42 LCSHD Paper SeriesDepartment of Human Development 20963

Secondary Education in El Salvador:Education Reform in Progress

Carolyn Winter

April 1999

- The World Bank

Latin America and the Caribbean Regional Office

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Human Development DepartmentLCSHD Paper Series No. 42

Secondary Education in El Salvador:Education Reform in Progress

Carolyn Winter

April 1999

Papers prepar.e in ths. series are nt lOrmal pUb licatitOs of e worl ai an .. They

p-reset preliminary -an,d .unpolished .res ult ITOf 'country' 'nalsis or re-'searc thfat is'-cirulated t..encou. age discussion 'ad co t; any .cit.... n... ... d ......... o h should take raccountof 'it,, provisional 'harater. 'T findings,"interpr'tatio's' a"d. . . . . . . ... ~~~~~~~~~~~~~p .....i. .-. ...... I -. ...... .... .-.--... ---. .... .... ... .......--.---

cncusionsxpressed -in--this -p-aper are etirelythose o.fsthe au.thors andeshould notbe attarib0utedain any -mannerto the W-orld: Ban its affliated organization members

. -- - -- -~ ~~~~.-- .- .... . . . .. .. -. --........ ..... , . - 1 .... - . . ---. . . -

.ofits Board' ofEecutive 'Direct'o-rs..ornthe counthries tthey ent.

The World BankLatin America and the Caribbean Regional Ofefce

Currency EquivalentCurrency Unit = ColonUS$1.00 = 8.70 Colones(Exchange Rate Effective March 1998)

Fiscal Year1 January - 31 December

Academic Year15 January - 31 October

Vice President, Latin America and the Caribbean Region Mr. Shahid Javed BurkiDirector, Central America Country Management Unit Ms. D.W. Dowsett-CoiroloDirector, Human Development Sector Management Unit Mr. Xavier CollTask Manager Ms. Maria Madalena R. dos Santos

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This report was prepared by Carolyn Winter (HDNED) for LCSHD. Madalenados Santos (LCSHD) provided general oversight for report preparation. The report drawsextensively on a series of background papers prepared by John H.Y. Edwards(Consultant) and also benefited from input provided by Cesar S. Guerrero (Consultant),Gene Lamb (Consultant), George Psacharopoulos (HDNVP) Mitesh Thakkar (HDNED),James Williams (Consultant), Yael Duthilleul (ECSHD), Suhas Parandekar (LCSHD)and Diane Steele (DECRG). Useful comments on drafts were provided by Ricardo RochaSilveira (LCSHD) and Andrea Guedes and Cynthia Hobbs (LCSHD). Acknowledgmentsare also due the staff of the Ministry of Education, El Salvador, who provided and sharedinformation so readily and willingly. Benjamin S. Crow (HDNED) formatted andprocessed the report.

i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary ........................................................ iv

Section 1. Educational Reform for Economic Growth and Globalization ...............................1Introduction ......................................................... 1Human Capital in El Salvador ......................................................... 2Education Reform for a Globalized Market ......................................................... 3Secondary Education in El Salvador ......................................................... 3An Overview of Sector Financing ......................................................... 4An Overview of Sector Administration ......................................................... 5

Section 2. Increasing Access with Equity ......................................................... 7Introduction ......................................................... 7School Enrollment Trends ......................................................... 7Access to Secondary Education ......................................................... 8Inequities in Access to Secondary School ........................................................ 10Strategies to Expand Secondary School Access with Equity ................................................ 12

Section 3. Enhancing Education Quality and Relevance ........................................................ 14Indicators of Education Quality ........................................................ 15Diversity in Secondary Education Providers and Quality Differences .................................. 17Strategies to Improve Education Quality ........................................................ 22

Section 4. Inculcating Social and Civic Values ........................................................ 33Introduction ........................................................ 33The World of El Salvadoran Youth ........................................................ 33Social Alienation Amongst Youth ........................................................ 34The Consequences of Social Alienation ........................................................ 36Strategies to Address Social Alienation through the Schools ................................................ 36

Section 5. Priorities and Strategies ........................................................ 42

References ........................................................ 45

Figures

I. Education Level (in years) of Employed Labor, 1996 ...................................................22. El Salvador School System Coverage .................................................... 9

Tables

1. Returns to Education by Level of Educational Attainment ............................................32. Public Expenditures on Education: Selected Countries .................................................43. Secondary Education Enrollment Rates, Selected Latin American and

Caribbean Countries, early-/mid-1980s .................................................... 84. Family Conditions of Youth of Secondary School Age: Out-of-School

and In-School ............................................... 10

ii

5. Direct Costs (colones) of Secondary Education by School Type andCurriculum Track ............................................................. 11

6. Esfimated Repetition Rates by School Type and Curriculum Track ............................ 167. Employers' Perceptions of Workers with Secondary-level Education ......................... 178. Mean Characteristics of Better and Poorer Performing Schools .................................. 189. Educational Inputs in Poorer and Better Performing Secondary Schools ..................... 18

10. Schools' Allocation of Resources (in percent) ............................................................ 1811. Education Inputs in Urban and Rural Schools, 1996 ................................................... 1912. Public and Private School Student Performance (%/o) on the Achievement Test ........... 2013. School Facilities and Characteristics by School Type ................................................. 2014. Public and Private School Expenditures per Student (1996 colones) ........................... 2115. Standardized Test Score Results by Secondary School Type and Curriculum Track ... 2216. Secondary School Curriculum Track Offerings, to 1996 ............................................. 2417. Changes in Student Enrollments by Curriculum Track, 1997 ...................................... 2518. Outcomes of the Consultative Fora's Deliberations on the Formaci6n Docente .......... 2919. Economically Active Population, Aged 10 to 18 Years,

by Occupational Category, 1996 ............................................................. 3420. New Curriculum for Secondary General Education Program ..................................... 37

Boxes

1. Educational Inputs Linked with Improved School Performance .................................. 152. The Chilean Curricular Reform ............................................................ 233. Objectives of the New 1996 Curriculum ............................................................ 254. What Work Requires of Schools ........................ .................................... 275. Improving Parents' Information About Schools: The United Kingdom's Approach .... 326. School-linked Service Networks-The High School Program in

New Jersey, United States ............................................................ 387. Making School Boards Work-Approaches Used by New Zealand ............................ 40

"Our vision as a nation is to transform El Salvador into a land of opportunities,with equity.... We want to make the country attractive to national andforeigninvestment, and incorporate ourselves into the world production chain... .ElSalvador has a magnificent opportunity to make a great leap forward in quality.We either enter the process of globalizaion now, or other countries will do itWe either are among the first, or we get there at the end, to take what is left inthe world market ... The country demands a modern, efficient, and competitiveprivate sector, [whichk in turn demands a modern and efficient public sectorcapable of creating an enabling environmentfor private sector development"

Excerpts from a speech by President Calderon Sol, February 2, 1995.

iv

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

In 1992, El Salvador emerged from a prolonged period of civil conflict andeconomic upheaval. Since that time, the country has moved decisively to rebuild itseconomy, and it is now emerging as a major competitor to the fast growth economies ofthe region. El Salvador has rightly recognized that its continued economic growth restson its ability to become a competitive player in the broader global market. This globalmarket is dominated by exchanges of technologically advanced goods and servicesproduced by a soundly educated, highly adaptable and flexible labor force. To enter thisglobal market, El Salvador will need to look further afield to global economic leaders'experiences in developing market niches and building a powerful workforce. Experiencefrom these countries shows that to be competitive El Salvador will need to not onlyincrease and upgrade its human capital, but also change its skills base. Its workforce willneed to have sound academic knowledge, technological know-how, and problem-solvingskills, which will allow it to be flexible and highly adaptive to new challenges. To meetthese challenges, El Salvador has already initiated major reforms of the secondaryeducation system which are designed to both substantially increase access and improvethe quality of education offered while ensuring its relevance to a changing, technology-driven economy.

El Salvador faces additional challenges, however, on its path to economic andsocial development. It needs to also build social cohesion and civic values among itsyouth who have suffered from the long period of civil conflict and the high emigrationrates of adults and role models. Without significant efforts to address these social issues,the country is likely to experience difficulty in expanding secondary schoolenrollments-particularly among the poorer and disadvantaged groups-and in buildinga workforce with the skills necessary to increase the country's competitiveness in theglobal market. The Ministry of Education has embraced these concerns and hasaccordingly both expanded and adapted the secondary curriculum. A new, challengingcurriculum has been developed to inculcate students with these skills and engage schoolstaff and local communities in supporting these efforts.

Because the Ministry has worked so proactively to identify sector challenges andto implement remedial strategies, significant reforms are already underway. Thechallenge facing the sector, then, is not one of identifying responses to issues andproblems, but is rather one of ensuring effective implementation of what are oftendifficult institutional and behavioral changes. Particular attention and support isnecessary in several areas, foremost among which are changes aimed at ensuring (i) moreequitable access to education which is of a recognized acceptable standard; (ii) provisionof better quality education delivered in classroom situations where contextual learningpedagogies are employed; (iii) better monitoring of schools' performance throughimproved monitoring and evaluation mechanisms; and (iv) the inculcation of social andcivic values among youth in the context of a supportive school and communityenvironment.

1

SECTION 1. EDUCATIONAL REFORM FOR ECONOMIC GROWTH ANDGLOBALIZATION

Introduction

El Salvador is poised to become a major economic force in the region. Over thepast few years it has registered one of the highest economic growth rates in thehemisphere. It also has relatively low and declining inflation and a favorable balance ofpayments situation.

El Salvador has arrived at this position after a decade of civil conflict andeconomic crisis. Turning the country's situation around has required high levels ofpolitical commitment and dedication. It has required that the government push through acomprehensive economic stabilization and adjustment program initiated in 1989 and putpolicies in place to accelerate trade liberalization, strengthen fiscal discipline, controlinflation, and modemize and streamline the public sector. These efforts, buoyed by theformal peace agreement of 1992, have successfully stabilized the economy and put ElSalvador on a path of positive growth. By 1995, the GDP growth rate was close to 7percent.

Vestiges of the economic crisis and conflict remain, however, and must beactively addressed if El Salvador is to realize its economic potential. Poverty continues tobe widespread; social problems, including violence and social alienation, are pervasive.The human capital stock is low because educational opportunities have been limited andbecause very significant numbers of more educated El Salvadorans emigrated during theconflict.

El Salvador must do all it can to maintain economic growth at its current highlevels. This is necessary because per capita GDP in the mid-1990s had not yet risen backup to preconflict levels despite the high growth rates, and because high levels of povertythreaten social stability. To some considerable extent, the recent growth has been aresponse to demand unleashed by the end of the conflict, to high remittances of migrantworkers, and to a postwar service and construction boom. These factors cannot buoy theeconomy indefinitely. Indeed in 1997, it was already evident that growth was levelingoff. Reactivating growth will require that more proactive, and difficult, policies beimplemented to increase domestic and foreign investments, stimulate higher exportlevels, and reduce the current narrow reliance on agricultural and commodity exports.

El Salvador has acknowledged that such changes are essential and has rightlyrecognized that continuing economic growth rests on the country's ability to become acompetitive player in a global market. This global market is dominated by exchanges oftechnologically advanced goods and services produced by a soundly educated, highlyadaptable and flexible labor force. What must a country such as El Salvador do toposition itself to enter the global market? The World Bank (1996) identifies four steps asbeing critical. The country must (i) transform policies and structures to support outward-oriented growth; (ii) move resources toward more knowledge-intensive goods and

2

services to take advantage of shifting relative prices and expanding boundaries oftradability; (iii) acquire high technology which will attract foreign investment; and (iv)ensure adequate human capital since it is more important than low wages in attractinginvestment.

Already, El Salvador has been acting to implement the policy changes required ofglobalization. The national development plan clearly articulates the country's objectivesin this regard and spells out the steps which will be followed to achieve these objectives.Central is the intent to build the country's human capital through an expanded andreformed education system.

Human Capital in El Salvador

A severe shortage of skilled workers and low labor market productivity areacknowledged to be important bottlenecks to economic growth in El Salvador. In 1993,the labor force averaged only 4.4 years of education and about two-thirds of workerswere unskilled. About one-quarter of the labor force had no formal education and only 19percent of workers had more than 10 years of schooling (World Bank 1996). Data for1996 show that the situation was little changed at that time; close to 70 percent ofworkers continued to be unskilled (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Education Level (in years) of Employed Labor, 1996

Skilled (33%)3%)

While humn cpitl s lo\nE avdr h netvsfridvdast

pursue adineg70/o No education iaddta y10e12years 23 r o

12% 1

7-9 years*a._14 E 3 l _-years

eaxs ~~21% \ \ / Un~~~~~~~~~skilled (67e/)

Source: Governiment of El Salvador 1996b.

While human capital is low in El Salvador, the incentives for individuals topursue additional education are clearly high. Average earnings increase substantially withadditional years of schooling and the private rates of return are high for all levels ofeducation. The social rate of return suggests that investments in human capital also makesense from a broader economic perspective (Table 1).

3

Table 1. Returns to Education by Level of Educational AttainmentAverage Eanings

Education Level (colones per year) Private Rates ofRetum Social Rates ofRetumNo schooling 13,189 na naIncomplete basic 12,977Basic 16,036 18.9 26.4Incomplete secondary 18,882Secondary 28,741 14.5 13.3Incomplete tertiary 35,329Tertiary 42,357 9.5 8.0Source: Psacharopoulos 1997; Government ofEl Salvador.

Education Reform for a Globalized Market

A country which is competitive in the global market will have a labor force withvery different skills than a country focusing more on local factor production. Becauseglobal competitiveness is based on firms' abilities to respond to rapid changes intechnology and new approaches to producing goods and providing services, firmsoperating in a global market want workers who not only have a solid grounding in basicliteracy, numeracy, and technology, but who also have a range of other skills. Theseinclude abilities to adapt basic educational principles to changing situations and contexts,capacities and initiative to solve problems and make decisions, and good social skills thatmake them able to work collaboratively in teams. The challenge facing the educationsystem is to determine how to provide students with the mix of skills and knowledgerequired by these firms. A wider range of academic skills, and also social skills, must betransmitted through the formal education system.

The government has developed a 10-year plan for the development of the sector,outlined in the "Reforma Educativa en Marcha: Lineamientos del Plan Decenal 1995-2005." This document identifies specific objectives (increasing access, improving quality,and reforming education management) that the sector is pursing within its four broadergoals of (i) building human capital for a global economy; (ii) inculcating civic values andattitudes in its students to consolidate the peace; (iii) teaching tolerance andunderstanding consistent with a democratic society; and (iv) transmitting knowledge andskills that will help individuals break out of the cycle of intergenerational poverty. Thisplan, developed in consultation with many stakeholders, is guiding the reform of thesecondary education system.

Secondary Education in El Salvador

The education system in El Salvador is divided into two levels. The first level-basic education-covers grades one through nine and is designed for children aged 7through 15 years. Basic education is split into three 3-year cycles. The secondaryeducation level is of two or three years duration, depending on whether the student optsto study for an academic diploma (two years) or a vocational diploma (three years).Ideally, the secondary school population caters to youth aged 16 through 18 years.

4

There is very limited access to secondary education in El Salvador. The grossenrollment rate is only around 34 percent-one of the lowest in the region. Thesecondary system also suffers low internal efficiency; repetition rates are high, anddropout rates alarmingly high. There is some evidence to support beliefs that there areconsiderable inequities in access; students from poorer homes and those in rural areasevidently enjoy less access to secondary school.

The secondary education system is differentiated by curriculum track. Manyschools offer programs in more than one track, but there are a sizable number of schoolswhich specialize in offering either an academic, a commercial, or a vocationalcurriculum.

The secondary education system is also characterized by a high number of privateproviders. Around 45 percent of secondary students are enrolled in private schools, themajority of whom attend private secular schools. A smaller proportion of students attendprivate religious schools which tend to be more costly and which are generally viewed asproviding a higher quality education. Broadly speaking, private secular schools tend tospecialize in commercial subjects and private religious schools in the academiccurriculum. Public schools usually offer the full range of curricula.

An Overview of Sector Financing

The resources allocated to education have declined significantly over the past twodecades. In the 1980s, education expenditures declined sharply both in terms of its shareof GDP (from 3.3 percent in 1978 to 1.6 percent in 1988) and of governmentexpenditures (12.8 percent in the early 1970s to 11 percent in 1990). This was largely aconsequence of the civil disturbances which caused an overall drop in governmentexpenditures. (Indeed, govemment expenditures had fallen from 20 percent to 15 percentof GDP by 1994.) It was also, however, a reflection of the low priority the governmentassigned to the sector. While education spending has increased to 2.0 percent of GDP in1996 and 13 percent of government expenditures in 1994, this still represents asignificant underinvestment in human capital. Compared to other Central Americancountries, only Guatemala allocates a lower share of GDP to education. Considerablescope exists for further increasing the sector's budgetary allocation (Table 2).

Table 2. Public Expenditures on Education: Selected CountriesPublic Expenditures

as a Percent of Total Public PublicExpendituresExpenditures As a Percent of GDP

Costa Rica 21 4.70/oGuatemala 17 1.6%Honduras 15 4.0%El Salvador 13 1.8%Nicaragua 15 3.90/oMexico 24 5.80/oPanama 18 5.2%Source: World Bank 1997.

5

The education sector does not evidence major inefficiencies in resource allocationacross subsectors. The bulk of education resources have been directed at the expansionand improvement of basic education, while secondary education accounts for around 6percent of the sector's resources. However, within subsectors severe imbalances do exist.In secondary education, more than 90 percent of recurrent expenditures go for salaries,leaving little for learning materials, maintenance, and other less fixed, but equallyimportant, categories. The limited public resources available for secondary educationexplain, in part, the high level of private involvement in the provision of this level ofeducation. The private sector has emerged to fill the voids left by the public sector.

Average annual spending per public secondary student is 2,598 colones (1996).Approximately 92.7 percent of this amount goes to salaries, 1.8 percent to consumptiongoods, 4.6 percent to nonstaff items, 0.6 percent to welfare support, and 0.2 percent tomonetary transfers.

There are also serious equity issues in resource allocation. Expenditures insecondary education have a significant urban bias, with nearly half of the resources alonebeing spent in the Department of San Salvador, despite its having less than one-third ofsecondary school enrollments. The other 13 Departments split the remaining 53 percentof resources. Secondary education is predominantly urban with 90 percent of publicschools and 98 percent of private schools being situated in urban centers.

To address the financial issues in education, the Government's development planaims to raise education spending to 3 percent of GDP, and the budgetary share of thesocial sector from 30.2 percent in 1995 to 50 percent by 1999.

An Overview of Sector Administration

The administration of secondary education in El Salvador takes place at threedifferent levels: (i) the central level, where the Ministry of Education (NED) setsnational norrns and standards and supervises and oversees the system; (ii) thedepartmental level, where departmental education offices provide organizational supportto schools under their jurisdiction; and (iii) the local level, where schools exerciseconsiderable control over the day-to-day delivery of education programs.

In 1996, MINED began the process of reforming and modernizing itsorganizational and administrative policies and procedures by instituting changes at thebasic education level. The plans to reform secondary education have only recently beeninitiated and aim at improving organizational efficiency and program effectivenessthrough (i) strengthening the organizational structure of secondary education at theministry and school levels; (ii) improving the planning and management capacity ofadministrative personnel; (iii) creating a system to supervise and monitor the reform ofsecondary education; and (iv) creating a management information system that will enablecontinuing evaluations of progress to be undertaken.

Recently, MINED's legal framework was officially reviewed and a proposal forits reorganization successfully approved by the Legislative Assembly of El Salvador. The

6

legal structure and context of education laws were revised, with new laws and regulationsbeing established that allow the education sector to assume a normative role within thereform process.

Building on the Community-Managed Schools Program's (EDUCO) successfulexperience of decentralizing management of schools to the Community SchoolAssociations (ACEs) in the rural areas, the key element of the recent reform is theadoption, in the urban schools too, of a decentralized strategy that will contribute to amore efficient delivery of education services. The Ley de Carrera Docente (TheTeachers' Career Law), which gives legal recognition to the establishment of ConsejosDirectivos Escolares (School Board Councils (CDEs)) in public schools, gives additionalsupport to these decentralization efforts. As of the beginning of 1998, 2,541 CDEs hadbeen legally established.

The CDE is a legal organization comprising (i) a President (the principal of theschool) and Legal Representative; (ii) three parent members, one of whom is responsiblefor the financial management of the school funds; and (iii) two teachers, one of whombecomes Secretary of the CDE. Two students are also elected to participate in the CDEs.With the exception of the President, members of the CDEs are elected every other yearby secret vote by the groups they represent, i.e., the teachers by the Teachers' Councils,parents and students by the General Assemblies of Parents and Students, respectively.

Each CDE is responsible for (i) defining, approving, and publishing the school'spriorities through the School Annual Education Plan (PE) along with its budget; and (ii)participating in the administration of human, physical, and financial resources.Specifically, CDEs (i) approve hiring of teachers and administrative personnel necessaryto ensure achievement of school objectives and goals; (ii) select or request the selectionof teachers and monitor them in accordance with the Teachers' Career Law; (iii)contribute to the maintenance of both the school infrastructure and equipment; and (iv)manage the school's funds through a bank account.

The new Secondary Education Project, financed by the Bank, will support a pilotexercise in a selected number of schools which will adopt an even more decentralizedmodel of school-based management. Under this system, MINED will delegate a greaternumber of pedagogical, administrative and financial responsibilities to secondaryeducation schools. The successful result of this pilot exercise will be a key element inenhancing the decentralization process at the school and local levels.

7

SECTION 2. INCREASING ACCESS WITH EQUITY

Introduction

The government's economic development strategy is rooted in the concept of anopen economy that will increasingly rely on nontraditional exports in a competitiveglobal market. Producing a better educated workforce is key to fulfilling this vision andto making it one that provides growth with equity.

The civil conflict that ended with the 1992 peace accord appears to haveaccelerated demographic and economic change and had profound impacts on humancapital markets. Urbanization has increased very rapidly, and employment hasconcomitantly shifted from agriculture to urban-based activities that require more formalschooling of their workers.

The conflict also accelerated a severe, emigration-induced human capital leakage.The incentives to emigrate were strong given the civil conflict and the significantlyhigher potential earnings to be made in the United States. Naturally, prime-age maleswere most likely to emigrate. Some 884,000 Salvadorans-nearly one-sixth of thepopulation-left the country between 1979 and 1991.

The adverse effects of migration on the economy were exacerbated by the factthat emigrants tended to be younger, better educated, motivated, and ambitious. It isestimated that about 23.3 percent of Salvadorans with a high school diploma or moreeducation now live in the U.S. (Funkhouser 1997). About 60 percent of these left ElSalvador during the late 1980s.

Together, emigration and limited school coverage resulted in the country having alow human capital stock. Currently, over two-thirds of the labor force is unskilled, abouta quarter has received no formal schooling, and another 21 percent has only one to threeyears of formal education. Only 16 percent have a high school diploma or highereducation degree.

School Enrollment Trends

Despite the current dearth of human capital, the medium-term outlook is morepromising. Primary school enrollments have risen sharply in recent years and now standat almost 90 percent. Secondary education expansion is the next hurdle on El Salvador'sdevelopment path.

Children under 16 years of age currently make up more than one-third of thepopulation, and the vast majority is expected to complete primary and middle school.While secondary school coverage has also been growing rapidly over the last threedecades-at about 1.3 percent per annum-this growth started from a very low base andwas interrupted by the civil conflict that disproportionately affected the high school age

8

cohort. Net enrollments at secondary school are now a mere 28.5 percent. The grossenrollment rate of 34 percent is well below the regional average of 54.8 percent (Table3). The disparity in higher and lower grade coverage clearly indicates a bottleneck at theupper level.

Table 3. Secondary Education Enrollment Rates, Selected Latin American and CaribbeanCountries, early-/mid-1990s

Gross Enrollment Rate r'o) Net Enrollment Rate (°/)Argentina 72.0 59.0Bolivia 37.0 29.0Brazil 43.0 19.0Chile 67.0 53.0Colombia 62.0 41.0Costa Rica 47.0 41.0El Salvador 34.0 28.0Guatemala 24.0Honduras 32.0Mexico 58.0Peru 65.0 46.0Regional average 54.8 naNote: The Gross Enrollment Rate is the enrollment of all students, regardless of age, as a percentage of the populationof secondary school age children, as defined by each country. The Net Enrollment Rate is the enrollrent of secondaryschool age children as a percentage of the appropriate age cohort, as defined by each country.Source: UNESCO 1997; data for El Salvador provided by MINED.

The data show that both natural and policy-induced forces are acting to drasticallyincrease the number of secondary school slots demanded over the next 20 years. Highpopulation growth plus very significant enrollment increases are combining to produce aprojected 47 percent increase in secondary enrollments by 2007. Parallel with this trendare the improvements in internal efficiencies and increased coverage achieved under theEDUCO basic education program at the primary and middle school levels. Recentestimates suggest that policy reforms will generate an additional 31 percent increase inthe number of high school slots demanded by the same year (Edwards 1 997e). The needto respond to the expanding secondary school population base is clearly a majorchallenge confronting the sector.

Access to Secondary Education

The population of El Salvador was approximately 5.6 million in 1996. About424,000 persons were between 16 and 18 years old, the ages targeted by the secondaryschool system. Data from the Household Survey for 1996 indicate that some 173,000persons were then enrolled in grades nine through 12, of whom 115,500 were in thetarget age group. The gross secondary enrollment rate therefore currently stands ataround 34 percent and the net secondary enrollment rate at about 28 percent.

The coverage of the Salvadoran educational system is summarized in Figure 2.Primary school enrollment begins at age 5 for about 5 percent of the population. Thisgrows to 30 percent at age 6, to about 80 percent at age 7, and peaks at about 92 percentfor ages 9 to 12.

9

Figure 2 uses the Salvadoran definition of basic education, namely a nine-yearprogram composed of three 3-year cycles. This means that in a perfectly efficient system,basic education enrollment would be at 100 percent for ages 7 to 15 years, andenrollments of children above or below that age range would be close to zero. But, asseen in other countries in the region, the basic enrollment rate drops precipitously aschildren become adolescents and the opportunity cost of their time increases (Edwards,Fuller, and Parandekar 1996). There is also evidence of internal inefficiencies, with over-age enrollment in the basic cycle being quite notable.

Figure 2. El Salvador School System Coverage

100

90

so

]70

60 Primary

- _ _ ........ _sSecondary50

A. ~~~~~~g

Source: Government of El Salvador 1996b.

Delays in completion of the basic cycle caused by late enrollment and graderepetition contribute in explaining why net enrollment rates are low at secondary school.The three-year secondary school program targets youth aged 16 to 18 years.' Figure 2shows that, in fact, coverage rises sharply, from less than 5 percent at age 15 to a peak ofaround 40 percent at age 17, and trails off well into the 20s. There seem to be threecourses for secondary school age youth: one in which youth make it into and out ofsecondary school on time; a second in which youth enter and leave over-age; and a third,which the majority of youth follow, in which youth never make it to secondary school atall.2

1. Note: The secondary school cycle was of three years duration until 1997 when it changed to twvo or three yearsduration, depending on thie course of study chosen by the student

2. A similar, if more accentuated pattern can be seen in tertiaiy education. Here, enrollment rises gradually at the"design" age of 18 with only about 5 percent of the population enrolled. Enrollment never rises above 20 percenL The

10

Inequities in Access to Secondary School

The low enrollment rate at the secondary school level is not, at the present time,caused by a shortage of space in schools. A recent analysis of the 1996 Household Surveydata finds that, at most, 5.5 percent of persons between ages 16 and 18 are out of schoolbecause there is no school to go to (Edwards 1997c). In addition, the ratio of students toclassrooms is not particularly high at around 55:1. However, this situation is likely tochange profoundly in the near future given the significant increase in promotion andcompletion rates at the basic education level and the burgeoning population.

Demand-side reasons seem to be important in explaining the existing lowsecondary enrollment rate. Limited demand appears to be linked to poverty and the needfor youth to contribute economically to their households. About 60 percent of out-of-school groups are active in the labor force, and most nonworking young women reportbeing engaged in unremunerated work in the home. In a survey, 13 percent ofrespondents aged 16 to 18 said that the high cost of education prevented their attendance,and indeed, the families of these out-of-school youth do tend to be a relatively poor andsocially disadvantaged group (Table 4). Their household income is barely two-thirds ofwhat is earned in the homes of in-school youth. Over 70 percent of the mothers and 59percent of the fathers have less than three years of formal schooling. This compares withrates of 41 percent and 37 percent, respectively, for the parents of in-school youth of thesame age.

Table 4. Family Conditions of Youth of Secondary School Age: Out-of-School and In-SchoolAttending Attending Attending

Out-of-school All In-school Public Private Secular Private ReligiousYouth Youth Schools Schools Schools

Average monthly householdincome (colones) 2,462 4,491 3,702 4,541 6,321Average household size 6.5 5.4 5.8 5.5 4.6Average years of father'sschooling 2.9 6.7 5.0 7.0 10.8Average years of mother'sschooling 2.0 5.7 4.2 6.5 8.2Number of books in thehome 2.9 12.0 7.2 12.8 23.2Note: Youth included in this table are 16 to 18 years old.Source: Govemnment of El Salvador 1996b.

The private cost of attending school appears to be the major reason for lowsecondary school coverage. There are both direct and opportunity costs associated withschooling. The opportunity cost is the value of the students' time in alternative,nonschool occupations, including remunerated labor. Direct costs include all the out-of-pocket costs incurred in attending school. These include tuition, school fees, uniforms,school supplies, and textbooks, as well as transportation and meals at school.

sinuous and elongated outline of the university age profile indicates sporadic and prolonged enrollment. This wouldappear to indicate significant inefficiencies.

11

The opportunity cost of secondary education can be estimated by determining theearnings potential of someone who is in the appropriate age range for secondary school.Earnings equation estimates indicate that the opportunity cost for a 17 year old with nineyears of schooling and two years of work experience is 851 colones per month. Thisestimate is consistent with survey results which show that out-of-school youth workingfull time generally contribute around 720 colones per month to their families.Approximately 30 percent of working youth bring in more than 1,000 colones.3

The direct costs of secondary education are summarized in Table 5. In contrast tothe basic education subsector, where private schools enroll a relatively small proportionof students, more than half (51 percent) of all secondary students are enrolled in privateschools. Extensive private sector involvement appears to raise the direct costs ofsecondary education. However, the direct costs of public secondary school are also quitehigh.

The last column of Table 5 shows the total direct annual cost of attendingsecondary school. It assumes that tuition is paid once a year, that uniforms last one year,and that the monthly fee (colegiatura) and "other" costs are paid for a nine-month period.Fees in public secondary schools are significantly below those charged by privateschools. The monthly fee in private secular schools is four times the level of public fees,and in private religious schools it is five times the level of public fees. However, otherexpenses borne by students are very high and account for about 57 percent of the totaldirect costs of secondary education. Interestingly, these costs vary significantly acrossschool types and account for a much larger share of public school students' totalexpenses.

Table 5. Direct Costs (colones) of Secondary Education by School Type and CurriculumTrack

Other TotalTuition Monthly Fee Uniformn (Food, transport, etc) (9 months)

All students 324.55 115.97 430.55 152.46 3,170.93School type

Public 161.38 40.25 367.71 124.97 2,016.05Private secular 456.19 162.42 474.96 165.81 3,885.23Private religious 485.81 206.33 494.29 191.97 4,537.84

CurTiculum trackAcademic 452.47 148.21 522.64 157.36 3,725.24Commercial 242.18 102.21 359.49 136.81 2,752.04Vocational 348.67 132.01 539.05 204.70 3,918.10

Source: Govenment of El Salvador 1996b.

The average direct annual cost of tuition (matricula), school fees (colegiatura),uniforms, and other expenses such as school lunches, school supplies, and transportationtotals 3,170 colones. Public school students reported in a survey a mean direct cost of2,016 colones. For private secular schools it was 3,885 colones, and for private religiousschools it was 4,537 colones.

3. This compares with a mean monthly income of 3,025 colones in the homes of all 16 to 18 years olds, and a meanmonthly income of 2,462 colones in the homes of out-of-school youth in the same age group.

12

To put this in perspective, it is useful to note that these yearly direct costs areequal to almost one month's income for the average household; annual school fees are3,170 colones in households with dependents aged 16 to 18 years. It is notable also thatschool fees are about 25 percent more than one month's income in the homes of out-of-school youth. For public, private-secular, and private-religious school students, the directcost of one year of schooling amounts to 54 percent, 86 percent, and 72 percent of therespective average monthly household incomes.

If foregone earnings and direct costs are combined and compared to averagehousehold income, it is clear that the cost of a high school education in El Salvador ishigh enough to constitute a significant barrier to increased coverage.

Strategies to Expand Secondary School Access with Equity

While there is no shortage of school space at the present time, projections showthat the secondary school population will increase dramatically over the next decade. Thechallenge MINED faces is to achieve a rapid expansion of the system while achievingparallel increases in enrollments among youth from poorer and more disadvantagedhomes.

Clearly, budget constraints within the Ministry will demand that an expandedprivate sector meet some considerable proportion of the growing demand for secondaryeducation. An expanded private sector, however, presents two principle challenges toMIfNED. First, MINED must ensure that students from poorer families are able toexercise choice about which school- public or private-they attend; their selectionshould not be unduly constrained by a lack of money. MINED must, then, seek ways toreduce the costs of education for students from poorer households. Second, MINEDneeds also to ensure that all schools-public or private-deliver an education whichmeets minimum standards. A school accreditation system would meet this need, andMINED indeed plans to establish such a system in the near future.

The government has already experimented with two methods of increasing highschool coverage in the past. One approach was to introduce a distance education programrun by the Insfituto Nacional de Educacion a Distancia (MNED). This was a small-scaleprogram and was designed mainly as an adult education programn rather than as a methodof increasing the reach of traditional secondary schools. The program enrolled less than8,000 students in 1997, and only half of these students were between the ages of 15 and21. However, nearly 90 percent of the students enrolled have completed ninth grade in aregular school. This suggests that distance learning programns might be adapted to deliverthe secondary curriculum through an alternative medium. A system of distance educationtutors, regional tutorial centers, and distance education workbooks is already wellestablished and operational. Attempts to expand coverage via distance learning wouldseem to have a reasonable chance of success.

Another experiment introduced by MIfNED was a student loan and scholarshipprogram, which aimed at increasing coverage of poorer students. The student loanprogram was set up through a one-time deposit of monies that was to be a revolving fund

13

administered by commercial banks. The program was a failure, principally because of thehigh default rate on repayments. High default rates resulted from the fact that thegovemment fully guaranteed all loans, giving commercial banks little incentive to pursuedelinquent accounts. MINED, however, has learned from this experience and in 1997began a new pilot scholarship program administered by the Fundaci6n Empresarialparael Desarrollo Educativo (FEPADE), a nongovemment entity. The principal for this pilotwas US$113,636. Scholarships are being awarded to 200 secondary students on the basisof both merit and need, and there is considerable flexibility in the size of the scholarshipawarded. The criteria for identifying recipients include residence in a poor locality,satisfactory academic performance over the previous three years, and approval by a localcommittee comprised of teachers and student representatives. MINED has every intentionof expanding this pilot very rapidly once it has been proved to be running effectively.MINED believes this is the surest way to increase the access of the poor to secondaryeducation. However, careful monitoring of the program will be essential in assessingwhether it is reaching the target group and whether it can be sustained.

14

SECTION 3. ENHANCING EDUCATION QUALITY AND RELEVANCE

"La calidad de la Educacidn en El Salvador estd lejos de ser sahisfactoria. Losresultados preliminares de pruebas de conomimiento en matemdicas ylenguaje muestran que los estudiantesfallan precisamente en aquellashabilidades que son fundamentales para seguir aprendiendo ya que las calidadde la educacidn se ha deteriorado en los tiltimos 20 anos. "

Reforma Educativa en Marcha: Lineamientos del Plan Decenal, 1995-2005.

MINED openly acknowledges that education quality in secondary schools is lowand is potentially an obstacle to economic growth and change in El Salvador. In its coredocument on education policy reform, the Reforma Educativa en Marcha: Lineamientosdel Plan Decenal, 1995-2005, the government specifies that concerns about thesecondary system arise from the (i) excessive diversification of the curriculum; (ii)irrelevance of the curriculum to the world of work; (iii) deficiencies in teacher qualityand training; and (iv) disjuncture between the education provided and the needs of thelabor market. The Plan Decenal accordingly identifies quality improvements as one ofthe three core objectives of the education sector. It is understood that improvements ineducation quality should mean not only that student learning outcomes are improved, butalso that secondary graduates are better equipped to meet the demands of an expanding,and increasingly globalized, market.

Raising education quality is a challenge under any conditions. But in El Salvador,particularly innovative and flexible strategies will be needed to address quality issuesgiven the size of the private education sector, the independence and latitude given toprivate providers to date, the multiplicity of curriculum tracks, and the strong adherenceto, and belief in, decentralized management and control of the schools. Additionally,since the resource envelope for secondary education is unlikely to increase verysignificantly, improvements must be achieved within a tight budget envelope. MINEDmust therefore devise and put in place regulations and incentives to induce both publicand private providers to upgrade education quality in the various curriculum tracks.

A starting point in upgrading education quality is to consider what educationalconditions and inputs are consistently linked with higher student learning outcomes.Fortunately, educational research is replete with studies of these factors, both inindustrialized and developing countries. Research shows that greater access toinstructional materials, including textbooks, curriculum guides, and other readingmaterials; more highly trained and qualified teachers with sound pedagogical knowledge;higher instructional time in the classroom; and more competent school principals aregenerally linked with higher school quality and student performance (Box 1). Policystudies indicate that improvements in these inputs need not always imply the need forincreased sector resources; many times educational quality can be significantly improvedby reallocating resources to inputs more directly associated with better student

15

performance. Obviously, though, education quality is unlikely to improve if sectorwideinvestments are unreasonably low.

Box 1. Educational Inputs Linked with Improved School PerformanceA review of 62 multivariate analyses conducted in developing countries helped identify educational inputs and

conditions wvich are linked more consistently with better performing schools. Factors wiuch appear to have aparticularly strong effect on student achievement include: reading materials such as textbooks, and particularly librarymaterials; the amount of instructional time children receive; the level and amount of training teachers have received(which undoubtedly affects teachers' attitudes towards, and expectations of, students); and the management capacity ofthe school principal. The fact that school expenditures are not consistently linked with higher student achievementimplies that improvements in stdent achievement may well be possible with more judicious use of existing resources.

Number of AnalysesTotal Number Number of Analyses Reportng No or

Education Inputs of Analyses Confirming Effect Negative EffectSchool Expenditures

Expenditures per pupil 11 6 5Total school expenditures 5 2 3

Specific Material InputsClass size 21 5 16Texts and reading materials 22 14 8School building quality 2 2 0Library size and activity 18 15 3Science laboratories 11 4 7

Teacher QualityYears of tertiary and teacher training 30 21 9In-service teacher training 5 4 1Teacher's length of experience 23 10 13Teacher's verbal proficiency 2 2 0Teacher's salary level 13 4 9

Teacher Practices: Classroom OrganizationsLength of instructional program 13 11 2Homework frequency 7 5 2Teacher's expectations of pupils' perfonnance 3 3 0Teacher's time spent on class preparation 5 4 1

School ManagernentQuality of principal 7 4 3Student repetition of grade 5 1 4

Note: This survey draws on a total of 62 multivariate studies conducted in developing countries. Each study examinedthe influence of school characteristics after controlling for the influence of students' backgrounds.Source: Adapted from Fuller (1986) and Fuller and Clark 1994.

Indicators of Education Quality

The most explicit indicators of education quality available in El Salvador are theresults from a recent, albeit small-scale, student achievement test administered to finalyear secondary students.4 The test results do indeed support beliefs that the level of

4. This test was developed and administered in 1996 to secondary students in their final year of study. Fifty-twoschools were in the sample, including public and private institutions offering the academic, commercial, and vocationalcumculum tracks. The test assessed students' leaning only in the core mathematics and language skills.

16

learning in secondary school is low; average student test scores were just 45 percent formathematics and 48 percent for language.

A second indicator of student quality is the student repetition and dropout rate.High repetition and dropout rates indicate that students have failed to master theminimum knowledge required of that education level. Estimates of secondary schoolrepetition rates derived from household survey data indicate that repetition is fairly high,around 7.6 percent. This compares rather poorly with other countries in the region,including Colombia and Chile, where secondary repetition rates are 5.6 percent and 4.2percent, respectively.

Repetition rates appear to vary considerably across school type and curriculumtrack. Interestingly, rates appear to be higher in private religious schools and lower inpublic schools (Table 6). They also seem to be lower in commercial than academic andindustrial tracks. This is rather counterintuitive, given private, academic track students'higher scores on the achievement test. This may, however, be explained if schools in ElSalvador consider repetition to be indicative of academic rigor.

Table 6. Estimated Repetition Rates by School Type and Curriculum TrackSchool Type Repetition Rate (a/)

Public 5.4Private secular 9.8Private religious 11.1

All School Types 7.6Academic track 10.8Conunercial tack 4.8Industrialtack 13.9

Source: Edwards 1997c.

Dropout rates at the secondary level also provide some indication of educationquality. MINED reports high dropout rates at the secondary level, around 16 percent.However, a more inclusive estimate, which sums the percentage of students who droppedout for unspecified reasons, who failed, or who completed the cycle but did not receive apassing certificate, yields a dropout rate closer to 27 percent. This is alarmingly high andsuggests there are significant internal inefficiencies in the system. Student dropout ratesalso vary considerably across school types, being around 28 percent for public schools,27 percent for private secular schools, and 19 percent for private religious schools.

A fourth, and admittedly somewhat unreliable, indicator of education quality canbe obtained from a sample survey of private sector employers in El Salvador (FEPADE1997). Employer surveys of this type are known to have a very wide margin of error, andthe responses should therefore be interpreted with caution. Nonetheless, it is notable thatalmost one-third of employers surveyed reported that employees with secondary-leveleducation were "academically deficient" (Table 7).

17

Table 7. Employers' Perceptions of Workers with Secondary-level Education% ofFirnsMentionungProblem

Workers with Academic Workers with VoctionalSecondary Education Secondary Education

No specific problems 44.2 43.0Academic deficiencies 30.3 26.3Technical deficiencies 18.6 26.4Lack of relevant xpaerience 4.7 8.8Weak job skills 23.2 25.4Poor interpersonal skills 4.7 8.8Limited ambition 9.4 26.3Inappropriate skills 27.9 0.0Other problems 22.9 2.6Source: FEPADE 1997.

Diversity in Secondary Education Providers and Quality Differences

In El Salvador there is considerable diversity in secondary education providers. Itis evident that student performnance and, by implication educational quality, differs quiteconsiderably by education provider. Quality differences are notable not only betweenpublic and private providers, but also between private religious and private secularproviders. Furthermore, quality appears to differ significantly by curriculum track(academic, vocational, or commercial) as well. There is also some evidence thateducation quality differs considerably between schools in urban and rural areas, andbetween schools serving higher and lower socioeconomic strata. A good knowledge ofthese differences is important in informing policy decisions about how best to improveeducation quality and redress inequities in educational opportunity.

Poorer and Better Performing Schools

Data from the sample achievement test administered in late 1996 provides usefulinformation about better and poorer performing secondary schools (Table 8). The testresults are consistent with broader educational research; student performance on the testis significantly higher in schools where students have more access to written materialsand, specifically libraries, and where they have more instructional time. However, it isalso true that higher performing schools expend more on education delivery. Much of thehigher expenditure is accounted for by higher teacher wages; on average, teachers inbetter performing schools earn 28 percent more per teaching hour than teachers in poorerperforming school.

18

Table 8. Mean Characteristics of Better and Poorer Performing SchoolsPoorerPerforming Better Performing %

Education Input Schools Schools DifferencePerformance on Tests

Composite grade (%) 36.10 56.30 35.90(3.42) (8.23)

Language(max. =29) 11.10 16.50 32.80(1.36) (2.17)

Mathematics (max = 29) 9.90 16.20 39.00(1.50) (3.33)

Student CharacteristicsMean age 19.82 19.14 -3.70

(0.74) (0.44)Percent female 53.80 45.40 -18.50

(0.25) (0.25)School Characteristics

Total secondary enrollment 709.90 1,036.70 31.50(804.30) (790.00)

hnstructional hours 350,742.00 401,546.70 12.70(806,280.90) (521,739.40)

% private schools 13.30 43.80 69.5(0.35) (0.51)

% with library 53.30 93.80 42.10(0.52) (0.25)

% with laboratory 66.70 87.50 23.80(0.49) (0.34)

Note: Figures in brackets are standard deviations.Source: Edwards 1997d.

It is informative to consider the characteristics of the poorer and better performingschools from other angles as well. It is evident that better performing schools outperformed theothers by a margin of about 36 percent in the composite score, with a slightly larger differencebeing recorded for mathematics than language. Students in better performing schools wereslightly younger and a higher percentage were male. It appears from Table 8 that private schoolstend to be the better perfornming schools, although private schools are evidently also found in thepoorer performing category. Better performning schools are nearly one-third larger in terms oftotal student enrollment. Nearly all of the better performing schools have libraries (93.8 percent)and laboratories (87.5 percent), whereas only about half of the poorer performing schools havethese facilities.Table 9. Educational Inputs in Poorer and Better Performing Secondary Schools.

PoorerPerforming BetterPerforming %Education Input Schools Schools DifferenceEducation Expenditures

Total school expenditures (colones) 1,720,154.00 3,271,562.00 47.4Per student expenditure (colones) 2,295.60 2,967.67 22.6Per student hourly expenditure (colones) 26.62 49.02 45.7

Staffing InputsAverage annual teacher salary (colones) 33,249.73 33,468.69 0.7Average hourly teacher salary (colones) 39.53 54.88 28.0

Classroom InputsInstructional time (hours per school year) 350,742.00 401,546.70 12.7Library facilities (%/*) 53.30 93.80 43.1Laboratory facilities (/,) 66.70 87.50 23.8

Notes: Better performing schools are those where aggregate student test scores on the sample achievement test placedthem in the top third of all schools surveyed. Poorer performing schools are those where aggregate student test scoresplaced them in the bottom third of all schools surveyed.Source: Edwards 1997d.

19

Both better and poorer performing schools allocate the bulk of their resources tostaffing costs (teacher and nonteacher salaries) (Table 9). However, poorer performingschools allocate close to three quarters (72 percent) of resources for staffing costs (Table10). This compares with better performing schools' allocation of 61 percent. Betterperforming schools evidently utilize the savings to support school library facilities-which research consistently links with higher student performance-and laboratories.Interestingly, higher performing schools also allocate a significant share (14 percent) oftheir resources to office equipment. These expenditures would seem to have little directimpact on student performance, but it is possible that they are associated with improvedschool management.

Table 10. Schools' Allocation of Resources (in percent)Poorer Performing Higher Performing

Schools Schools % DifferenceLand and buildings 15.1 16.2 7.2Libraries 1.0 5.4 80.9Laboratories, workshops 1.0 2.1 51.0Classroom equipment 1.5 1.2 -25.4Office equipment 8.9 14.0 36.5Teacher salaries 34.4 28.4 -21.0Nonteacher salaries 38.1 32.7 -16.8

100.0 100.0Source: Edvards 1997d.

Urban and Rural Schools

There is limited information available which can be used to determine whethereducational quality differs significantly between urban and rural schools. Indeed, MINEDhas only limited information about the number and type of schools operating in ruralareas. The fact that so few rural youth attend secondary school means that a comparisonof school quality between urban and rural schools is rather meaningless. However, itappears that rural schools may well offer lower quality education (Table 11).

Table 11. Education Inputs in Urban and Rural Schools, 1996Public Schools (°/) Private Schools (%)

Urban Rural Urban RuralComputer classroom 27 35 62 58Laboratory 23 20 48 67Workshop 18 15 25 33Children with textbooks 80 60 93 88Free textbooks policy 32 25 34 25School grants for textbook purchase 1 0 3 8School library 32 25 61 67Average number of books in school library 1,531 420 1,604 1,577Source: Govenment of El Salvador 1996a.

20

Public and Private Schools

There are considerable differences in scores on the sample achievement testbetween public, private-religious, and private-secular schools. It is interesting todetermine whether one of these school types is more consistently identified with higherstudent performance/quality, and if one is, to see what characteristics might explain itsrelative advantage.

The student test scores show that private school students outperform their peers inpublic schools by quite a wide margin (Table 12). In mathematics, private studentsaveraged a score of 54 percent-well above public students' average score of 44 percent.The private/public school difference in language test scores was smaller, but stillsignificant; private students averaged 52 percent and public students 46 percent.

Table 12. Public and Private School Student Performance (e/@) on the Achievement TestPublic School Private School

Mathematcs 44.1 54.4Language 46.8 52.4Source: Edlwards 1997d.

What information can be gleaned about the conditions or factors in privateschools which might contribute to students' better academic performance? Data from aspecial educational attachment to the Annual Household Survey of 1996 suggest thatstudents attending private schools, and particularly those attending private-religiousschools, have better access to educational inputs commonly linked with higher studentperformance (Table 13). This includes better access to textbooks, library facilities, andlaboratories. Private school students also average two hours more per week of classroominstructional time, are much more likely to be using books in class, and have teacherswho are seldom absent from school. While students in other schools do not enjoy thesefactors/conditions at the same level, students in private-secular schools have the lowestaccess. Private-secular school students are much less likely to have access to schoollibraries and laboratories, and their teachers are much more prone to absenteeism. Theydo, however, receive slightly more instructional time than their public school peers.

Table 13. School Facilities and Characteristics by School TypeStudents

Instructional Teacher reporting AverageTime absenteeism using books number

Class (hours per (hours per in class books per Library Laboratory AuditoriumSize week) week) f4yes) student (96 yes) (OY yes) ( es)

Public 41.1 26.6 0.71 73.0 4.5 69.8 57.0 47.0Private secular 40.3 27.5 0.90 82.0 5.0 56.6 40.1 21.4Private religious 37.6 2S.7 0.15 96.0 6.0 80.2 71.7 58.0Source: Edvards 1997f

Private schools, however, not only apparently spend their resources differentlythan public schools, they also expend more per student. On average, private secondaryschools spent 2,836.9 colones per student in 1996, 10 percent more than the 2,575.0colones per student spent in public schools (Table 14). Private schools allocated

21

considerably more of their resources to libraries, laboratories, and workshops. Totalprivate school spending on teacher salaries is lower than that in public schools. Less than18 percent of per student expenditures were on teachers' salaries in private schools,compared to nearly 24 percent in public schools. Private schools also spend considerablymore on land and buildings. Curiously, and inexplicably, spending on office furniture andmaterials is very high in both public and private schools.

Table 14. Public and Private School Expenditures per Student (1996 colones)Public Schools Private Schools

Land and buildings 24.8 202.4(0.9) (7.1)

Libraries 19.4 142.7(0.7) (5.0)

Laboratories and workshops 24.8 36.5(0.9) (1.2)

Classroom furmiture and materials 164.9 372.2(6A) (13.1)

Office furniture and materials 1,282.8 1,024.9(49.9) (36.1)

Teacher salaries 605.9 507.5(23.6) (17.9)

Nonteacher salaries 450.0 550.7(17.4) (19.4)

All categories 2,575.0 2,836.9(100.0) (100.0)

Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.Source: Govenmment of El Salvador 1996a.

Academic, Vocational, and Commercial Track Schooling

Student performnance on the sample achievement test also differed considerablyfor students pursuing academic, vocational, or commercial subjects, suggesting there arealso quality differences across curriculum track offerings. Of course, it must beremembered that private secular schools principally provide commercial track education,and private religious schools provide academic track education. Public schools are morelikely to offer the range of curriculum tracks.

While student scores on the sample achievement test are generally low, scoresdiffered considerably across school types (public and private) and curriculum tracks(academic, commercial, or industrial) (Table 15). The highest scoring students are thosepursuing academic studies in private schools. In general, it is true that private schoolstudents performed better than public school students, but the mean differences are rathermodest-3.5 points in mathematics and 1.6 points in language. These average scores,however, mask the very considerable differences in the achievement of students inprivate academic track schools and private commercial schools. Students in privateacademic track schools achieved the highest average scores of any group while studentsin private commercial track schools achieved the lowest average scores of any group.

22

Table 15. Standardized Test Score Results by Secondary School Type and CurriculumTrackCumculum TracLSgubect Public School Private SchoolAU Tracks

Mathematics 12.8 15.8(4.9) (7.2)

Language 13.6 15.2(4.7) (5.4)

Academic TrackMathematics 14.5 20.4

(5.5) (6.1)Language 15.0 17.3

(4.8) (4.9)Commerce Track

Mathematics 11.7 10.5(4.5) (4.8)

Language 13.1 12.9(4.6) (5.1)

Indusrial TrackMathematics 11.9 13.2

(4.2) (5.4)Language 13.5 13.5

(4.4) (5.3)Notes:a. Maximum possible score is 29.b. Figures show mean scores; figures in parentheses are standard deviations.Source: Edwards 1 997d.

Strategies to Improve Education Quality

The available evidence suggests that student learning and education quality isindeed generally low in El Salvadoran secondary schools. The issue confronting MINEDis how best to raise education quality. The government has chosen to focus its efforts andresources principally on a fundamental reform of the secondary curriculum. Programs toenhance teachers' capacities and pedagogical knowledge will complement and supportthe curriculum reform. In many ways, El Salvador's efforts to improve education qualitymirror initiatives being introduced in other high-growth countries in the region (Box 2).

23

Box 2. The Chilean Curricular Reform

The reform process initiated by the Democratic Coalition in 1990 sees education as central to economicdevelopment, poverty alleviation, and nation building. It aims at modernizing the education sector to better prepareChilean children and youth for the challenges of the 21st Century: globalization and increasing competition, thedemands of the knowledge society and the explosion of scientific and technological knowledge, and the need forsocial cohesion. The strategy adopted to that effect relies heavily on a pedagogical and curricular reform centeredon individuaL meaningful learning.

The concepts of quality and equity-the two main goals of the reform-have been redefined:

* Quality no longer means the accumulation of encyclopedic knowledge, but the mastery of higher orderskills such as abstract reasoning; infonnation processing; critical thinking; and behaviors; such asteamwork, intellectual rigor, and results orientation, all needed to ensure the flexibility and adaptabilityof the labor force in a rapidly changing labor market.

* Equity no longer refers to the delivery of an identical package of educational goods to all children.Rather, it means the ability of the system to attend to the diverse needs of an increasingly heterogeneousschool population, as the system has moved from elite to mass education.

* The existing cumoulum, dating back to the 1960s, needed modernization. It was anachronistic-emphasizing the memorization of facts; rigid-with early separation of pupils into two streams-academic and vocational/professional-reflecting a highly segmented society, and cut off from the dailylives of many of these youngsters. As recommended by the 1990 Constitutional Law on Education, andthe 1994 High-level Brunner Commission, a new curriculum was approved in 1996 for Basic Education(eight year) and was introduced in the 1998 school year, the Secondary Education (four year) curriculumwas approved in 1998 and wiU be introduced in the 2000 school year. The year between approval andintroduction was needed to prepare the sylabuses. The latter was the subject of an extensive consultationprocess.

The new curriculum reflects cutting-edge disciplinary and pedagogical knowledge and thinking in OECDcountries. National and intermational experts were involved. More generaUy, the changes introduced can becharacterized as folows:

* The curriculum framework sets objectives for about 80 percent of what children are expected to learn,reflecting national goals and concerns. The remaining 20 percent are left for the schools to decide,depending on local concerns. The schools prepare their own cumicular plan and receive financial andtechnical support to that effect.

* The secondary curriculum emphasizes foundational disciplines and postpones streaming. This approachis to provide more practical knowledge and learning experiences.

* The cumculum also includes the so-called "transversal objectives" ensure that values (such as solidarityand tolerance, respect for the environment, etc.) and behaviors (such as teamwork, inquisitive spirit,autonomy, result orientation, etc.) as well as specific know-hows (such as computer science andtechnology, etc.) are taught across disciplines.

Source: F. Dellannoy based on information provided by C. Cox and J.E. Jeuhuidobro.

Consolidating and Reforming the Curriculum

A very substantially revised secondary curriculum was introduced simultaneouslyin public and private schools in 1997. This new curriculum was developed followingextensive consultation with a wide number of interested parties. It is a very significantdeparture from the old secondary educational system.

As in most Latin American countries, secondary schooling in El Salvador prior to1997 offered students the option of pursuing an academic or a vocational curriculum.Possibly more so than in other countries, however, El Salvador sought, in the vocationalsecondary system, to provide students with job-specific technical skills. This resulted in a

24

proliferation of curriculum tracks and subspecializations. In 1996, students wereconfronted with a choice of 10 curriculum tracks and some 29 subject specializations(Table 16). The curriculum tracks showed considerable divergence in terms of academicrequirements, instructional hours, and monthly fees and tuition charges.

Table 16. Secondary School Curriculum Track Offerings, to 1996% of Total Seconday

Track Specia izarions Instructional Hours Enrollments (1994)1 Academnic Natral Sciences 25 24.0

Mathematics/PhysicsHumnanities

2 Agricultural Technical Zoology 33 1.0Technical BotanyRenewable Natural ResourcesGeneral

3 Commercial Accounting 34 58.2SecretarialComputing

4 Industrial General Mechanics 35 9.3AutomotiveElectricityElectronicsArchitectwe

5 Health Nursing 33 5.3Environmental Health

6 Vocational Beauty Consultant 30 0.2Art and DecorationSewing and Design

7 Arts Ceramics 40-53 0.2Music

8 Hotels and Tourism Hotels and Tourism 28 0.39 Childcare Childcare 26 1.5

10 Navigation and Fishing Naval Mechanics 34 0.0Navigation and FishingFish Processing

Source: MINED.

Like secondary vocational education systems in most countries, however, schoolssuffered shortages of technical equipment and were only rarely able to recruit and retainqualified instructors. Additionally, vocational schools had only limited contact with themanufacturing sector, and only the most minimal knowledge of labor market demands formanpower. Additionally, the large number of subject specializations being offeredstretched sector resources very thinly. Ultimately, it was clear that students learned onlythe most limited technical skills in school. These were usually not the skills most indemand by employers.

MiNED, recognizing the shortcomings of the vocational curriculum, took steps torationalize the system in the 1996 academic year. It boldly reduced the curriculum tracksfrom 10 to five (General (Academic), Commerce, Industry, Health, and Agriculture) andeliminated many of the subspecializations. MINED also introduced requirements that allstudents study a core set of academic courses.

25

The second phase of the reform took place in the 1997 academic year. This phaseset the stage for profound changes in the structure of the secondary curriculum. Thewidespread consultation that occurred around the development of the new curriculum,however, meant that opposition to these reforms was minimized. In the second phase,strong disincentives were introduced to students to study the vocational curricula. Thiswas done by requiring that all students complete the required core academic coursesduring their first two years of secondary school. On successfully completing theserequirements, students could graduate with a diploma in academic studies. Studentswishing to pursue the vocational curriculum, however, are required to spend a third yearin school meeting the vocational course requirements. The effect of this is to make thecost of a vocational education 50 percent higher than the costs of an academic education.Students have responded to this situation as would be expected: enrollments in the firstyear of the reformn show that the proportion of students opting for an academic curriculumhas almost doubled (Table 17) and the proportion of students pursuing vocational optionshas declined accordingly.

Table 17. Changes in Student Enrollments by Curriculum Track, 1997New Enrollees (%) Second Year Students (%) Third Year Students (/o)

All SchoolsGeneral (Academic) 37.1 17.5 17.7Commercial 52.6 65.4 64.8Industrial 7.4 8.1 8.5Other 2.9 9.0 9.0

Public SectorGeneral (Academic) 35.7 18.2 18.0Commercial 55.9 68.8 69.9Industrial 5.1 5.5 5.4Other 3.3 7.6 6.6

Private SectorGeneml (Academic) 41.6 15.5 16.5Commercial 42.1 54.4 47.2industrial 14.9 16.5 19.3Other 1.4 13.6 17.0

Source: MINED.

By cutting the number of subject specializations and by reducing the demand forvocational education, MINED has freed up resources and energies to reform andstrengthen the general academic curriculum. It initiated these efforts in 1995, againconsulting widely with stakeholders and contracting well-qualified tertiary institutions todevelop the curriculum guidelines. In 1996, the objectives of the new curriculum (Box 3)were announced and detailed curriculum guidelines published.

Box 3. Objectives of the New 1996 Curriculum". ..Un elemento central en el diseno de programas de estudios ha sido el perfil que se espera lograr en los alumnos, entanto personas que estbn en desarrollo y forman parte de una comumdad. Este perfil puede ser concebido colo laintegraci6n de los aprendizajes (en el sentido mds abarcador: valores, conocimientos y destrezas) que se esperadesarrollar en los alumnos y las alumnas, a medida que estos avanzan de un grado a otro. Segun eso, el enfasis de laeducaci6n debe estar en el aprendizaje, y no en la ensenanza; en el alumno, y no en el maestro m en el programa; en lageneracion de conocimientos, y no en la transmision mecinica de elos."

Source: MINED 1996.

26

There are three particularly notable points about the new curriculum guidelines:

* The guidelines require that students' instructional time in the classroom beincreased to 40 hours per week. This is a significant increase over the 27hours of instructional time required previously.

* The guidelines aim to use the curriculum to move the learning process inschool away from a traditional rote learning approach and towards an active,questioning, and contextual form of learning. This will be done through theintroduction of a crosscutting curriculum (the "ejes transversales") which willoverlay instruction in the basic academic subjects (language, mathematics,etc.). The crosscutting curriculum will cover issues such as the environment,population, health, equity, preventive education, values, human rights, andconsumer education. This contextual approach to learning will mean, forexample, that students will no longer learn physics. Instead, they will studynatural sciences which will integrate physics with other science subjects andwith some of the crosscutting thematic topics as well.

* The guidelines aim to directly target the social problems which- afflict ElSalvadoran youth, including violence, gang membership, social alienation,and teenage pregnancy. Six instructional hours per week-close to one-thirdof available instructional time-are being allocated to adolescent psychologyand to broader issues of youth health and social well being, including sexualdevelopment, interpersonal relations, gender equality, self-esteem, etc.

The new curriculum is at the heart of efforts to make secondary education moreresponsive to an increasingly technology-based economy which will have to compete inthe global market. It builds on experience in the U.S., Europe, and elsewhere which hasshown that global competitiveness means having workers with higher cognitive andinterpersonal skills. Sound literacy and numeracy at the secondary school level remainessential, but just as important are "soft" skills-workers' ability to identify problemsand introduce improvements, capacity to work effectively in teams, ability tocommunicate effectively, etc. So important are these aptitudes to global competitivenessthat several countries, including the U.S., have commissioned studies to identifyspecifically what skills secondary schools should be focusing on developing (Box 4). ElSalvador's new secondary curriculum seeks to develop these essential skills and qualitiesamong their secondary students. It aims to do this by encouraging students to engage inmore interactive, critical learning across broader thematic areas and by addressing thepsycho-social issues of youth.

27

Box 4. What Work Requires of SchoolsIn the early 1990s, the U.S. Department of Labor acted on widely expressed concerns by employers that

secondary school leavers were lacking the basic sklals and qualities needed in a technologically driven, globalmarket The Department conducted a far-ranging survey of employers to identify the skills they sought most highlyamong new recruits. It was surprising to find that, while good numeracy and literacy skills were highly valued, otherqualities were increasingly being sought after. These included "softer" attitudinal qualities and problem-solvingskills. To build these skills in students, states and schools have been working to modify their curricula and encourageteachers to engage in more interactive teaching on broader thematic areas. The survey results were summarized to listemployers' desired characteristics of school leavers. These include:

Basic Skills:

Reading-locates, understands, and interprets written information in prose and in documents such as manuals,graphs, and schedules

Writing-ommnunicates thoughts, ideas, information, and messages in writing and creates documents such as letters,directions, manuals, reports, graphs, and flow charts

Arithmeticlmathematics-performs basic comnputations and approaches practical problems by choosing appropriatelyfrom a variety of mathematical techniques

Listening-receives, attends to, interprets, and responds to verbal messages and other cues

Speaking-organizes ideas and communicates orally

Thinking Skills:Creative thinking-generates new ideas

Decision-making-specifies goals and constraints, generates alternatives, considers risks, and evaluates and choosesbest alternative

Problem-solving-recognizes problems and devises and implements plan of action

Seeing things in the mind's eye-organizes and processes symbols, pictures, graphs, objects, and other information

Knowing how to leam-uses efficient learning techniques to acquire and apply new knowledge and skills

Reasoning-discovers a rule or principle underlying the relationship between two or more objects and applies it insolving a problem

Personal Qualites:Responsibility-exerts a high level of effort and perseveres towards goal attainment

Self esteem-believes in own self-worth and maintains a positive view of self

Sociability-demonstrates understanding, friendliness, adaptability, empathy, and politeness in group settings

Self management-assesses self accurately, sets personal goals, monitors progress, and exhibits self control

Integrity/honesty-chooses ethical courses of action

Source: Summarized from Govermment of the United States 1992.

It is not yet clear whether the new curriculum is being effective in developingthese skills and qualities in its students. Insufficient time has passed since theintroduction of the guidelines for noticeable changes to have occurred. However, thereare some aspects around the implementation of the new curriculum which might mitigateagainst its success in the medium term. Central is the limited training teachers havereceived in the new curriculum. This has generally been limited to an initial five-daytraining program delivered to all serving teachers in the 1996-97 school year, whichintroduced the new curriculum and the precepts underlying it, and a few one-dayworkshops spread across the 1997-98 school year. The effects these workshops haveactually had on teachers' capacity to deliver the new curriculum is undoubtedly verylimited. Certainly, teachers will have struggled with requirements that they teach thecrosscutting issues (ejes transversales) since no guidelines were yet available in the1996-97 school year. It is also likely that the extended school day has not resulted in any

28

discernible improvement in student learning. This is because curriculum guidelines forthe six hours of Formative Area studies (adolescent psychology, seminars on socialissues, etc.) had also not yet been issued. A further factor which is likely to work againsteffective implementation of the curriculum is the absence of textbooks. While exhaustivebibliographic lists are attached to the curriculum guidelines, it is evident that no one ortwo texts in each subject area could offer the depth and breadth required by thecurriculum. Teachers and students will need access to large numbers of texts to cover thecurriculum content. This presents serious problems: first, for the majority of teachers whohave been used to transmitting "packaged" knowledge and who probably wouldexperience difficulties in preparing lessons from an array of sources; and second, forstudents who tend to have rather limited access to texts, in part because of their high costand in part because almost half the secondary schools in the country lack school libraries.

Enhancing Teacher Quality to Support the Curriculum

Educational research has repeatedly shown that teacher quality, and specificallyteachers' subject knowledge, is strongly and consistently related to student performance.Teachers with a better knowledge of subject material and greater written and verballanguage proficiency have better-performing students (World Bank 1995). Alsoimportant is teachers' knowledge of pedagogy. While no specific teaching practice isuniversally effective, teachers with a wider repertoire of teaching skills and techniquesappear to be more effective in the classroom. Several factors contribute directly to thequality of the teaching corps: recruitment of teachers with preservice training and whohave a sound subject knowledge; the existence of a well-designed, continuous inservicetraining system which introduces teachers to new theory and teaching techniques; and aclear career structure which rewards higher educational qualifications, participation ininservice training, and good performance in the classroom.

In El Salvador, low teacher quality has long been considered an important factorunderlying students' poor academic performance. Accordingly, teacher quality andteachers' working conditions were given special consideration in the consultative forawhich helped develop the education sector's 10 -year plan. A number of key problems andshortcomings were identified and remedial strategies proposed (Table 18). MINED acteddirectly on these, promulgating a new law in 1995 governing the teaching corps, the Leyde Carrera Docente.

29

Table 18. Outcomes of the Consultative Fora's Deliberations on the Formacidn DocenteProblemas Propuestas

* Formaci6n incompleta * Formar docentes especialistas* Hay poca especializaci6n * Comisi6n que vigile la formaci6n, actualizaci6n de

los docentes y disene politicas y planes* No se da didactica para las asignaturas* Pensum carece de politica clara establecida * Articular formaci6n docente con necesidades de la

sociedad del siglo X= por estrato social y local* Se descuida enfoque humano en formaci6n* Falta visi6n integral y acorde al plan de naci6n * Disenar plan de incentivos apropiado y realista* No hay perfil para el pr6ximo siglo * Que se legisle bien y se cumplan las nuevas leyes* Poca moral y 6tica en la formaci6n* Deficiente sistema de actualizaci6n * Investigar y crear didacticas apropiadas a la realidad

social y ternitoral, aprovechando recursos nacionalese intemacionales

* No hay incentivos ni positivos m negativos para eldocente

* La carrera esta desvalorizada * Nuevo escalafon docente unico y en base apreparaci6n y productividad

* Los planes son copiados de otros paises* Inexistencia de instituciones para formar educadores* Formaci6n de docentes y reformas desfasadas• No se vigila la formaci6n del docente- Desconocimiento de metodol6gias modemas y

apropiadas de aprendizajeSource: Govermment of El Salvador 1995.

Although MINED has been actively working to translate the proposals forupgrading teacher quality into policies and effective strategies, teacher quality remainsone of the most pressing concerns in secondary education. The effective introduction andadoption of the new curriculum depends in no small part on the ability of the teachingforce to translate it into effective classroom practice. Yet the new curriculum is clearly asignificant challenge for most teachers. With the new multidisciplinary learning approach(ejes transversales), teachers who have been trained in a specific subject now face thechallenge of having to convey knowledge in areas well beyond their particular specialty.For instance, a physics teacher is now expected to teach natural sciences, which includesnot only physics units, but also biology and chemistry units, and possibly someenvironmental units as well. Furthermore, the new curriculum expects teachers to adopt amore constructivist approach in the classroom, facilitating student learning throughdialogue, discovery, and experimentation. This is a radical change from the existinginstructional model where teachers were transmitters of information and studentsreproducers of it.

MINED ultimately aims to implement five core policies to help teachers increasetheir subject knowledge and pedagogic skills:

The development and implementation of a National System for PreserviceTeacher Training which will guide higher education institutions offeringteacher training programs. Instituting a system which can evaluate the qualityof preservice teacher training programs will be integral to this effort.

30

* The introduction of an improved inservice teacher training system. Thisinvolves the development of an inservice system, greater coordinationbetween higher education institutions which prepare and deliver teachertraining programs, and the introduction of a system for evaluating teacherperformance in the classroom.

* The establishment of the Escuelas Modelo de Desarrollo Educativo system.MED is currently working to pilot this system. It involves the creation of apublicly supported Escuela Modelo in each educational district of the country.The Escuelas Modelo will become "learning points" where new educationalinnovations, and particularly innovations in curricula, will be trialed beforebeing introduced more widely in the schools. They will also be the venue forinservice teacher training programs and, more informally, sites where teacherscan obtain support in learning new pedagogical methods and subject matter.The sites will also be used for school board meetings, for the escuela depadres, for student clubs, etc.

* The establishment of three regional Centros Regionales de Capacitaci6n.These Centers will principally support the implementation of a SistemaNacional de Capacitaci6n. Each of the three Centers will have responsibilityfor defining appropriate strategies to support inservice teacher training inpublic and private schools, support and oversee other institutes deliveringinservice teacher training, and oversee and support the Escuelas Modelo intheir region.

Changing the conditions governing teachers' employment and pay is important insupporting quality improvements. The low pay for teachers has forced many of them towork two or three shifts per day, meaning that they are in the classroom teaching foraround 12 hours a day. Public sector employees also frequently augment their salaries byteaching in private schools as well. The placement of teachers in schools has also been asource of discontent, both to the schools and the teachers. Although school principalswere able to review the applications for positions in their school and identify preferredcandidates, MINED ultimately determined which applicant should be appointed. Thisoften resulted in a misallocation of teachers. This system for appointing teachers has,however, recently been changed to allow schools greater autonomy in identifying andrecruiting teaching staff.

The Ley de la Carrera Docente of 1995 established new guidelines for teachers'conditions of service. The principal intent behind this is to establish incentives whichencourage and reward teachers with higher formal qualifications and more effectiveteaching practices. The Escalafon Docente will be the basis for much of these changes.The escalafon, undertaken in 1997, assigns teachers a professional classificationaccording to their formal educational qualifications and their years of service. Promotionfrom one classification category to another will, under this system, become moreformalized and will be driven by educational qualifications rather than by years ofservice. Salary increments will be linked to a teacher's classification category and to his

31

or her performance evaluations, a procedure that will also be institutionalized under thelaw.

Instituting Evaluation Systems

NvNED has instituted a range of evaluation mechanisms intended to monitorprogress towards objectives and inform policy. The evaluation mechanisms are, in effect,more like a system of checks and balances in that they have limited scope and do not relyheavily on data collection and reporting. Examples of these evaluation systems are theescalafon system, which registers teachers according to their most recent qualification;the oversight exercised by the Regional Centers of the Escuelas Modelo; the school-community partnerships and community-managed schools; etc. Sufficient checks andbalances have been put in place that system performance should be subject to continuingand close scrutiny from a variety of quarters. However, only very limited attempts havebeen made to establish one of the most exacting evaluation systems-an assessment ofstudent learning on completion of secondary school. In 1997-98 a very modest attemptwas made to institute such a system by requiring all completing secondary schoolstudents to write a terminal examination. The utility of these examinations as anassessment tool have, however, been somewhat limited. Although great care needs to betaken in developing and administering such assessment systems, they have been shown tobe useful in raising quality where they are well designed. The secondary system couldalso benefit greatly from improvements in the MIS system.

Increasing parents' knowledge of school performance and allowing them toexercise choice over the school they send their child to can also be a highly effectiveform of evaluating and improving school performance. An effective system of this typehas been introduced in the United Kingdom (Box 5).

32

Box 5. Improving Parents' Information About Schools: The United Kingdom'sApproach

The U.K. has sought to improve school quality by allowing parents to exercise choice. It is reasonedthat parents will elect to send their children to the highest performing schools. Poorer performing schools willthus experience declining enrollments-and associated public subsidies. They will be forced to improve qualityor face closure as their student body duimnishes. Maling this system work effectively depends on parentshaving ready access to information about schools' performance in their locality. A short booklet, 'OurChildren's Education: The Updated Parent's Charter," produced by the Department for Education, lists the fivesources of infonnation which parents choose between schools:

1. A school report on their child Parents should receive a written report on their child's progress fromschools at least once a year. Among other things, it should tell parents about children's performance onnational tests; compare the child's national test results with national averages; and describe the child'sgeneral progress.

2. Regular reports of independent inspectors. The Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED) ensures thatschools are inspected at kast once every four years. All inspection reports cover the same points, allowingcomparisons of school performance. Before the reports are prepared, the inspection team is required toconsult with parents of students to get their input Any person can request a copy of the inspection reportfrom the school.

3. Schoolperformance tables. These are published yearly by region and are provided free upon requestThey provide information, by school, on average student scores on national examinations, studentabsenteeism rates, the number of instructional hours per week, etc.

4. A prospectus on individual schools. Each school is required to publish a free prospectus each year whichdescribes its achievements and explains the aims and values of the school. The prospectus must alsoinclude examination results for the school and compare them with local and national results. It must alsoprovide information on rates of student absenteeism.

5. An annual reportfrom the school's board ofgovernors. This must be sent out to all parents of students. Itmust provide information on the school's examination scores, student absenteeism rates, the schoolbudget, what school leavers did after leaving the school, and information about the procedures for the nextelection of parent governors.

To ensure that this information system functions effectively, the government conducts narketresearch each year. It polls a sample of households across the country to determine whether they receive theright amount of information and whether they find the information useful.

Source: Extracted from Govenunent of the United Kingdom, 1994, "Our Children's Education The UpdatedParent's Charter."

33

SECTION 4. INCULCATING SOCIAL AND CIVIC VALUES

Introduction

The third core objective of the education system outlined in the ReformaEducativa en Marcha is the "formaci6n de valores humanos, eticos y civicos." Educationsystems in most countries aim to inculcate social and civic values in students, but ElSalvador is concentrating special efforts and resources on this objective because of thewidespread social destruction which occurred in the 1980s. Mechanisms to address thesocial exclusion and alienation of youth, as well as the common developmental issues ofyouth, have been built into the new secondary education curriculum and schedule. Stepsto shore up and consolidate these efforts will, however, demand continuing attention andresources.

"La educacidn suficientey de calidadpara todos, es elfactor que masdecidedamente puede ayudar a superar la pobreza. La educacion general, laformacion laboral y la capacitacidn permanente, pondrdn a los salvadorenosen najores condiciones para aceder con ventaja al mercado laboral; y por otraparte, laformacion humana puede ayudar a superar las costumbresinadecuadas, y las aputasyfilosofias de vida que coadyuvan a mantener alpobre en el cdrculo de la cukura de la pobreza. "

Reforma Educativa en Marcha: Lineamientos del Plan Decenal, 1995-2005.

The World of El Salvadoran Youth

The most profound and lasting effects of the conflict have been on the country'syouth. The very low median age in the country-19 years-means that most of the youth,and specifically secondary school age youth, have spent the greater part of their livesliving in a situation of conflict and economic turmoil. A very considerable proportion ofyoung people have lived in difficult economic conditions, suffered displacement, beenaffected by the economic migration of one or both parents, experienced social and familyviolence, or have lost parents or relatives in the conflict. Available data show that manyyoung people live in abject conditions. Approximately 47 percent of households live inseverely overcrowded conditions where there are more than three people per room.Around 30 percent of urban households and 78 percent of rural households do not haveaccess to potable water. Close to one-third of children and youth under age 18 live insingle parent households which are typically female-headed. In most cases, parents areabsent because of death or economic migration. Slightly more than a quarter of alladolescents report having at least one family member working outside the country. And,around 8 percent of youth live in households where both parents work abroad.

The economic crisis of the 1980s plunged many households into poverty, asituation that was exacerbated by the displacement of many families and the effectivedissolution of the extended family unit. Child and youth labor became increasingly

34

important for household support and income. Between 1985 and 1990, a 76 percentincrease in the economically active population under age 18 was recorded. In 1996, closeto 25 percent of children and youth between ages 10 and 18 reported that they wereeconomically active (i.e., working or actively seeking work). While most young workersare at the upper end of this age range, the proportion of younger youth working is notinsignificant. Fifteen year olds, for instance, account for 14 percent of workers in the 10to 18 year age range. It is boys who are much more likely to be economically active; theyaccount for 76 percent of economically active youth aged 10 to 18 years. Working youthevidently do not find good work opportunities and do not eam much money (Table 19).Most are unremunerated family workers. However, the real value of their work probablylies in the fact that it frees up older household members to work outside the house.Approximately a third of youth report that they are temporary workers, which means thatthey work principally in construction, laboring, or service jobs.

Table 19. Economically Active Population, Aged 10 to 18 Years, by Occupational Category,1996

% Partcipants# Participants by Occupation % Males % Females

All Groups 295,810 100 76 24Employer 136 0 100 0Self-employed 13,096 4 63 37Non-remunerated family member 114,779 39 80 20Member of coop - 0 - -Permanent worker 26,947 9 72 28Temporary worker 97,226 33 86 14Apprentice 7,603 3 97 3Domestic servant 19,237 7 3 97Others 129 0 0 100Seeking work 16,657 6 78 22

Source: Goverunent of El Salvador 1996a FEPADE and others 1997.

Social Alienation Among Youth

In El Salvador, conflict, poverty, and the absence of adult role models in thefamily have all contributed to the social alienation of youth. This is most immediatelyevident in the growth of gangs and gang-associated crime and violence, the highincidence of teenage pregnancy, the rising number of street children, and many youths'evident lack of interest and ambition in their futures.

Street gangs are a relatively new phenomenon in El Salvador, but are alreadyconsidered a menacing phenomenon responsible for some criminal and violent behavior.The emergence of gangs is a response to individuals' need for social, emotional, andsometimes economic support. Physical protection becomes an increasingly importantfunction of gangs as they become more institutionalized, become more involved in crime,and engage in rivalries with other gangs. Much of the gang activity in El Salvador iscentered in San Salvador where two particularly strong gangs are located. However, it isestimated that some 500 cliques, of 15 to 35 members each, are now in existence. Thesecliques are increasingly linked to gangs in the U.S. and often revolve around ElSalvadorans deported from the U.S. for criminal activity. A survey conducted in 1996

35

provides a profile of the average gang member: he joins at around 14 years of age, istypically not in school (only 25 percent of members are in school), does not haveemployment (75 percent are unemployed), lives in a family where one or no parents arepresent, and if female, is very likely to have had at least one pregnancy (50 percent reporthaving had a pregnancy) (FEPADE and others 1997). In 1996, police figures show thatslightly more than 3,000 minors were prosecuted for criminal activity in the San Salvadormetropolitan area alone; most of those prosecuted were members of gangs.

Data on the incidence of teenage pregnancy is limited, but it is widelyacknowledged that the incidence is very high and rising. The profound health and socialconsequences of early pregnancy are well documented. Young mothers suffer highermaternal mortality rates, rarely complete their education, live in poorer economiccircumstances, and are less able to adequately provide for the nutritional and educational.needs of their children. In El Salvador, a complex mix of social and economic factorsseem to underlie the high teenage pregnancy rate. Surveys show that many young womenbecome pregnant as a way to assert their independence. They hope that by becomingpregnant they will be able to leave a harsh home environment and begin life afresh intheir own household. In practice, of course, this seldom happens. The lot of these youngwomen is made more difficult by the fact that they hold very traditional, and harmful,perceptions of appropriate life roles for women and men. Surveys show that girls andyoung women consider that their future lies in marriage, a condition that does not requiremuch education and which firmly establishes them as dependents. They also assert thateducational opportunities should be given to boys, since boys will be responsible forsupporting their families economically. These perceptions and stereotypes limit girls' andyoung women's educational vision and their interest in school.

Many youth in El Salvador hold distorted perceptions of life and believe theyhave little ability or power to influence their futures. Surveys show that it is the childrenof migrant workers-about 26 percent of youth aged 10 to 18 years-who are most likelyto hold these perceptions. These children have lacked parental role models but havebenefited economically from remittances sent by their parents. Their consumptionpatterns are more like those of middle-class Americans (CD players, brand nameclothing, etc.), and they see no connection between educational attainment, labor, andquality of life. Consequently, they show little interest in continuing or completing theireducation and their main expectation is "irme a los Estados" (Junho Pena and others1997). When they remain in school, it is usually because absent parents stipulate this.

Street children are not yet a pervasive problem in El Salvador, but their incidencedoes appear to be increasing. Estimates suggest that there were around 1,000 streetchildren in 1997, most of them being in San Salvador city (FEPADE and others 1997).Surveys indicate that these children frequently come from highly abusive familysituations and that they suffer a variety of mental health problems. As they get older, theytypically join gangs. Few, if any, of these children attend school.

36

The Consequences of Social Alienation

The immediate consequences of social alienation are school dropout; familialtension, which often escalates to violence; crime; and health problems, which arise fromviolence, teenage pregnancy, and drug use. Individuals who suffer social alienation oftenbecome a link in the chain of poverty, violence, and social exclusion which rends thesocial fabric of society. Youth who leave school prematurely have low levels of humancapital; their low human capital means they have difficulties finding employment;because they lack employment they are more likely join gangs, practice violence, andengage in criminal behavior; their association with gangs and criminal activities increasestheir unemployability; they become locked into a situation where they are unable to earnsufficiently to support themselves and their families, and they experience continuingeconomic hardship and poverty. When a significant proportion of the young populationare at risk of entering this cycle, the social and economic consequences for the countrycan be profound. This is the situation in El Salvador. The education sector is thus beingseen as the main vehicle for addressing these problems.

Strategies to Address Social Alienation through the Schools

In many countries, including the U.S., considerable controversy exists aboutwhether the school system should even try to address the social problems of its studentbody. It is argued that schools face a sufficient challenge in transmitting the coreeducational curriculum; expecting them to address social problems overburdens thesystem and distracts it from its key academic purpose. It is also argued that schoolsystems are generally ill equipped to address students' social problems; schools arestaffed by principals and teachers who generally have no training in adolescentpsychology and counseling.

In El Salvador, however, the education ministry has been identified as the keyagent responsible for addressing the social problems of children and youth. MINED hasnot shied from this responsibility and is tackling it head on. The challenge of addressingthe social problems of youth has been made somewhat easier by the profound andfundamental reform of secondary education; it has given MINED the latitude needed tofundamentally restructure the schedule and curriculum and make social issues an integralpart of the system.

"El Salvador de hoy enfrenta diferentes retos, enre otros, consolidar la paz y Iademocracia, erradicar la pobreza y mejorar su competitividad a nivel mundiaLLa EducaciWtn ofrece respuestas concretas a estos desafios, pues es el ejefundamental del desarrollo sostenible. La Educacion debe contribuir alproposito nacional deformar un nuevo ciudadano, mdsproductivo en loeconnmico, mds solidario en lo social, mds participativoy tolerante en lopolitico, mds respetuoso de los derechos humanos y por tanto mds pacif co ensus relaciones con sus semejantes; mds consciente del valor de la naturaleza eintegrado en lo culturaL . . ."

Reforma Educativa en Marcha: Lineamientos del Plan Decenal, 1995-2005.

37

MI)ED has developed, and is beginning to implement, a range of policies andstrategies designed to inculcate social and civic values in youth. Most ambitious amongthese strategies is the revision of the secondary school curriculum so it placesconsiderable emphasis on the transmission of these ideals. The school day was alsoextended in 1997 to accommodate the new curriculum so all secondary students nowspend 40 hours a week in class. The new general curriculum comprises "basic subjects,"such as mathematics, language, etc., and "formative areas," which include courses onadolescent psychology, seminars on social issues, and optional subjects which aredeveloped and delivered with the collaboration of communities and local agencies (Table20). Close to one-third of instructional time-12 hours-is given over to the study of the"formative areas." To further reinforce socially important concepts, values, andprinciples, the curriculum requires teachers to engage in contextual learning by drawingon ejes transversales when teaching the "basic subjects." The ejes transversales includetopics such as the environment, population, health, equity, preventive education, values,human rights, and consumer education.

Table 20. New Curriculum for Secondary General Education ProgramNumber of Hours per Week

Year I Year 2Basic Subjects

Language and Literature 5 5Mathematics 6 6Natural Sciences 5 5Social and Civic Studies 3 3Foreign Language 3 3Information Systems 3 3

Formative AreasAdolescent Psychology 3 3Optional Activities 6 6Seminars 3 3

Total 40 40Source: Government of El Salvador 1997b.

Since the new curriculum has only very recently been introduced, insufficienttime has passed to detetmine whether it is being implemented effectively. It is clear,however, that increased investments in training for teachers will be necessary if they areto effectively incorporate contextual learning principles; for teachers who have beenpracticing teacher-directed rote learning, the jump to engage in more interactive,contextual learning is a significant one. And to date, most teachers have received only afew days of inservice training on the new curriculum, much of which training has focusedon the principles underlying the curriculum.

MINED is, however, establishing some innovative incentive programs toencourage active school and community involvement in these activities and programs.The Program for Innovative Social Formative Projects, to be launched in 1999, isillustrative of these efforts. Under the program, MINED will provide grant awards toschools which develop proposals addressing students' academic and social needs underthe Optional Activities program. Awards are targeted particularly at programs designed todiminish student violence; reduce the risk of teenage pregnancies; improve family

38

relationships; encourage cooperation among young people; foster cultural, ethical, andcivic values; and enhance adolescents' decision-making skills. Schools with high at-riskpopulations are given priority under the grant program.

MINED's programs are evidently aimed at building alliances with partnersoutside the education sector. This is important given that youth issues extend well beyondthe usual ambit of the education system and that education cannot hope to finance anddeliver the array of youth services itself. Through partnerships with communities andwith public and private providers of youth services, the potential exists to offer a morecomprehensive array of integrated services at, or near, the school site. Certainly, goodexperiences with school-linked services can be readily found in the U.S. (Box 6).Incentive programs, like the Program for Innovative Social Formative Projects, can go along way towards encouraging schools to initiate such partnerships. Developing andmaintaining these partnerships, however, requires new skills and capacities of schoolstaff. Principals must be able to assume responsibility for financial management of theschool-both fundraising and financial control-community liaison, Board management,and outreach activities, be they to local business, public or private youth-orientedservices, or other agencies. Teachers, in turn, must become more adaptable andresponsive to inputs from partner agencies. Interestingly, and unlike the basic'education(EDUCO) system, the secondary system has had a tradition of being highly centralizedand quite unresponsive to local communities. The challenges of building a decentralized,responsive secondary education system that is capable of addressing the youth's socialissues are therefore considerable.

Box 6. School-linked Service Networks-The High School Program in New Jersey,United States

In the late 1 980s, New Jersey recognized that social, familiaL and substance abuse problems werecontributing very signficantly to the state's high levels of school truancy, violence, and dropout among youthaged 13 to 19 years. The schools were ill-equipped to deal with these issues and education policy-makers werewary of imposing additional extracurricular responsibilities on school systems already struggling to meetacademic requirements. The state decided to address these problems by encouraging the establishment of school-linked network services for youth. This meant drawing on the expertise and resources of public services andNGOs already working on these issues.

Establishing the school-linkage service network system required little in the way of extra financing.Initially, small, competitive grants were made available to encourage schools to consider and develop plans for aschool-linked services network. Conditionalities attached to these grants ensured that they were utilizedeffectively. First, it was required that any school-linked services network provide some matching resources.These resources did not need to be cash resources. They could be in-kind services, in the form of facilities usage,staff time, etc. Second, it was mandated that only 10 percent of grant resources could be used for facilityrenovation. Third, it was required that each school-linked services network provide job training and employment,mental health, and physical health services to the youth they served. Each network also had to demonstrate theavailability of a certified alcohol and drug abuse specialist And fourth, each school was required in its grantproposal to explain what mechanisms would be employed to ensure that the various services would becoordinated and integrated Grant recipients were required to have a site project manager who did not, however,need to be a Ministry of Education employee.

School-linked service networks were established in many schools by the early 1990s. They continue tooperate and are recognized to be an especially effective and low cost approach to addressing school truancy andviolence. Student attendance rates have increased and incidents of disruptive student behavior declined in schoolswith school-linked service networks in place. In most schools, the managers and other service personneLincluding the employment specialists, nurses, youth counselors, etc., have been funded by nonschool agenciesfrom their regular budgets. The program outcomes were sufficiently impressive that the system was expanded bythe New Jersey State legislature to cover the state at large.

Source: Extracted from Kirst (1992).

39

Some of the most immediate challenges lie in ensuring that schools are responsiveto their clients, the parents, and the local community. Legal provisions of 1996, requiringthe establishment of Consejo Directivo Escolares (CDEs) in all secondary schools, wereseen to be fundamental in building basic partnerships between the schools and parentsand communities. Comprised of teacher, student, parent, and community representatives,the CDEs have responsibility for (i) planning and implementing school activities, and (ii)participating in the management of the resources transferred to schools and in raisingadditional funds to support school activities. Although CDEs have been graduallyestablished in all secondary schools, the challenge is to make them an important tool toraise the quality of education services in the secondary schools. The 1997 survey made atthe onset of the implementation of the CDEs revealed that few of them were actuallyfunctioning (Guerrero 1997). Around 80 percent of the schools surveyed were stillmanaged and run exclusively by the school principal; parental participation was minimalat best. Even where parents contributed resources to the school, the principal usuallycontinued to control them and decide how they would be spent.

"La administracion interna de las institutionces educativas of ciales sedesarrollard con la participacidn organizada de la comunidad educativa,maestros, alumnos y padres defamilia, quienes deberdn organizarse en losConsejos Directivos Escolares, tomaran decisiones colegiadas y seransolidarios en responsabilidades y en las acciones que se desarrollen.n

Ley General de Educaci6n, Titulo IV, Art. 67,1996.

Turning the CDEs into functioning institutions has been requiring very systematicattention to the development of appropriate skills and expertise at the school level.MINED is aware of this challenge and has made significant efforts to support theimplementation of the CDEs. The continuous support from MINNED should be developedmuch along the lines of the support provided by the central ministry in New Zealand totheir school boards when they were first established (Box 7).

40

Box 7. Making School Boards Work-Approaches Used by New Zealand

When decentralizing its education system in the early 1 990s, New Zealand recognized thatschoolcommunity partnerships were pivotal in ensuring the effective operation of the system. Under thedecentralization initiative, New Zealand delegated many core education management functionr-hiring anddismissal of school employees, school site management, financial management, certain curriculum decisions,etc.-to the school site level. There, newly established school Boards of Trustees assumed the managementresponsibility for the school. Typicatly, Boards of Trustees consisted of the school principal, studentrepresentatives, and four elected community members. A range of incentives, official guidelines, informationalmaterials, and training programs were put in place to ensure that these Boards were equipped to assume the newresponsibilities. These efforts proved to be highly successfuL with Boards of Trustees quickly becoming effectivemanagement systems in the majority of schools. The facilitating/"scaffolding" mechanisms which seem to havebeen central in supporting the development and effective functioning of the Boards of Trustees included:

* The early drafting and approval of legislation which provided a framework for the operation of theBoards of Tmstees. This included the School Trustees Act and the Local Government OfficialInformation and Meetings Act

* The preparation of a practical handbook, 'Governing Schools," which was distributed to all schools. Thisprovided detailed, step-by-step information on the requirements, legal obligations, and responsibilities ofBoards of Trustees. It was designed in a highly user-friendly format and provided information on the fullrange of activities Boards would be involved in, be it property management, personnel management,meeting procedures, etc. It also included target dates for schools/Boards to follow in operationalizingtheir systems.

* Ready access to a "question-and-answer hotline." Schools/Boards experiencing difficulties could getrmmediate assistance from trained staff manning a dedicated phone line. The existence of the hotline was

widely disseminated.

* The requirement that each school, under the leadership of the Board of Trustees, develop anindividualized School Charter. The School Charter lays out the core objectives and goals of the schooland stipulates the cumculum objectives of the school. The objectives must be identified in consultationwith the community and school staff. The Board must specify in the Charter what strategies will beemployed to reach the school's objectives.

* Access by schools and Boards of Trustees to a wide range of training resources in different mediums.These included booklets on "The Role of the Principal and Trustees in Schools" and "Approaches toConsultation"; infornation packs on property management, personnel and industrial relations, finance,and budgeting; hands-on taining by Local Resource Teams on "The Role and Responsibilities of SchoolTrustees" and "Developing, Approving, and Monitoring the School Budget"; on-site support from SchoolInspectors; videos on the roles and responsibilities of Boards of Trustees and Employmnent policies; etc.

Source: Govenunment of New Zealand 1994.

MIINED is planning to initiate some steps in this direction in the proposed WorldBank-supported Secondary Education Reform project. Under this project, a program willbe piloted to trial fully decentralized financial management in a small number ofsecondary schools. This pilot program will inform efforts to strengthen the functioningand capacities of school boards and help develop mechanisms by which support toschools can be linked to school performance.

Building partnerships beyond parents and communities will be even moredemanding of schools. It typically requires that schools reach out to a wide array ofpartners, including business and industry, trade unions, post-secondary institutions,public and private social service agencies, etc. Experience in many countries, includingthe U.S., United Kingdom, and Australia, shows that such partnerships are most effectivewhen there is broad and inclusive recruitment of partners, and continuous nurturing of

41

partner relationships (Government of the United States 1996). One of the most neededpartnerships for secondary schools in El Salvador is, of course, with business andindustry. Links between schools and businesses are useful for many reasons, amongwhich are monitoring the quality and relevance of education offered by the school, settingup work placements and potential employment opportunities for students, havingemployers inform students about expectations and behaviors in the workplace, andobtaining financial support and assistance. Although some secondary schools have begunto build partnerships with business and industry, these efforts are still very limited andsmall scale. This contrasts with the remarkably widespread business-school partnershipswhich exist in countries which are most competitive in the global market. A survey ofschool districts in the U.S. and in the U.K., for instance, revealed that some 90 percent ofsecondary schools had partnerships with business and industry. These are often verydynamic partnerships which appropriately serve the interests of both partners. It must bereadily acknowledged, though, that building these partnerships required structurededucation and training sessions for the various partners. Usually, this must be instigatedby the ministry of education.

42

SECTION 5. PRIORITIES AND STRATEGIES

Over the past decade, El Salvador has achieved remarkable success in expandingaccess to improved quality basic education. This achievement is even more notable giventhe low public investment in education and the need to reconstruct a sector which hadbeen fractured and largely destroyed during the civil conflict.

One of the foremost educational challenges now confronting El Salvador is theexpansion and restructuring of its secondary system. The country has repositioned itselfas one of the high-growth economies of the region and recognizes that if it is to hold thisposition, it must become a player in the broader global market. It will be insufficient toonly model itself on, and increase its competitiveness with, other countries in the region.It must also look further afield to global economic leaders' experiences in developingmarket niches and building a powerful workforce. Experience from these countriessuggests that to be competitive in the global market El Salvador needs to not onlyincrease and upgrade its human capital, but also change its skill base. Its workforce willneed to hold a triad of skills in the technology and information driven global market-sound academic knowledge, technological know-how, and problem-solving skills whichwill allow it to be highly flexible and adaptive. El Salvador has established priorities andis now beginning to implement strategies designed to develop these capacities in asignificantly larger proportion of its youth.

El Salvador faces additional challenges, however, on its path to economicdevelopment. It needs to build social cohesion and civic values among its youth whohave suffered from a long period of civil conflict. Without significant efforts to addressthese issues, the country is likely to have particular difficulties in attracting and keepingits youth in school and in ensuring that its youth develops the skills necessary toparticipate in an informatics- and technology-driven society.

These broader economic and social visions have led the education sector toidentify several core sector objectives in its 10-year sector plan, the Reforma Educativaen Marcha: Lineamientos del Plan Decenal 1995-2005. These include:

* Building human capital for a global economy

* Inculcating civic values and attitudes in its students to consolidate the peace

* Teaching tolerance and understanding consistent with a democratic society

* Transmitting knowledge and skills that will help individuals break out of the cycleof intergenerational poverty.

The Ministry of Education has been very proactive in identifying strategies tofurther these objectives and has already begun implementation of many strategies. Thestrategies to be employed have been carefully identified, following careful analysis ofconditions and circumstances, broad consultation with stakeholders, and consideration of

43

experience in other countries. Therefore, the challenge facing the sector is not one ofidentifying responses to issues and problems, but is rather one of ensuring effectiveimplementation of sometimes difficult changes whose outcomes can then be sustainedand built on. Change areas where there appears to be a need for particular focus,considerable technical assistance, and careful, ongoing monitoring include the following:

> Expanding access with equity. Expanding access to secondary school certainlypresents some difficulties, but the real challenge lies in ensuring that anexpanded system provides more equitable educational opportunities. Giveneducation's small share of the public budget, efforts to increase secondaryaccess must be achieved in no small part through a continuing reliance on theprivate sector. As data in this report show, private providers tend to provideeither high cost, high quality education or lower cost, lower quality education.Public schools tend to offer educational opportunities somewhere betweenthese two extremes. Students attending the different school types evidentlyhave rather different educational experiences and learning outcomes.MINED's challenge, then, is to follow through and deliver on some strategieswhich aim at reducing inequities in access to quality education. Thesestrategies are likely to be difficult to implement and sustain. They include theexpansion of a means-tested, financially sustainable student loan andscholarship program, the introduction of an acceptable school accreditationsystem which can be easily comprehended by parents and the public, and theoperationalization of effective distance education technologies to reach far-flung rural communities.

> Improving education quality. The building bricks for improved educationquality rest, in MRNED's scheme, very largely on a stronger teaching forcemotivated by an improved incentive system. MINED has already undertakensome difficult systemic reforms to reclassify teachers according toqualification level, instead of by years of experience, and has tied promotionsand salary increases to this rationalized system. The challenge now is tosupport and guide teachers in making the leap from the existing teacher-centered learning system to the multidisciplinary learning approachencapsulated in the new curriculum. There is a real need to actively move todevelop and introduce extensive inservice teacher training programs andensure that the Escuelas Modelo de Desarrollo Educativo system becomes auseful and well-used system. This seems to be an area where there is a specialneed for technical assistance and support. It stands out as an area in whichMENED has been slower, and somewhat less effective, in implementingchange-probably because it is an extremely challenging change area.

>- Instituting monitoring and evaluation systems. Monitoring and evaluationsystems are critical to measuring progress and success achieved under thereform. MINED has set in place a range of checks and balances and incentiveprograms, which should work effectively against low performing schools.However, there is also a real need, particularly given the traditional disparitiesin quality and access to public and private education providers, to monitor and

44

evaluate performance across schools and regions. In the current school year,MINED has introduced a first modest attempt to evaluate school quality.There is now a real need to build on this effort and institutionalize an effectivesystem.

> Adressing social alienation. The education sector has readily assumed a keyrole in addressing the social problems of a youth group which has grown up ina period of intense civil conflict. MINED has both extended the school dayand made major adaptations to the curriculum to address these concerns. It hasalso created incentive-based programs to stimulate schools and communitiesto become engaged in developing initiatives to respond to locally identifiedconcerns. The core challenge now is to ensure that the CDEs-the linchpin toactivating these various initiatives-become fully functional institutionswhich take on these tasks. Making the CDEs truly operational will requireMINED to invest in developing capacity and ability at the community level.Intemational experience provides guidance on how this can be done, but it is atime- and resource-intensive exercise. It is also a more complex exercise thanwas the case with the ACE boards developed under the EDUCO program.

45

REFERENCES

Alvarez H., Benjamin., ed. 1996. "Conference Report on Revitalization of Education inthe Americas." Working Papers, No. 11. Education and Human ResourcesDivision, Bureau for Latin America and the Caribbean, U.S. Agency forInternational Development. Washington, D.C.: Academy for EducationalDevelopment.

Consortium on Productivity in the Schools. 1995. "Using What We Have to Get theSchools We Need: A Productivity Focus for American Education."

Edwards, John H.Y. 1997a. "The Cost of Secondary Education in El Salvador." Mimeo.Washington, D.C.

. 1997b. "El Salvador: School Choice under an Evolving Public/Private SchoolingMix." Mimeo. Washington, D.C.

. 1997c. "El Salvador: Secondary Education Project-Results from the HouseholdSurvey." Mimeo. Washington, D.C.

1997d. "El Salvador: Standardized Test Results." Mimeo. Washington, D.C.

1997e. "Estimating New School Infrastructure Needs to 2007." Mimeo.Washington, D.C.

. 1997f. "Internal Efficiency Estimates from the Household Survey (1996-II)."Mimeo. Washington, D.C.

Edwards, John H.Y., B. Fuller, and Suhas Parandekar. 1996. "Primary EducationEfficiency in Honduras: What Remains to be Done?" Mimeo. Washington, D.C.

FEPADE. 1997. "Situaci6n de los Graduados de Educaci6n Media en el MercadoLaboral de El Salvador." Mimeo.

FEPADE; Government of El Salvador, Ministry of Education, and USAID. 1997. "Youthin Social Exclusion: Characterization of Childhood and Adolescence from Ages 7to 18 in El Salvador."

Fortuijn, Erniel D., and others, eds. 1987. "Paving Pathways to Work: ComparativePerspectives on the Transition from School to Work." CESO Paperback No. 2.

Fuller, B. No date. "Decentralizaci6n Educativa Organizaci6n y Manejo de las Escuelasa Nivel Local: El Caso de El Salvador." Programa EDUCO. Mimeo.

. 1986. "Defining School Quality." In J. Hannaway and Marlaine Lockheed, eds.,The Contributions of the Social Sciences to Educational Policy and Practice:1965-1985. McCutchan Publishing Corporation.

46

Funkhouser, E. 1997. "Labor Market Adjustment to Political Conflict: Changes in theLabor Market in El Salvador during the 1980s" Journal of DevelopmentEconomics 52:31-64.

Government of El Salvador. 1995a. "Lineamientos para el Cambio Cualitativo del Nivelde Educacion Media." Ministry of Education. Mimeo.

. 1995b. "Reforma Educativa en Marcha: Documento II, Consulta 95." Ministryof Education.

. 1995c. "Reforma Ediucativa en Marcha: Un Vistazo al Pasado de la Educaci6nen El Salvador: Documentos I, IIy III. " Ministry of Education.

. 1996a. "Census of Secondary Education Institutions." Ministry of Education.Mimeo.

. 1996b. "Household Survey 1996-Il."

- 1996c. "Proyecto de Modernizaci6n de la Educacion Bdsica." Ministry ofEducation. San Salvador.

1996d. "Reforma Educativa en Marcha: Ley de Educaci6n Superior y suReglamento General." Ministry of Education.

. 1996e. "Reforma Educativa en Marcha: Ley de la Carrera Docente yReglamento de la Ley de la Carrera Docente." Ministry of Education.

1996f "ReformaEducativa en Marcha: Seminarios." Ministry of Education.

. 1997a. Ley General de Educaci6n. Ministry of Education.

1997b. "Reforma Educativa en March/a: Programa de Estud&o de Primer Ano:Ministry of Education.

Government of New Zealand. 1994. "Governing Schools." Ministry of Education.

Government of the United States. 1992. "What Work Requires of Schools." SecretaryCommission on Achieving Necessary Skills, Department of Labor. Washington,D.C.

. 1996. "Study of School to Work Initiatives." Office of Educational Research andImprovement, Department of Education. Washington, D.C.

Government of the United Kingdom. 1994. "Our Children's Education: The UpdatedParent's Charter." Department of Education.

Guerrero S., and A. Cesar. 1997. "Estudio de Costos de la Educaci6n Secundaria en ElSalvador." Mimeo.

47

Inter-American Development Bank. 1996. Economic and Social Progress in LatinAmerica Washington, D.C.

Junho Pena, Maria-Valeria, Kathryn Johns Swartz, Tania Salem, Miriam Abramovay,and Carlos Briones. 1997. "Stakeholder Consultation and Analysis: Second Phaseof the Social Assessment for the El Salvador EDUCO Program and the BasicEducation Modernization Project." Latin America Technical Department,Environment Unit, Dissemination Note #19. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

Kirst, Michael. 1992. "Financing School-Linked Services." USC Center for Research inEducation Finance Policy Brief No. 7. Los Angeles.

Lamb, Gene. 1997. "Vocational Education Study: El Salvador."

Murnane, Richard J., and F. Levy. 1996. Teaching the New Basic Skills: Principles forEducation Children to Thrive in a Changing Economy. The Free Press.

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. 1992. School and Business: ANew Partnership. Center for Educational Research and Innovation. Paris.

Psacharopoulos, George. 1997. "Secondary Education in El Salvador: A Justification forIts Expansion." Mimeo.

Scott, Kinnon. 1996. "Employers' Perspectives on Secondary Education in El Salvador."Mimeo.

UJNESCO. 1997. 1997 Statistical Yearbook. New York.

World Bank. 1994. El Salvador, Community Education Strategy: Decentralized SchoolManagement. Washington, D.C.

. 1995. Priorities and Strategies for Education: A World Bank Review.Washington, D.C.

. 1996. El Salvador: Meeting the Challenge of Globalization A World BankCountry Study. Washington, D.C.

. 1997. World Development Report 1997: The State in a Changing World OxfordUniversity Press: New York.

LCSHD Paper Series

No. I Van der Gaag and Winkler, Chidren of the Poor in Latin America and the Caribbean

No. 2 Schneidman, Targeting At-Risk Youth: Rationales, Approaches to Service Delivery andMonitoring and Evaluation Issues

No. 3 Harrell, Evaluacidn de los Programas para Ninosy Jovenes Vulnerables

No. 4 Potashnik, Computers in the Schools: Chile's Learning Network

No. 5 Barker and Fontes, Review and Analysis of International Experience with Programs Targetedon At-Risk Youth

No. 6 Lewis, Measuring Public Hospital Costs: Empirical Evidencefrom the Dominican Republic

No. 7 Edwards, Bruce and Parandekar, Prinary Education Effwiency in Honduras: What Remains tobe Done?

No. 8 Winkler, Descentralizaci6n de la Educacidn: Participacion en el Manejo de las Escuelasal Nivel Local

No. 9 Meza, Descentralizacion Educativa, Organizacion y Manejo de Las Escuelas al Nivel Local:EDUCO, el Caso de El Salvador

No. 10 Espinola, Descentralizaci6n Educativa, Organizaci6n y Manejo de las Escuelas al Nivel Local:El Caso de Chile

No. 11 Guedes, Lobo, Walker and Amaral, Gestion Descentralizada de la Educaci6n enel Estado de Minas Gerais, Brasil

No. 12 Conunetti and Ruiz, Evolucion del Gasto PsThlico Social en America Latina: 1980 - 1995

No. 13 Bedi and. Edwards, The Impact of School Quality on the Level and Distribution of Earnings:Evitdence from Honduras

No. 14 Duthilleul, Do Parents Matter? The Role of Parental Practices on Fourth Graders' ReadingComprehension Achievement in Montevideo Public Schools

No. 15 Villegas-Reimers, The Preparation of Teachers in Latin America: Challenges and Trends

No. 16 Edwards and Liang, Mexico's Preschools: Coverage, Equity and Impact

No. 17 Foares, The Financing of Education in Brazil: Wth Special Reference to the North, Northeastand Center-West Regions

No. 18 Salmi, Equity and Quality in Private Education: The Haitian Paradox

No. 19 Waiser, Early Childhood Care and Development Programs in Latin America: How much dothey cost?

No. 20 Tulic, Algunos Factores del Rendimiento: las Expectativasy el Genero

No. 21 Delannoy, Reformas en Gesti6n Educacional en los 90s (forthcoming UNESCO publication)

No. 22 Barro, The Prospectsfor Developing Internationally Comparable Education Fsnance Statisticsfor Latin American Countries: A Preliminary Assessment

No. 23 El-Khawas, DePietro-Jurand, Holm-Nielsen, Quality Assurance in Higher Education: RecentProgress; Challenges Ahead

No. 24 Salmen, Amelga, Implementing Beneficiary Assessment in Education: A Guidefor Practitioners(Jointly published by the Social Development Family and the Department of Human Development,Social Development Paper No. 25)

No. 25 Rojas, Esquivel, Los Sistemas de Medicion del Logro Acadimico en Latinoam6rica

No. 26 Martinic, TiempoyAprendizaje

No. 27 Crawford, Holm-Nielsen, Brazilan Higher Education: Characteristic and Challenges

No. 28 Schwalnzman, Higher Education in Brazil: The Stakeholders

No. 29 Johnstone, Institutional Differentiation and the Accommodation of Enrollment Expansion inBrazil

No. 30 Hauptman, Accommodatng the Growing Demandfor Higher Education in Brazil: A Rolefor theFederal Universities?

No. 31 El-Khawas, Developing Internal Supportfor Quality and Relevance

No. 32 Thelot, The Organization of studies in the French University System

No. 33 Thompson, Trends in Governance and Management of Higher Education

No. 34 Wagner, From Higher to Tertiary Education: Evolving Responses in OECD Countries to LargeVolunme Participaton

No. 35 Salni, Alcala, Opciones Para Reformar El Fsnanciamiento de la Ensefianza Superior

No. 36 Pifieros, Rodriguez, School Inputs in Secondary Education and their Effects on AcademicAchievement: A Study in Colombia (available in Spanislh)

No. 37 Meresman, The Ten Who Go To School: School Health and Nutrition Programming in LatinAmerica and the Caribbean

No. 38 Vegas, Pritchett, Experton, Attracting and Retaining Qualifed Teachers in Argentina: Impact ofthe Level and Structure of Compensation

No. 38S Vegas, Pritchett, Experton, Como atraery retener docentes calificados en la Argentina: Impadodel nively la estructura de la remuneracion

No. 39 Myers, de San Jorge, Childcare and Early Education Services in Low-Income Conunities ofMexico City: Patterns of Use, Availability and Choice

No. 40 Arcia, Belli, Rebuilding the Social Contract: School Autonomy in Nicaragua

No. 41 Plomp, Brummelhuiis, Technology in Teacher Education: The Case of the Netherlands

No 42 Winter, Secondary Education in El Salvador: Education Reform in Progress

Latin America and the Caribbean RegionDepartment of Human Development (LCSHD)The World Bank1818 H Street, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20433

Fax: 202-522-0050E-mail: LACED@worldbank.org