. 8, served as the source for thederivation of critical leadership tasks. The horizontal profile of eachdimension on the matrix provides a school-wide curriculum outline. Italso furnishes pertinent information to individuals about the kinds ctskills they will need to develop in order to perform effectively in theirleadership roles at various levels. The horizontal profile of a givendimension therefore suggests how one can individually pursue personalskill development, On the other hand, leadership needs of the organiza-tion are suggested in the vertical profile of the nine dimensions takencollectively at a particular organizational level. The total pictureof the dimension mixes by organizatinal level provides an organizationalmodel of required leadership skills.

MONOGRAPH 9

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

I

Purpose

In the broadest sense, the purpose of this effort is twofold:1) to elaborate upon the leadership activities presented in theleadership matrix generated by Monograph No. 8, and 2) to clarify someof the confusion surrounding the intent and application of the matrix.The purpose of the organizational leadership matrix was to describe theleader's job. The matrix was a first-cut at a job analysis of the leader-ship role. Upon examination, one can ascertain that many of the taskslisted in) the cells of the matrix are complex, consisting of a significantnumber of subtasks. Contrary to the authors' intentions, the matrix hasbeen viewed as a refined leader job analysis inventory. Because manywere wanting to utilize the matrix as if it were a complete listing ofleadership activities in terms of discrete observable behavior (i.e.,tasks broken down into their smallest subtask elementsT, some confusionfollowed the publication of the matrix. Indeed, it cannot be deniedthat a matrix of dimensions by levels detailed in terms of discretebehaviors and activities would be extremely useful, especially tocurriculum developers. But the matrix was published as a summary ofcomplex tasks and processes, each of which is amenable to a more detailedsubtask listing. To counter this confusion, and to complete the originalobjective of analyzing the leader's job, the authors sought to refine theleadership matrix, realizing full well that further amplificat 4 on of thematrix is necessary to realize the full value of the concepts and ideascontained in Monograph No. 8.

Quite simply, what the curriculum developers need is a more detailedexplication of the leader task analysis so that they can derive learningobjectives. This monograph aims to meet this need. The critical tasksas taken from the leadership matrix are clarified and described in termsof enabling tasks. The reader should be cautioned that this documentdoes not provide an exhaustive listing of all subtasks that apply togiven critical task. But the subtasks are-itailed enough so that tneyfurnish direction for curriculum developers. As part of the Instruc-tional Systems Design (ISD) process, this effort represents only thefirst phase: it is nothing more than an analysis of the leader's jobinto its components (critical tasks), based upon the organizationalleadership matrix introduced in Monograph No. 8. Thus, it is nothingmore than an outline of the leader's job. Training developers can nowtake this outline and, utilizing the appropriate instructional develop-ment methodology, complete the remaining phases, culminating in thedevelopment of instructional packages. Monograph No. 9, then, isintended as substantive input for curriculum and training development.It is not offered as a compendium of learning objectives--the end pro-duct of curriculum development.

2

MONOGRAPH 9

Training and Learning Theory

The ultimate purpose of any training development effort is totrain an individual successfully so that he can perforn the job forwhich he was trained. But to discuss the training development pro-cess without considering the learning process is meaningless. Learn-ing theory has direct relevancy to the transfer of training. Transferof training deals with learning in one situation facilitating learningand ultimately successful performance in similar situations. We knowthat transfer of learning can be expected when elements in the train-ing environment are identical to those provided in the actual fieldenvironment. Simultation is uniquely suited to hardware-oriented("hard skill") training. When we consider the continuously changingnature of the modern battlefield, as well as the unpredictability ofhuman responses in a military environment, training and developmentefforts in the leadership/management field become extremely complicated.It is a most difficult--perhaps fruitless--effort to expose leaders toall of the specific situations which require the exercise of theirleadership skills. Therefore, it appears advantageous to teach ourleaders how to generalize their learning and how to teach themselves.

One way to do the above is to stress a theory of learning basedon the "transfer of-principles." Up to now, most of our trainingfocus has been grounded in the "transfer of identical elements" inwhich learning is presumed to occur only if the identical elementspresent in the old situation are present in the new situation. Thislearning theory is fine if we can successfully identify all of theelements to be learned. Unfortunately, "soft skills" such as leader-ship skills are not amenable to a comprehensive delineation of dis-crete elements. For this reason, a shift to te transfer-of-principlestheory allows us to assume that the leader can generalize his learning:the learner need not be aware of the presence of identical elements ina stimulus situation because transfer will occur when he applies thoseprinciples having sufficient generality to cover a class of stimuliwhich are learned in past specific situations.

By legitimizing the transfer-of-principles theory of learningfor the soft skills area, we are not faced with the necessity to listever task implicit in the leadership/management domain--a monumentalundertaking by any standards. This monograph represents an attemptto clarify leadership/management activities within reasonable limits.

3

MONOGRAPH 9

SECTION II

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

The methodology adopted to complete this monograph was a modifiedInstructional System Design (ISD) procedure involving breaking a jobdown into progressively more discrete elements. Because the Army hasinvested considerable expense and effort in developing skill qualifi-cation tests (SQT's), unit evaluation procedures in the form of theArmy Training and Evaluation Program (ARTEP), and soldiers' manuals,it was considered wise to group the nine dimensions under four broadcategories previously proposed by the TRADOC (See fig. 1). Therefore,for each of four educational levels (Officer Basic, Officer Advanced,Command and General Staff College, and War College), the dimensions areexamined within the context of the following four categories: IndividualSkills, Collective Skills, Support Skills, and Organizational Effective-ness (OE) Skills (See Figure 2).

The method for explicating the dimensions behaviorally involved adeductive process of clarifying components in terms of competencies,skills, in some cases subskills, critical taskand enabling tasks. Atall times, the focus was upon behaviors and processes. Figure 3 depictsan example of the methodology employed.

When one considers in totality the task listings for all fourotanizational levels, an obvious implication for pre-commissioning train-ing and education emerges. This results from the fact that of all thevariables that can affect an officer's Job throughout a thirty year careeronly three are sufficiently broad that they pertain to the entire OfficerCorps. These three are the officer's branch, his alternate specialty, andthe notion that he will inevitably be extremely involved in dealing withsoldiers, a variable we have labeled leadership. Of these three, onlyleadership (as broadly defined in Monograph #8) pertains to all officers.The reader is again referred to the organizational leadership matrixdetailed in leadership Monograph #8, "A Matrix of Organizational LeadershipBehavior." Many of the critical leadership tasks as well as the enablingtasks described in that matrix implicitly require mastery of substantialcognitive knowledge. Much of this knowledge can be grouped into generalacademic categories. It is then possible to identify specific academiccourses of Instruction which relate directly to the officer's organizationalleadership responsibilities. Figure 4 illustrates this methodology (a moredetailed application of this process can be addressed at a future date).

4

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SECTION IV

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS

82 .. ;•OCRAPH 9

SECTION IV

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS

The job analysis and task listings which have resulted from thisstudy represent a first step in behaviorally describing what leadersdo. It was not intended that this analysis be translated directlyinto a formal curriculum. Much work remains before such a goal can beachieved. Throughout, our thought process was grounded in the notionthat training and development in the leadership realm must be basedupon a transfer theory of learning. As such, we discounted the need todetail every conceivable subtask involved in a given primary or criticaltask.

Thus far we have viewed learning from the point of view of theindividual. But the leadership matrix, and this monograph in particular,also have relevancy to organizational development. One will noteconsider-able overlap between the concepts and behaviors specified herein andthose typically associated with the organization development (OD) con-sulting process. Perhaps a word of caution is required concerning thisoverlap so as to avoid misleading conclusions. Organizational leader-ship requirements and organization development efforts are mutuallysupportive. The leadership matrix (and its revisions and refinements)is an attempt to specify the functions and behaviors required of anorganization for it (the organization and not any single leader) toaccomplish its goals. As such, it is a prescriptive paradigm describingthe ideal mix of skills and activities required at varying organizationallevels for successful organizational functioning. The OD process isdesigned to evaluate t orgaanizaton from a systems perspective inorder to assess how well the organization is actually functioning. Givenshortfall% bitween what Is and what ought to be, the OD process focusesupon reducing the discrepancy between the actual and 'the ideal forimprovement ultimately in the overall functioning of the organization.This "remedial" process involves the application of several managementtechniques and intervention strategies.

Since organizational problems can be attributed to both deficienciesin individual performance and subsysten performance, it is apropos thatany OD effort address individual skill improvement in order to improveorganizational (subsystem) performance. The feedback loop between organi-zational assessment and organizational leadership development efforts(including but not limited to Individual skill and knowledge enhancementthrouqh formal training and education programs) will optimize organizationallearning and effectiveness.butIn conclusion, this refinement of the leadership matrix representsbut one of the Implications contained in Leadership Monograph 08. Com-pletion of the ISD process upon the task listings contained in this mono-

9 183

graph will not realize the full potential of the original leadershipmatrix. Additional major efforts remain. These include examiningthe officer and enlisted corps performance appraisal systems, theissue of manpower and career planning, motivation and attitude develop-ment, the impact of organizational climate variables upon learning anddevelopment, and each of the dimensions in detail. Despite the factthat this monograph addresses only one avenue of follow-on inquiry,the implications of this particular work should not be underestimated.For the first time, we have a framework which allows us to addressthe entire Army leadership and management educational system. With

Sthis monograph we can now proceed to make leadership training and educa-tion in the school-house environment truly sequential and progressivewithin the context of a developmental model. The effort that liesahead may appear awesome indeed. Hopefully, this monograph providesenough direction to begin that endeavor in a systematic way.

10

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