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Page 1: Laws of Nature - Langara iWebiweb.langara.bc.ca/rjohns/files/2011/03/laws_nature.pdf• WeWe ll’ll now look at natural laws in more detail, and connect them with the notion of a

Laws of NatureLaws of Nature

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• We looked briefly at the idea of a law ofWe looked briefly at the idea of a law of nature before:

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• The relation between causes and laws is rather tricky (and interesting!)  Many questions are raised, such as:

1.  Do laws cause things to happen?2.  What are laws, anyway?3.  Can there be laws without a lawgiver?4. Why does matter obey these particular4.  Why does matter obey these particular laws?

5. (Why does matter obey laws at all?)5. (Why does matter obey laws at all?)6. What about stochastic processes?  Do they 

obey laws as well?obey laws as well?

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• We’ll now look at natural laws in more detail,We ll now look at natural laws in more detail, and connect them with the notion of a natural kind (i.e. a category that really exists in nature, discovered not created by humans).

• The general idea here is that laws are real, and so deal with the real, significant properties of objects.  Hence laws must involve only natural kinds, not arbitrary human constructs.

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What general laws are there concerning a town’s “total‐rating”?

WELCOME TO NEW CUYAMA

Population 562

Feet above sea level 2150Feet above sea level 2150

Established 1951

TOTAL 4663

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• Recall that a bookanine is something that isRecall that a bookanine is something that is either a book or a dog.  

What general laws describe bookanines?

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Laws vs. ‘accidental generalisations’Laws vs.  accidental generalisations

• What is a law of nature? At the very least, itWhat is a law of nature?  At the very least, it seems to be a true generalisation.

• A generalisation is a proposition of the formA generalisation is a proposition of the form “All F are G”, e.g. “All metals expand when heated”, “All ravens are black”, etc.

• A true generalisation has no exceptions, or counter‐instances, such as pink ravens.

• Can you think of a law that is not a true generalisation?

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Laws vs. ‘accidental generalisations’Laws vs.  accidental generalisations

• So all laws are true generalisations.  But are all true ggeneralisations laws?Apparently not.  Consider the generalisation:

“All dogs ever born at sea have been and will be cocker spaniels ”spaniels.

Even if this were true (and it could conceivably be true)Even if this were true (and it could conceivably be true) it would be merely accidental, due to some cultural preference of sailors for a particular breed of dog.

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• In a similar way, the following true y ggeneralisations seem to be merely accidental:

“All spheres of pure gold are less than 1 mile in diameter”

“Everyone in this room has less than $10,000Everyone in this room has less than $10,000 in cash in their pockets”

• What extra ingredient is needed to make something a law?something a law?

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Laws support counterfactualsLaws support counterfactuals

• A “counterfactual”, i.e. a contrary‐to‐factA  counterfactual , i.e. a contrary to fact conditional, is a statement of the form:

If P had been the case, then Q would have been the case.been the case.

• We say that “laws support counterfactuals”• We say that  laws support counterfactuals .  This means that we can infer a counterfactual from a law.from a law.

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Laws support counterfactualsLaws support counterfactuals

• E g it’s a law that all metals expand whenE.g. it s a law that all metals expand when heated.  Now consider a certain iron bar B that has never been heated and never will bethat has never been heated, and never will be.

F h l b i f h if B• From the law above, we can infer that if B were heated, then it would expand.

• Similarly, we know that if B were dropped, then it would fall, by the law of gravity.

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Laws support counterfactualsLaws support counterfactuals

• Putting it another way it’s impossible toPutting it another way, it s impossible to manufacture a counter‐instance to a law.

• E.g. “All unsupported bodies fall”

• Can we make an object falsify this?  Can we j ymake it float in space, unsupported?

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Laws support counterfactualsLaws support counterfactuals

• Accidental generalisations don’t supportAccidental generalisations don t support (logically entail) counterfactuals.

• Given that, for example, all dogs born at seaGiven that, for example, all dogs born at sea are cocker spaniels, does it follow that if this German shepherd had been born at sea then it would have been a cocker spaniel?

• Consider someone with $20,000 in their pocket.  Had they been in this classroom, would the money have disappeared?

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• Laws seem to have an added ingredient ofLaws seem to have an added ingredient of necessity, i.e. they must be true.  It’s not an accident, or a matter of luck.  Something “forces” them to be true.

• This idea of ‘nomic necessity’ is somewhat mysterious, and so many philosophers reject it.  (Notably David Hume.)  Such philosophers propose a regularity theory of laws.

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What is necessity?What is necessity?

• The easiest kind of necessity to understand isThe easiest kind of necessity to understand is logical necessity, which is defined in terms of logical consequence.

• Recall that P ⇒ Q, i.e. Q is a logical consequence of P, just in case it is rational to infer Q, with certainty, from P.

• Then Q is logically necessary just in case Q is a logical consequence of the empty set {}, i.e. Q can be inferred from no premises at all.

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Examples of logical necessityExamples of logical necessity

• “Either the universe had a beginning or it didEither the universe had a beginning or it did not.”

• “All fish are fish”• All fish are fish

• 2+2=4

• If Fred is late, then he isn’t on time.

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• Are laws of nature logically necessary?Are laws of nature logically necessary? 

• No.  They cannot be figured out just by thought, or by y g j y g , y“pure logic”.  They could, conceivably, be different from how they are.

• They have a weaker kind of necessity, called nomic or physical necessity.physical necessity.

• E.g. “Cows do not jump over the moon” is physically g j p p y ynecessary, but not logically necessary.  In order to infer that a cow doesn’t jump over the moon, you need to assume some general facts about the worldassume some general facts about the world.

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Relative necessaryRelative necessary

• In cases where P⇒ Q we often say that Q isIn cases where P ⇒ Q, we often say that Q is necessary given P, or just “Q is necessary forP”P .

’ i i h d i• E.g.  It’s raining ⇒ the ground is wet.

• We can say that the ground is necessarily wet, given that it’s raining.g g

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Nomic necessity and lawsNomic necessity and laws

• Typically, nomic necessity is analysed in terms of laws.  I.e.:

P is nomically necessary just in case, for some law L, L ⇒ P.

• But then the (nomic) necessity of laws themselves is l ft t i (R ll th t h t di ti i h lleft mysterious.  (Recall that what distinguishes laws from other true generalisations is that they are nomically necessary.)

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• Alternatively, we can define nomic necessity itself te at e y, e ca de e o c ecess ty tsein terms of logical necessity, as follows:

• L is nomically necessary just in case N ⇒ L.

• But what is N?  

• I say that N is the “nature” of the system?  But what’s that?

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Biological Laws?Biological Laws?

• Is it a natural law that humans walk upright, on two legs?g

• What about one legged people? Are they• What about one‐legged people?  Are they not human?

A h bi l i l l h ?• Are there any biological laws then?

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Biological Laws?Biological Laws?

• If there are biological laws, then they would seem to describe the “natural” characteristics and behaviour of organisms.

• E.g. it’s natural for humans to walk upright, g p g ,on two legs.

(Sounds very Aristotelian, I know.)

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Physical Laws?Physical Laws?

• One can extend this Aristotelian account of• One can extend this Aristotelian account of laws to physics, chemistry, etc.

• The basic hypothesis is that every system has a “nature”, that causes it to undergo certainnature , that causes it to undergo certain kinds of change, when not interfered with.

• E.g. it’s in the nature of a particle to move at constant speed in a straight line.

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Physical Laws?Physical Laws?

• On this view, laws are statements about the behaviour of the system that follow from its nature.

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Summary: Characteristics of Laws (f b k )(from textbook, pp. 225 – 234).

1.  Laws involve natural kinds

2.  Laws support counterfactuals

3.  Laws do not mention particulars

4 Laws are explanatory – they can help to4.  Laws are explanatory  they can help to explain why certain things happen.

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2. Suppose that human is a natural kind, pp ,and that the set of humans is exactly the set of placental mammal bipeds.

(i) Does it follow that the property placental mammal biped is a natural kind? (Yes or p (no.) Briefly justify your answer.

(ii) Can you think of a law concerning(ii) Can you think of a law concerning humans, for which there is no corresponding law about placentalcorresponding law about placentalmammal bipeds? (If you can, then write it down.

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3.  Zoologists say that all present cetaceans are aquatic mammals.  This is a true generalization.

(i) Is it a natural law? Briefly justify your answer(i) Is it a natural law?  Briefly justify your answer using the methods discussed in the textbook.

(ii) Is every property involved in this li ti t l ki d? Id tifgeneralization a natural kind?  Identify any 

one that is not.

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1. Do laws cause things to happen?1.  Do laws cause things to happen?

• If laws can explain, then it seems that they must be “pushy”, i.e. cause things to happen.

• On my view that laws are consequences of the nature of the system, it’s actually those natures that do the causing.  E.g. the nature of a body causes it to move in a straight line.

• Is there another theory?

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2. What are laws, anyway?2.  What are laws, anyway?

1 Regularity: The laws of nature are true descriptions of behaviour in the1. Regularity: The laws of nature are true descriptions of behaviour in the universe.  But they only count as “laws” if they are also simple (short) and powerful summaries of behaviour.  (Ramsey, etc.)

2.  Relations between universals: “All F are G” is a law just in case Fnessnomically necessitates Gness.  (Armstrong)

3 God’s commands (Medievals)3.  God s commands  (Medievals)

4.  Nature:  Laws are descriptions of behaviour that follow logically from the nature of the system.  (Johns)y ( )

• Any thoughts?

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Divine commands?Divine commands?

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Criticism of the nature account of lawsCriticism of the nature account of laws

“However, contemporary physics is skeptical of teleological notions,However, contemporary physics is skeptical of teleological notions, and even if a system can be described as if it had some internal constraint on its natural motion, that doesn’t establish that there is such a constraint. This is particularly relevant in this case, since the one instance he provides of such a constraint, the lagrangian ofone instance he provides of such a constraint, the lagrangian of classical systems, has no analogue in stochastic systems. His response to this is simply to state that “it is one of the main theoretical claims of this book that every system has a generalized lagrangian” (p. 68). By ‘theoretical claim’ one can only understand Johns to meanBy  theoretical claim  one can only understand Johns to mean ‘metaphysical posit’, and I think we can be rightfully skeptical of this kind of baptism in absentia of some physical property as the teleological ground of dynamical laws.”

Antony Eagle (2004). 'A causal theory of chance?', Studies in History and Philosophy of Science A, 35(4), 883‐890.

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4.  Why does matter obey these l lparticular laws?

• A hard question.

• Because the system has the nature that it does?  But why does it have that nature?

(N.B. medieval philosophers espoused voluntarism, the idea that God chose the laws ,of nature.  So the answer to this question was “As a result of God’s free choice”.)

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4.  Why does matter obey these l lparticular laws?

• Some cosmologists speculate that the laws of physics vary• Some cosmologists speculate that the laws of physics vary across the total universe (or “multiverse”).  Our laws hold merely in a certain region (“our universe”). 

• Interestingly, cosmologists who play with different model universes, having different physical laws, find that life could 

t i t i h i O l tl “fi lnot exist in such universes.  Our laws are apparently “finely tuned” for life.

• Can we just say: “The reason we have these laws is that, if the laws were different, then we would not be here to talk about it”?

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5. (Why does matter obey laws at all?)5.  (Why does matter obey laws at all?)

Again, because God wanted it that way?

Or because we could not exist in a lawless universe?

Or perhaps the greater universe has lawful p p gand lawless regions, and life can exist only in lawful regions?

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6.  What about stochastic processes?  h b l llDo they obey laws as well?

• There are stochastic (or probabilistic) laws having the general form:• There are stochastic (or probabilistic) laws, having the general form:

If F then Prob(G) = q

E.g.  If this coin is flipped then the chance of heads is 0.50031.

I h d h l i h h iblIn other words, the law assigns a chance to each possible outcome of a situation.

Such laws are tricky to understand In particular what is it for aSuch laws are tricky to understand.  In particular, what is it for a system to “obey” such a law? Any finite behaviour is consistent with any chance!  (E.g. a fair coin can land heads 100 times in a row.))

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• On my “nature” view of laws, there’s again no problem h F th l d fi iti f “L i l ” i Nhere.  For the general definition of “L is a law”, i.e. N ⇒L, is equivalent to:

Prob(L | N) = 1.

Thi il li t P b(L | N) hi h i thThis easily generalises to: Prob(L | N) = q, which is the stochastic case.  In other words, stochastic laws are simply statements about the system that follow to 

d f h f h hsome degree from the nature of the system, rather than following with certainty.(This is actually why I originally proposed this account ( y y g y p pof laws.)

N B These “nomic probabilities” are often calledN.B.  These  nomic probabilities  are often called propensities.

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