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Systems Pract ice , Vo l . 5 , No. 4, 1992

N o t e s o n t h e T h e o r y o f t h e A c t o r - N e t w o r k :O r d e r i n g , S t r a te g y , a n d H e t e r o g e n e i t yJ o h n L a w I

Rece ived Ap ri l 10, 1992This paper describes the theory of the actor-network, a body o f theoretical andempirical writing wh ich treats social relations, including po w er and organization, asnetwork effects. T he theory is distinctive because it insists that networks are ma teriallyheterogeneous and argues that society and organization would not exist if they weresimply social. Agents, texts, devices, architectures are all generated in, form part of,and are essential to, the networks of the social. And in the first instance, all shouldbe analyzed in the same terms. According ly, in this view , the task of sociology is tocharacterize the ways in which materials join together to generate themselves andreproduce institutional and organizational patterns in the networks o f the social.K E Y W O R D S : actor network; translation; heterogeneity; agency; technology; strat-eg y; ordering; punctualization; pow er; materialism.

1 . I N T R O D U C T I O NJ u s t o c c a s i o n a l l y w e f i nd o u r s e l v e s w a t c h i n g o n t h e s id e l i n e s as a n o r d e r c o m e sc r a s h i n g d o w n . O r g a n i z a t i o n s o r s y s te m s w h i c h w e h a d a lw a y s t a k e n f o rg r a n t e d - - t h e U n i o n o f S o v i e t S o c ia l i s t R e p u b l i c s , o r C o n t in e n t a l I l l i n o i s - - a r es w a l l o w e d u p . C o m m i s s a r s , m o g u l s , a n d c a p ta i n s o f i n du s tr y d i s a p p e a r f ro mv i e w . T h e s e d a n g e r o u s m o m e n t s o f fe r m o r e t h an p o l i t ic a l p r o m i s e . F o r w h e nt h e h i d d e n t r a p d o o r s o f t h e s o c i a l sp r i n g o p e n w e s u d d e n l y l e a rn t h a t t h e m a s t e r so f th e u n i v e r s e m a y a l so h a v e f e e t o f c l ay .

H o w i s i t t h a t it e v e r s e e m e d o t h e r w i s e ? H o w i s t h at , a t l e a s t f o r a ti m e ,t h e y m a d e t h e m s e l v e s d i f f e r e n t f r o m u s ? B y w h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l m e a n s d i d t h e yk e e p t h e m s e l v e s i n p l a c e a n d o v e r c o m e t h e r e si s ta n c e s t h a t w o u l d h a v e b r o u g h tt h e m tu m b l i n g d o w n m u c h s o o n e r ? H o w w a s i t w e c o l l u d e d i n th i s? T h e s e a r es o m e o f t h e k e y q u e s t i o n s o f so c i a l s c i e n c e . A n d t h e y a r e t h e q u e s t i o n s t h a t li ea t t h e h e a rt o f " a c t o r - n e t w o r k t h e o r y " 2 - - t h e a p p r o a c h t o s o c i o l o g y th a t i s t h e~Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology, Ke ele University, Keele, Staffs, ST5 5BG,U K .2This is the product of a group of sociologists associated with, and in several cases located at, theCentre de Sociologie de l ' Inno vatio n of the Eco le Nationale Superieure des M ines de Paris. The

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t o p ic o f t hi s n o te . T h i s t h e o r y - - a l s o k n o w n a s t h e s o c i o l o g y o f t r a n s l a t io n - - i sc o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e m e c h a n i c s o f p o w e r . I t s u g g e s t s , i n e f f e c t , t h a t w e s h o u l da n a l y z e th e g r e a t i n e x a c t l y th e s a m e w a y t h a t w e w o u l d a n y o n e e l se . O f c o u r s e ,t h is i s n o t to d e n y t h a t th e n a b o b s o f t h is w o r l d a r e p o w e r f u l . T h e y c e r t a i n l ya r e . B u t i t i s t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e y a r e n o d i f f e r e n t in k ind s o c i o l o g i c a l l y t o t h ew r e t c h e d o f t h e e a r th .

H e r e i s t h e a r g u m e n t . I f w e w a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e m e c h a n i c s o f p o w e ra n d o r g a n i z a t i o n i t i s i m p o r t a n t n o t t o s t a r t o u t assuming w h a t e v e r w e w i s h t oe x p l a i n . F o r i n s t a n c e , i t i s a g o o d i d e a n o t t o ta k e i t f o r g r a n t e d t h a t t h e r e i s am a c r o s o c i a l s y s t e m o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d b i ts a n d p i e c e s o f d e r iv a t i v e m i c r o -s o c i a l d e ta i l o n t h e o t h e r . I f w e d o t h i s w e c l o s e o f f m o s t o f th e i n t e re s t in gq u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e or ig ins o f p o w e r a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n . I n s t e a d , w e s h o u l d s ta rtw i t h a c l e a n s l a t e . F o r i n s t a n c e , w e m i g h t s t a r t w i t h i n t e r a c t i o n a n d a s s u m e t h a ti n t e r a c ti o n i s a ll th a t t h e r e i s. T h e n w e m i g h t a s k h o w s o m e k i n d s o f i n t e r a c ti o n sm o r e o r l e s s s u c c e e d i n s ta b i l i z in g a n d r e p r o d u c i n g t h e m s e l v e s : h o w i t i s t h a tt h e y o v e r c o m e r es is ta n c e a n d s e e m t o b e c o m e " m a c r o s o c i a l " ; h o w is it t h att h e y s e e m t o g e n e r a t e th e e f fe c t s s u c h a s p o w e r , f a m e , s i z e , s c o p e , o r o r g a n i -z a t i o n w i t h w h i c h w e a r e al l f a m i l i a r . T h i s , t h e n , i s o n e o f t h e c o r e a s s u m p t i o n so f a c t o r - n e t w o r k t h e o r y : t h a t N a p o l e o n s a r e n o d i f fe r e n t i n k in d t o s m a l l - ti m eh u s t l e rs , a n d I B M s to w h e l k - s t a l ls . A n d i f t h e y a re l a r g e r , t h e n w e s h o u l d b es t u d y i n g h o w t h is c o m e s a b o u t - - h o w , i n o t h e r w o r d s , s iz e , p o w e r , o r o r g a n i -z a t i o n a r e g e n e r a t e d .

I n t h is n o t e , I s ta r t b y e x p l o r i n g t h e m e t a p h o r o f he t erogeneous ne twork .T h i s li es a t t h e h e a r t o f a c t o r - n e t w o r k t h e o r y , a n d i s a w a y o f s u g g e s t i n g t h a ts o c i e t y , o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a g e n t s , a n d m a c h i n e s a r e a ll effects g e n e r a t e d i n p a t t e r n e dn e t w o r k s o f d i v e r se ( n o t s i m p l y h u m a n ) m a t e r ia l s. N e x t I c o n s i d e r n e t w o r kc o n s o l i d a t i o n , a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r h o w i t i s t h a t n e t w o r k s m a y c o m e t o l o o k l i k es i n g l e p o i n t a c t o r s : h o w i t i s , i n o t h e r w o r d s , w e a r e s o m e t i m e s a b l e t o t a l k o f" t h e B r i t is h G o v e r n m e n t " r a t h e r t h a n a ll t h e b it s a n d p i e c e s t h a t m a k e i t u p . It h e n e x a m i n e t h e c h a r a c t e r o f n e t w o r k o r d e r i n g a n d a r g u e t h a t th i s is b e t t e r s e e na s a v e r b - - a s o m e w h a t u n c e r ta in p r o c e ss o f o v e r c o m i n g r e s i s ta n c e - - ra t h e r t h a na s t h e f a i t accompl i o f a n o u n . F i n a l l y , I d i s c u s s t h e m a t e r i a ls a n d s t r a te g i e s o fn e t w o r k o r d e r i n g , a n d d e s c r ib e s o m e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y - re l e v a n t f i n d in g s o f a c t o r -n e t w o r k t h e o r y . I n p a rt ic u l a r, I c o n s i d e r s o m e o f t h e w a y s i n w h i c h p a t te r n in gg e n e r a t e s i n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e f f e c t s , i n c l u d i n g h i e r a r c h y a n d p o w e r .

authors associated w ith this approach include Akrich (1989a,b, 1992), Bow ker (1988, 1992),Callon (1980, 1986,* 1987, 199 1; Latour, 1981; Law and Rip , 19 86 ), C am brosioet al., (1990),Hennion (1985, 1989, 199 0; M eadel, 1 986, 1989), Latour (1985,* 1986, 1987,* 1988a,b, 1990,*1991a,b, 1992a,b), Law (1986a,*b, 1987, 1 991a,b, 199 2a,b; Bijker, 1992; Callon, 1988,* 1992),Medeal (see Hennion and Mead el), Rip (1986), and Star (1990b, 1991;* Griesemer, 1989). Thoseitems m arked out w ith an asterisk might be particularly helpful for those not familiar with theapproach.

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2 . S O C IE T Y A S H E T E R O G E N E O U S N E T W O R KA c t o r - n e t w o r k a u t h o r s s t a r te d o u t i n th e s o c i o l o g y o f s c ie n c e a n d t e c h n o l -

o g y . W i t h o t h e r s i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f s c i e n c e , t h e y a r g u e d t h a t k n o w l e d g e i s asoc ia l p roduc t r a t h e r t h a n s o m e t h i n g g e n e r a t e d t h r o u g h t h e o p e r a t io n o f a p r iv -i le g e d s ci en t if ic m e t h o d . A n d , i n p a r t ic u l a r , th e y a r g u e d th a t " k n o w l e d g e " ( b u tt he y ge ne r a l i z e f r om know l e dge t o a ge n t s , s oc i a l i n s t i t u t i ons , m a c h i ne s , a ndo r ga n i z a t i ons ) m a y be s e e n a s a p r oduc t o r a n e f f e c t o f a netw ork o f heteroge-neous materials.

I p u t " k n o w l e d g e " in i n v e rt ed c o m m a s b e c a u se i t a l w a y s ta k e s m a te r ia lf o r m s . I t c om e s a s t a l k , o r c on f e r e nc e p r e s e n t a t i ons . O r i t a ppe a r s i n pa pe r s ,p r e p r i n t s , o r pa t e n t s . O r a ga i n , i t a ppe a r s i n t he f o r m o f s k i l l s e m bod i e d i ns c ie n ti st s a n d te c h n i c ia n s ( L a t o u r a n d W o o l g a r , 1 9 7 9) . " K n o w l e d g e , " t h e n , ise m b o d i e d i n a v a r ie t y o f m a t e r i a l fo r m s . B u t w h e r e d o e s i t c o m e f r o m ? T h ea c t o r - n e t w o r k a n s w e r i s t h a t it is th e e n d p r o d u c t o f a lo t o f h a rd w o r k i n w h i c hhe t e r oge ne ous b i t s a nd p i e c e s - - t e s t t ube s , r e a ge n t s , o r ga n i s m s , s k i l l e d ha nds ,s c a nn i ng e l e c t r on m i c r os c ope s , r a d i a t i on m on i t o r s , o t he r s c i e n t i s t s , a r t i c l e s ,c o m p u t e r t e rm i n a l s , a n d a l l t h e r e s t - - t h a t w o u l d l ik e t o m a k e o f f o n t h e i r o w na r e j u x t a p o s e d i n to a p a t t e rn e d n e t w o r k w h i c h o v e r c o m e s t h e ir r e si st a n c e . I ns ho r t , i t i s a m a t e r i a l m a t t e r bu t a l s o a m a t t e r o f o r ga n i z i ng a nd o r de r i ng t hos em a t e r i a l s . S o t h i s i s t he a c t o r - ne t w or k d i a gnos i s o f s c i e nc e : t ha t i t i s a p r oc e s so f " h e t e r o g e n e o u s e n g i n e e r i n g " i n w h i c h b i ts a n d p i e c e s f r o m t h e s o ci a l, t h et e c hn i c a l , t he c onc e p t ua l , a nd t he t e x t ua l a r e f i t t e d t oge t he r , a nd s o c onve r t e d( o r " t r a ns l a t e d" ) i n to a s e t o f e qua l l y he t e r og e ne o us s c i e n ti f ic p r oduc t s .

S o m uc h f o r s c i e nc e . Bu t I ha ve a l r e a dy s ugge s t e d t ha t s c i e nc e i s n ' t ve r ys pe c i a l . T h us w ha t i s t rue f o r s c i e nc e i s a ls o s a i d t o be t r ue f o r o t he r i n s ti tu t i ons.A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e f a m i l y , t h e o r g a n iz a t io n , c o m p u t i n g s y s t e m s , t h e e c o n o m y a n dt e c h n o l o g i e s - - a l l o f s o c i a l l i f e - - m a y b e s i m i l a r l y p i c t u r e d . A l l o f t h e s e a r eo r d e r e d n e t w o r k s o f h e t e r o g e n e o u s m a t e r i a ls w h o s e r e s i s ta n c e h a s b e e n o v e r -c o m e . T h i s , t h e n , i s t h e cr u c ia l a n a l y ti c a l m o v e m a d e b y a c t o r - n e t w o r k w r it e rs :the sugges t ion tha t the soc ia l i s nothing o ther than pat terned networks o f het -erogeneous materials.

T hi s i s a r a d i c a l c l a i m be c a us e i t s a ys t ha t t he s e ne t w or ks a r e c om pos e dn o t o n l y o f p e o p l e , b u t a ls o o f m a c h i n e s , a n i m a l s , t e x t s, m o n e y , a r c h i t e c t u r e s - -a ny m a t e r i a l t ha t yo u c a r e t o m e n t i on . S o t he a r gu m e n t i s t ha t the s t u f f o f t hes oc i a l i s n ' t s i m p l y hum a n . I t i s a l l t he s e o t he r m a t e r i a l s t oo . I nde e d , t he a r gu -m e n t i s t ha t w e w ou l dn ' t ha v e a s oc i e t y a t a l l i f i t w e r e n ' t f o r t he he t e r oge ne i t yo f the n e t w or ks o f t he s oc i a l. S o i n t h is v i e w t he t a s k o f s oc i o l ogy i s t o c ha r -a c t e r i z e t he s e ne t w or ks i n t he i r he t e r oge ne i t y , a nd e xp l o r e how i t i s t ha t t he yc om e to be pa t t e r ne d t o ge ne r a t e e f fe c t s l ike o r ga n i z a t i ons , i ne qua l it y , a nd pow e r .

L ook a t t he m a t e r i a l w or l d i n t h i s w a y . I t i s n ' t s i m p l y t ha t w e e a t , f i nds he l t e r i n ou r hous e s , a nd p r oduc e ob j e c t s w i t h m a c h i ne s . I t i s a l s o t ha t a l m os ta l l o f ou r i n t e r a c t i ons w i t h o t he r pe op l e a r e mediated through o b j e c t s o f o n e

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k i n d o r a n o t h e r. F o r in s t an c e , I s p e a k t o y o u t h r o u g h a t e x t, e v e n t h o u g h w ew i l l p r o b a b l y n e v e r m e e t . A n d t o d o t h a t , I a m t a p p i n g a w a y a t a c o m p u t e rk e y b o a r d . A t a n y r a te , o u r c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h o n e a n o t h e r is m e d i a t e d b y an e t w o r k o f o b j e c t s - - t h e c o m p u t e r , t h e p a p e r , t h e p r in t in g p r e s s. A n d i t i s a l som e d i a t ed b y n e t w o r k s o f o b j e c t s - a n d - p e o p l e , s u c h as t h e p o s t a l s y s t e m . T h ea r g u m e n t i s t h a t t h e s e v a r i o u s n e t w o r k s p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e s o c i a l . T h e y s h a p ei t . I n s o m e m e a s u r e t h e y h e l p to o v e r c o m e y o u r r e lu c t a n c e t o r e a d m y t e x t. A n d( m o s t c r u c i a l l y ) t h e y a r e n e c e s s a r y t o t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a u t h o r a n dr e a d e r .

H e r e i s a s e c o n d e x a m p l e . I a m s t a n d i n g o n a s ta g e . T h e s t u d e n t s f a c e m e ,b e h i n d s e r ie d r a n k s o f d e s k s , w i th p a p e r a n d p e n s . T h e y a r e w r i ti n g n o t e s . T h e yc a n s e e m e , a n d t h e y c a n h e a r m e . B u t t h e y c a n a l s o s ee th e t ra n s p a r e n c i e s t h a tI p u t in th e o v e r h e a d p r o j e c t o r . S o t h e p r o j e c t o r , l i k e th e s h a p e o f t h e r o o m ,p a r t i c ip a t e s i n t h e s h a p i n g o f o u r i n t e ra c t i o n . I t m e d i a t e s o u r c o m m u n i c a t i o na n d i t d o e s t h is a s y m m e t r i c a l l y , a m p l i f y i n g w h a t I s ay w i th o u t g i v i n g s t u d e n tsm u c h o f a c h a n c e t o a n s w e r b a c k ( T h o m p s o n , 1 9 9 0 ). I n a n o t h e r w o r l d i t m i g h t ,o f c o u r s e , b e d i ff e re n t . T h e s t u d e n t s m i g h t s t o r m t h e p o d i u m a n d t a k e c o n t ro lo f t h e o v e r h e a d p r o j e c t o r . O r t h e y m i g h t , a s t h e y d o i f I l e c tu r e b a d l y , s i m p l yi g n o r e m e . B u t t h e y d o n ' t , a n d w h i l e th e y d o n ' t t h e p r o j e c t o r p a r t ic i p a te s i n o u rs o c i a l re l a t i o n s : i t h e l p s t o d e f i n e th e l e c t u r e r - s t u d e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p . I t i s a p a r to f t h e s o c i al . I t o p e r a t e s o n t h e m t o i n f lu e n c e t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e y a c t .

P e r h a p s i t i s o n l y i n l o v e m a k i n g t h a t t h e r e i s i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n u n m e -d i a t e d h u m a n b o d i e s - - t h o u g h e v e n h e r e t h e e x t r a - s o m a t i c u s u a l l y p l a y s a r o l et o o . B u t t h e g e n e r a l c a s e , a n d t h e o n e p r e s s e d b y a c t o r - n e t w o r k t h e o r y , is t h is .I f h u m a n b e i n g s f o r m a s o c ia l n e t w o r k , i t is n o t b e c a u s e t h e y i n te r ac t w i t h o t h e rh u m a n b e i n g s . I t i s b e c a u s e t h e y i n te r a c t w i th h u m a n b e i n g s a n d e n d l e s s o t h e rm a t e r ia l s t o o . A n d , j u s t a s h u m a n b e i n g s h a v e t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e s - - t h e y p r e f e r t oi n t e r a c t i n c e r t a i n w a y s r a t h e r t h a n i n o t h e r s - - s o t o o d o t h e o t h e r m a t e r i a l s t h a tm a k e u p th e h e t e ro g e n e o u s n e t w o r k s o f t h e so c i a l . M a c h i n e s , a r c h i t e c tu r e s ,c l o t h e s , t e x t s - - a l l c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e p a t te r n i n g o f t h e s o c ia l . A n d - - t h i s i s m yp o i n t - - i f th e s e m a t e r ia l s w e r e t o d i s a p p e a r t h e n s o t o o w o u l d w h a t w e s o m e t i m e sc a l l t h e so c i a l o r d e r . A c t o r - n e t w o r k t h e o r y s a y s , th e n , t h a t o r d e r i s a n e f fec tg e n e r a t e d b y h e t e r o g e n e o u s m e a n s .

A t t h is p o i n t th e r e i s a p a r t i n g o f t h e w a y s . F o r th e a r g u m e n t a b o u t th em a t e r i a l p a t t e r n i n g o f t h e s o c i a l c a n b e t r e a te d i n a r e d u c t i o n i s t m a n n e r . T h er e d u c t i o n i s t v e r s i o n s t e l l t h a t e i t he r m a c h i n e s o r h u m a n r e la t io n s a r e d e t e r m i n a t ei n t h e l as t in s t a n c e : t h a t o n e d r i v e s t h e o t h e r . 3 H o w e v e r , t h o u g h t h e s e r e d u c -t i o n i s m s a r e d i f f er e n t , t h e y h a v e t w o t h i n g s i n c o m m o n . F i r s t, t h e y d i v i d e t h eh u m a n a n d t h e te c h n i c a l in t o t w o s e p a r a te h e a p s . A n d s e c o n d , t h e y a s s u m e t h ato n e d r i v e s t h e o t h e r .

3M achine reductionism is current in the techn ological determinism of sociotechn ical organizationaltheory. H um an reduct ionism is current in m any sociologies--for ins tance in labor-process theory.

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m y t e l e phone I w ou l dn ' t be a s oc i o l og i s t w r i t i ng pa pe r s , de l i ve r i ng l e c t u r e s ,a n d p r o d u ci n g " k n o w l e d g e . " I ' d b e s o m e t h in g q u it e o t h e r - - a n d t he s a m e ist r ue f o r a ll o f u s . S o t he a na l y t i c a l que s t i on i s t h is . I s a n a ge n t a n a ge n t p r i m a r i l ybe c a us e he o r s he i nha b i t s a body t ha t c a r r i e s know l e dge s , s k i l l s , va l ue s , a nda ll the r e s t ? O r i s a n a ge n t a n a ge n t be c a us e he o r s he i nha b i t s a s e t o f e l e m e n t s( i nc lud i ng , o f c ou r s e , a body ) tha t s t r e t c he s ou t i n to t he ne t w or k o f m a t e r i a l s ,s om a t i c a nd o t he r w i s e , t ha t s u r r ounds e a c h body?

G o f f m a n ' s ( 1 96 8 ) a n s w e r i s th a t p r o p s a r e i m p o r t a n t, b u t th e m o r a l c a r e e ro f t he m e n t a l pa t i e n t i s no t r e duc i b l e t o t he p r ops . A c t o r - ne t w or k t he o r y , l i kes ym bo l i c i n te r a c t ion ( S t a r , 1990a , 1992 ) o ff e r s a s i m i l a r r e s pons e . I t do e s n ' td e n y t h a t h u m a n b e i n g s u s u a l l y h a v e t o d o w i t h b o d i e s ( b u t w h a t o f B a n q u o ' sg h o s t , o r th e s h a d o w o f K a r l M a r x ? ) . N e i t h e r d o e s i t d e n y t h a t h u m a n b e i n g s ,l i ke t he pa t i e n t s i n t he a s y l um s de s c r i be d by G of f m a n , ha ve a n i nne r l i f e . Bu ti t i n si st s tha t s oc i a l a ge n t s a r e ne ve r l oc a t e d i n bod i e s a nd bo d i e s a l one , bu tr a t he r t ha t a n a c t o r is a pa t t e r ne d ne t w or k o f he t e r oge ne ou s r e l a t i ons , o r a ne f f e c t p r odu c e d by s uc h a ne t w o r k . T he a r gum e n t i s t ha t t h i nk i ng , a c t i ng , w r i t -i ng , l ov i ng , e a r n i ng - - a l l t he a t tr i bu te s t ha t w e no r m a l l y a s c r i be t o hu m a n be i ng s ,a r e g e n e r a t ed i n n e t w o r k s t h a t p a s s th r o u g h a n d r a m i f y b o t h w i th i n a n d b e y o n dt h e b o d y . H e n c e t h e t e r m , a c t o r - n e t w o r k - - a n a c t o r i s a l s o , a l w a y s , a n e t w o r k .

T h e a r g u m e n t c a n e a s i ly b e g e n e r a li z e d . F o r i n s t a n ce , a machine i s a l so ah e t e r o g e n e o u s n e t w o r k - - a s e t o f r o l es p l a y e d b y t e c h n ic a l m a t e r i a l s b u t a ls o b ys uc h hum a n c om pone n t s a s ope r a t o r s , u s e r s , a nd r e pa i r - pe r s ons . S o , t oo , i s at e x t. A l l o f t he s e a r e ne t w or ks w h i c h pa r t i c i pa t e i n t he s oc i a l. A nd t he s a m e i st r ue f o r o r ga n i z a t i ons a nd i n s ti tu t i ons : t he s e a r e m or e o r le s s p r e c a r i ous l y pa t -t e r ne d r o le s p l a y e d by pe op l e , m a c h i ne s , t e x t s , bu i ld i ngs , a l l o f w h i c h m a y o f f e rres i s t ance .

4 . P U N C T U A L I Z A T I O N A N D R E S O U R C I N GW h y is it t h a t w e a r e s o m e t i m e s b u t o n l y s o m e t i m e s a w a r e o f t h e n e t w o r k s

t ha t l i e be h i nd a nd m a ke up a n a c t o r , a n ob j e c t o r a n i n s t i t u t i on? F o r i n s t a nc e ,f o r m os t o f u s m os t o f t he t i m e a t e l e v i s i on i s a s i ng l e a nd c ohe r e n t ob j e c t w i t hr e l a t i ve l y f e w a ppa r e n t pa r t s . O n t he o t he r ha nd w he n i t b r e a ks dow n , f o r t ha ts a m e u s e r - - a n d s ti ll m o r e f o r th e r e p a i r p e r s o n - - i t r a p i d l y tu r n s i n to a n e t w o r ko f e le c t ro n i c c o m p o n e n t s a n d h u m a n i n te r v e n ti o n s . A g a i n , f o r t h e a v e r a g e s m a l lb u s i n e s sp e r s o n , t h e B a n k o f C r e d i t a n d C o m m e r c e I n t e rn a t io n a l was a c o h e r e n ta n d o r g a n iz e d lo c a t io n f o r d e p o s i t in g a n d w i t h d ra w i n g m o n e y . N o w , h o w e v e r ,a n d e v e n m o r e s o f o r t h e f r a u d i n v e s ti g a t o rs , i t is a c o m p l e x n e t w o r k o f q u e s -t i ona b l e , i nde e d c r i m i na l , t ra n s a c t i ons . A nd a ga i n , f o r t he he a l t hy pe r s on , m os to f t h e w o r k i n g s o f th e b o d y a r e c o n c e a l ed , e v e n f r o m t h e m . B y c o n t ra s t , f o rs o m e o n e w h o i s ill a n d e v e n m o r e s o f o r th e p h y s i c i a n , t h e b o d y is c o n v e r t e di n to a c o m p l e x n e t w o r k o f p r o c e s s e s , a n d a s e t o f h u m a n , t e c h n ic a l , a n d p h a r -m a c e u t i c a l i n t e r ve n t i ons .

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W h y is it t h a t t h e n e t w o r k s w h i c h m a k e u p t h e a c t o r c o m e t o b e d e l e te d ,o r c o n c e a l e d f r o m v i e w ? A n d w h y i s t h is s o m e t i m e s n o t th e c a s e ? L e t m e s t a rtw i t h t a u t o l o g y . E a c h o f t h e a b o v e e x a m p l e s s u g g e s t s th a t t h e a p p e a r a n c e o fu n i t y , a n d th e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f n e t w o r k , h a s t o d o w i t h simpli f icat ion. T h ea r g u m e n t r u n s l i k e th is . A l l p h e n o m e n a a r e th e e f f e c t o r t h e p r o d u c t o f h e t e r-o g e n e o u s n e t w o r k s . B u t in p r a c t ic e w e d o n o t c o p e w i th e n d l e s s n e t w o r k r a m -i f ic a t io n . I n d e e d , m u c h o f t h e t i m e w e a r e n o t e v e n i n a p o s i t i o n t o d e t e c tn e t w o r k c o m p l e x i t i e s . S o w h a t i s h a p p e n i n g ? T h e a n s w e r i s t h a t i f a n e t w o r ka c t s a s a s i n g l e b l o c k , t h e n i t d i s a p p e a r s , t o b e r e p l a c e d b y t h e a c t i o n i t s e l f a n dt h e s e e m i n g l y s i m p l e a u t h o r o f t h a t a c t io n . A t t h e s a m e t im e , t h e w a y i n w h i c ht h e e f f e c t i s g e n e r a t e d i s a ls o e f f a c e d : f o r th e t i m e b e i n g i t i s n e i th e r v i s i b l e ,n o r r e le v a n t. S o it is t h a t s o m e t h i n g m u c h s i m p l e r - - a w o r k i n g t e l e v is i o n , a w e l l -m a n a g e d b a n k o r a h e a l th y b o d y - - c o m e s , f o r a ti m e , t o m a s k t h e n e tw o r k s t h a tp r o d u c e i t .

A c t o r n e t w o r k t h e o ri s ts s o m e t i m e s t a lk o f su c h p r e c a r i o u s s i m p l if ic a t o ryef f ec t s a s punctual i za t ions , a n d t h e y c e r t a i n l y i n d e x a n i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f t h en e t w o r k s o f t h e s o c i a l. T h u s , I n o t e d e a r l ie r t h a t I r e f u s e a n a n a l y t i c a l d i s t i n c t io nb e t w e e n t h e m a c r o - a n d th e m i c r o s o c i a l . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , I a l s o n o t e d t h a ts o m e n e t w o r k p a t t e r n s r u n w i d e a n d d e e p - - t h a t t h e y a r e m u c h m o r e g e n e r a l l yp e r f o r m e d t h a n o t h e rs . H e r e i s t h e c o n n e c t i o n : ne twork pa t t e rns t ha t a re w ide l yper form ed are o f t en t hose t ha t can be punc tua l i z ed . T h i s i s b e c a u s e t h e y a r en e t w o r k p a c k a g e s - - r o u t i n e s - - t h a t c a n , i f p r e c a r i o u s l y , b e m o r e o r l e ss ta k e nf o r g r a n t e d i n t h e p r o c e s s o f h e t e r o g e n e o u s e n g i n e e r i n g . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e yc a n b e c o u n t e d a s re s o u r c e s , r e s o u r c e s w h i c h m a y c o m e i n a v a r i e t y o f f o r m s :a g e n t s , d e v i c e s , t e x t s , r e l a t iv e l y s t a n d a r d i z e d s e ts o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r e l a t io n s ,s o c ia l t e c h n o l o g i e s , b o u n d a r y p r o t o c o l s , o r g a n i z a t io n a l f o r m s - - a n y o r a ll o ft h e se . N o t e t h a t t h e h e t e r o g e n e o u s e n g i n e e r c a n n o t b e c e r t a in t h a t a n y w i ll w o r ka s p r e d i c t e d . P u n c t u a l i z a t i o n i s a l w a y s p r e c a r i o u s , i t f a c e s r e s is t a n c e , a n d m a yd e g e n e r a t e i n t o a f a il in g n e t w o r k . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , p u n c t u a l i z e d r e s o u r c e so f f e r a w a y o f d r a w i n g q u i c k l y o n t h e n e t w o r k s o f th e s o c i a l w i th o u t h a v i n g t od e a l w i th e n d l e s s c o m p l e x i t y . A n d , t o th e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y a r e e m b o d i e d i n s u c ho r d e r i n g e ff o rt s t h e y a r e th e n p e r f o r m e d , r e p r o d u c e d i n, a n d r a m i f y t h r o u g h t h en e t w o r k s o f t h e s o c i a l. 4

5 . T R A N S L A T I O N : S O C I A L O R D E R I N G A S P R E C A R I O U SP R O C E S S

I h a v e i n s i s te d t h a t p u n c t u a l i z a t i o n i s a p r o c e s s o r a n e f f e c t, r a t h e r s o m e -t h in g th a t c a n b e a c h i e v e d o n c e a n d f o r a ll . T h u s , a c t o r - n e t w o r k t h e o r y a s s u m e st h a t s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e i s n o t a n o u n b u t a v e r b . S t r u c t u r e i s n o t f r e e - s t a n d i n g , l i k e4This is one of the places wh ere actor-network theory m aps onto the sociology of organizations:the affinity betw een this argum ent and the theory o f institutional isomo rphism is eviden t.

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s c a f f o l d i n g o n a b u i l d i n g - s i t e , b u t a s it e o f s t r a g g l e , a r e l a ti o n a l e f f e c t t h a tr e c u r s i v e l y g e n e r a t e s a n d r e p r o d u c e s i ts e lf . 5 T h e i n s i st e n c e o n p r o c e s s h a s an u m b e r o f i m p l i c a ti o n s . I t m e a n s , f o r i n s ta n c e , t h a t n o v e rs i o n o f t h e s o c i a lo r d e r, n o o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d n o a g e n t , i s e v e r c o m p l e t e , a u t o n o m o u s , a n d f in a l.O r , t o p u t i t a n o t h e r w a y , it m e a n s t h a t n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e d r e a m s o f d i ct a to r sa n d n o r m a t i v e s o c i o l o g i s t s , t h e r e i s n o s u c h t h i n g a s "the s o c ia l o r d e r " w i t h as i n g l e c e n t e r , o r a s i n g l e s e t o f s t a b l e r e l a t io n s . R a t h e r , t h e r e a r e o r d e r s , i n t h ep l u r a l. A n d , o f c o u r s e , t h e r e a r e r e s is t a n c e s .

C a u t i o n is r e q u i r e d h e r e , f o r th e t h e o r y i s n o t p lu r a l is t i n t h e u s u a l s e n s eo f th e t e rm . I t d o e s n ' t s a y th e r e a r e m a n y m o r e o r l e ss e q u a l c e n te r s o f p o w e ro r o r d e r . W h a t i t s a y s i s th a t t h e e f fe c t s o f p o w e r a r e g e n e r a t e d i n a re l a ti o n a la n d d i s t r i b u t e d m a n n e r , a n d n o t h i n g i s e v e r s e w n u p . A n d t h a t , t o u s e t h el a n g u a g e o f c l a s s ic a l s o c i o l o g y , o r d e r i n g ( a n d it s e f f e ct s in c l u d i n g p o w e r ) i sc o n t e s t a b l e a n d o f t e n c o n t e s t e d . T h u s I s a i d e a r l i e r t h a t h u m a n b e i n g s a n dm a c h i n e s h a v e t h e ir o w n p r e f e r e n c e s . T h i s w a s a n i n f o r m a l w a y o f t a lk i n g o fr e s is ta n c e a n d t h e p o l y v a l e n t c h a r a c t e r o f o r d e r i n g - - o f th e w a y i n w h i c h a n yp a r t i c u l a r e f f o r t a t o r d e r i n g e n c o u n t e r s i t s l i m i t s , a n d s t r u g g l e s t o a c c e p t o ro v e r c o m e t h o s e l im i t s. A n o t h e r w a y o f s a y i n g t hi s is to n o t e t h a t th e b i ts a n dp i e c e s a s s e m b l e d pro tem i n t o a n o r d e r a r e c o n s t a n t l y l i a b l e t o b r e a k d o w n , o rm a k e o f f o n t h e ir o w n . T h u s , a n a l y s is o f o r d e r i n g s t ru g g l e i s c e n t ra l t o a c t o r -n e t w o r k t h e o r y . T h e o b j e c t is to e x p l o r e a n d d e s c r ib e l o c a l p r o c e s s e s o f p a t -t e r n i n g , s o c i a l o r c h e s t r a t i o n , o r d e r i n g , a n d r e s i s ta n c e . I n s h o r t , i t is t o e x p l o r et h e p r o c e s s t h a t i s o f t e n c a l l e d translation w h i c h g e n e r a t e s o r d e r i n g e f f e c t s s u c ha s d e v i c e s , a g e n t s , i n s t it u t io n s , o r o r g a n i z a t i o n s . S o " t r a n s l a t i o n " i s a v e r bw h i c h i m p l i e s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a n d t h e p o s s i b i l it y o f e q u i v a l e n c e , t h e p o s s i b i l it yt h a t o n e t h i n g ( f o r e x a m p l e , a n a c t o r ) m a y s t a n d f o r a n o t h e r ( f o r i n s t a n c e an e t w o r k ) .

T h i s , t h e n , i s t h e c o r e o f t h e a c t o r - n e t w o r k a p p r o a c h : a c o n c e r n w i th h o wa c t o rs a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n s m o b i l i z e , ju x t a p o s e , a n d h o l d t o g e t h e r th e b i ts a n dp i e c es o u t o f w h i c h t h e y a r e c o m p o s e d ; h o w t h e y a re s o m e t i m e s a b l e t o p r e v e n tt h o s e b it s a n d p i e c e s f r o m f o l l o w i n g t h e i r o w n i n c l in a t io n s a n d m a k i n g o f f; a n dh o w t h e y m a n a g e , a s a r e s u lt , t o c o n c e a l f o r a t i m e t h e p r o c e s s o f tr a n s l a t io ni ts e l f a n d s o tu r n a n e t w o r k f r o m a h e t e r o g e n e o u s s e t o f b it s a n d p i e c e s e a c hw i t h i t s o w n i n c l i n a t i o n s , i n t o s o m e t h i n g t h a t p a s s e s a s a p u n c t u a l i z e d a c t o r .

6 . T H E S T R A T E G I E S O F T R A N S L A T I O NHow is t h e w o r k o f a ll th e n e t w o r k s t h a t m a k e u p t h e p u n c t u a l i z e d a c t o r

b o r r o w e d , b e n t , d i s p l a c e d , d i s t o r t e d , r e b u il t, r e s h a p e d , s t o l e n , p r o f i te d f r o m ,

5In this respect it is similar to several oth er contemporary social theories. Think, for instance, ofGidden s' (1984) notion of "structuration," Elias' (197 8) theory o f "figuration," or Bou rdieu's(1989) concept of "habitus."

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Theory of Actor-Network 387a nd / o r m i s r e p r e s e n t e d to ge ne r a t e t he e ff e c t s o f a ge n c y , o r ga n i z a t ion , a nd pow e r ?H o w a r e t h e r e s i s t a n c e s o v e r c o m e ? H e r e a c t o r - n e t w o r k t h e o r y e n g a g e s w i t h t h eque s t i on t ha t I pos e d a t t he ou t s e t : how i s i t t ha t w e ne ve r s a w be f o r e t ha t t heG o r b a c h e v s o f t h is w o r l d r e a l ly h a d f e e t o f c la y a ll a lo n g . F o r a c t o r - n e t w o r kt h e o r y i s a l l a b o u t p o w e r - - p o w e r a s a ( c o n c e a l e d o r m i s r e p r e s e n t e d ) effect,r a t he r t ha n p ow e r a s a s e t o f c a us e s . H e r e i t i s c l o s e t o F ouc a u l t ( 1979 ) , bu t i ti s no t s i m p l y F ouc a u l d i a n f o r , e s c he w i ng t he s ync h r on i c , i t t e ll s e m p i r i c a l s t o r ie sa bou t p r oc e s s e s o f t r a ns la t i on . I n de e d , t he r e i s m or e t ha n a h i n t o f M a c h i a v e l l ii n t he m e t hod , a nd t he a u t ho r o f T he P r i n ce i s ci te d a p p r o v i n g l y b y s e v e ra la c t o r - n e t w or k t he o r i s t s f o r h is m e r c i l e s s a na l y s i s o f the t a c t ic s a nd s t r at e g i e s o fp o w e r .

B u t w h a t c a n w e s a y a b o u t t r an s la t io n a n d t h e m e t h o d s o f o v e r c o m i n gr e s i s t a n c e ? A c t o r - n e t w o r k t h e o r y a l m o s t a l w a y s a p p r o a c h e s i t s t a s k s e m p i r i -c a l l y , a nd t h i s i s no e xc e p t i on . S o t he e m p i r i c a l c onc l u s i on i s t ha t tr a ns l a ti on i sc o n t in g e n t , l o c a l , a n d v a r i a b l e. H o w e v e r , f o u r m o r e g e n e r a l f in d i n g s e m e r g e :

1 . T he f i r s t ha s t o do w i t h t he f a c t t ha t s om e m a t e r i a l s a r e m or e d u r a b l et ha n o t he r s a nd s o m a i n t a i n t he i r r e la t i ona l pa t te r n s f o r longe r . I m a g i n e a c on -t i nuum . T hough t s a r e c he a p bu t t he y don ' t l a s t l ong , a nd s pe e c h l a s t s ve r y l i t t l el onge r . Bu t w he n w e s t a r t t o p er f o r m r e l a t i o n s - - a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r w h e n w ee m b o d y t h e m i n i n a n i m a t e m a t e r i a l s s u c h a s t e x t s a n d b u i l d i n g s - - t h e y m a y l a s tl onge r . T hus a go od o r de r i ng s t r a t e gy i s t o e m bo dy a s e t o f r e l a ti ons i n du r a b l em a t e r i a l s . Cons e que n t l y , a r e l a t i ve l y s t a b l e ne t w or k i s one e m bod i e d i n a ndp e r f o r m e d b y a r a n g e o f d u r a b l e m a t e r i a l s .

T he a r gum e n t i s a t t r a c t i ve , bu t i t i s no t a s s i m p l e a s i t m a y s e e m . T h i s i sbe c a us e du r a b i l i t y i s ye t a no t he r r e l a t i ona l e f f e c t , no t s om e t h i ng g i ve n i n t hena t u r e o f t h i ngs . I f m a t e r i a l s be h a ve i n du r a b l e w a ys t he n t h i s t oo i s a n i n t e r -a c ti o n a l ef fe c t. W a l ls m a y r e si st th e e s c a p e a t t e m p t s o f p r i s o n e r s - - b u t o n l y w h i l et he r e a r e a l s o p r i s on gua r ds . A no t he r w a y o f pu t t i ng i t i s t ha t du r a b l e m a t e r i a lf o r m s m a y f i nd o t he r u s e s : t he i r effects c h a n g e w h e n t h e y a r e l o c a t e d i n n e wne t w or ks o f r e l a t i ons . I n s um , t h6 a r gum e n t a bou t du r a b i l i t y i s a t t r a c t i ve a ndh a s m u c h m e r i t - - b u t i t n e e d s t o b e h a n d l e d w i t h c a u t i o n .

2 . I f du r a b i l i t y is a bou t o r de r i ng t h r oug h t i m e , t he n mobi l i t y i s a bou t o r de r -i ng th r ough s pa c e . I n pa r t i c u l a r , i t is a bou t w a ys o f a c t i ng a t a d i s ta nc e . T hu s ,c e n t e r s a nd pe r i phe r i e s a r e e f f e c t s t oo , e f f e c ts ge ne r a t e d b y s u r ve i l la nc e a ndc on t r o l . T he a f f i n i t y w i t h F ouc a u l t i s obv i ous , bu t a c t o r - ne t w or k t he o r ya pp r oa c he s t he m a t t e r s om e w ha t d i f f e r e n t l y . I n pa r t i c u l a r , i t e xp l o r e s m a t e r i a l sa n d p r o c e s s e s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n - - w r i t i n g , e l e c t ro n i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n , m e t h o d so f r e p r e s e n t a t ion , ba nk i ng s y s t e m s , a nd s uc h a ppa r e n t m unda n i t i e s a s e a r l y -m ode m t r a de r ou t e s . I n o t he r w or ds , i t e xp l o r e s t he t r a ns l a t i ons t ha t c r e a t e t hepos s i b i l i t y o f t r a ns m i t t i ng o f w ha t L a t ou r c a l l s i m m u t a b l e m o b i l e s -- l e tt e r s o fc r e d i t , m i l i t a r y o r de r s , o r c a nnon ba l l s . O nc e a ga i n t he s t r e s s i s on p r e c a r i ousr e l a t i ona l e f f e c t s - - t hough w i t h a s t r ong l y h i s t o r i c a l e m pha s i s , i n pa r t i n f l ue nc e db y th e " s y s t e m - b u i l d i n g " s tu d i es o f su c h h i st o r ia n s o f t e c h n o l o g y a s H u g h e s

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3 8 8 L a w

( 1983 ) , a nd i n pa r t by t he A nna l e s s c h oo l o f m a t e r i a l i s t h i s t o r y w i t h i t s i n s i s te nc eo n t h e " l o n g u e d u r e e " ( B r a u d e l, 1 9 7 5) .

3 . T r a ns l a t i on i s m or e e f f e c t i ve i f i t a n t i c i pa te s t he r e s pons e s a nd r e a c t i onso f the m a t e r i a l s t o be t r a ns la t e d . T h i s i de a i s no t ne w - - i t i s , f o r i n s ta nc e , c r uc i a lt o M a c h i a ve l l i a n po l i t i c a l s c i e nc e , a nd c oun t s a s a c e n t r a l t he m e i n bus i ne s sh i s t o r y ( Cha n d l e r , 1977 ; Be n i ge r , 198 6 ) - - t ho ugh a c t o r - n e t w or k w r i t e r s r e s is tt he f unc t i ona l i s m a nd t e c hno l og i c a l de t e r m i n i s m w h i c h t e nds t o c ha r a c t e r i z e t hel a t t e r . I n s t e a d , t he y t r e a t w ha t L a t ou r c a l l s c e n t e r s o f t r ans l a t i on as re l a t iona le f f e c t s a nd e xp l o r e t he c ond i t i ons a nd m a t e r i a l s t ha t ge ne r a t e t he s e e f f e c t s a ndc o n t a i n t h e r e s i s t a n c e t h a t w o u l d d i s s o l v e t h e m . D r a w i n g o n t h e w o r k o f h i s -t o r ia ns ( e . g . , I v i n s , 1975 ; E i s e ns t e i n , 1980 ) a nd a n t h r opo l og i s t s ( G oo dy , 1977 ;O ng , 1982 ) , t he y t hus c ons i de r t he r e l a t i ons h i p be t w e e n l i t e r a c y , bu r e a uc r a c y ,p r in t , th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f d o u b l e - e n t r y b o o k k e e p i n g , a n d n e w e r e le c t ro n i c t ec h -n o l o g i e s o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t h e c a p a c i t y t o f o r e s e e o u t c o m e s o n t h e o t h e r .T he a r gum e n t i s t ha t unde r t he a pp r op r i a t e r e l a t i ona l c i r c um s t a nc e s s uc h i nno -va t i ons ha ve i m por t a n t c a l c u l a t i ona l c ons e que nc e s , w h i c h i n t u r n i nc r e a s e s ne t -w o r k r o b u s tn e s s .

N o t e , a g a i n , t h e c a v e a t a b o u t r e l a t i o n a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . A s W e b e r w e l lunde r s t ood , c a l c u l a t i on i s no t a d e u s e x m a c h i n a . I t i s a s e t o f s oc i a l m e t hodso r r e l a t i ons i n i t s ow n r i gh t . F u r t he r m or e , i t c a n on l y w or k on m a t e r i a l r e p r e -s e n t a t i o n s - t h e p r o d u c t s o f s u r v e i ll a n c e w h i c h a r e a l so r e l at io n a l e f fe c ts . T h u sa s I ha ve i nd i c a t e d , s y s t e m s o f r e p r e s e n t a t i on , o f i m m ut a b l e m ob i l e s , a r e a l s op r e c a r i ous . T he a na l ogy w i t h t he p r ob l e m o f po l i t i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i on i s d i r e c t ,f o r a s w i t h a ny o t he r f o r m o f t r a ns l a ti on , r e p r e s e n t a t i on i s f a ll i b le , a nd i t c a nno tbe f o r e t o l d w he t he r a r e p r e s e n t a t i ve w i l l s uc c e s s f u l l y s pe a k f o r ( a nd s o m a s k )w ha t i t c l a i m s t o r e p r e s e n t .4 . F i na l l y , t he r e is the i s s ue o f the s c ope o f o r de r i ng . I ha ve be e n p r e s s i ngt he v i e w t ha t t h i s i s l oc a l . Bu t , a r gua b l y i t i s pos s i b l e t o i m pu t e s om e w ha tg e n e r a l s t r a t e g ie s o f t r ans la t i on t o ne t w or ks , s t r a t e g i e s w h i c h , l i ke F ouc a u l d i a nd i s c o u r s e s , r a m i f y t h r o u g h a n d r e p r o d u c e t h e m s e l v e s i n a r a n g e o f n e t w o r ki n s t anc e s o r l oc a t i ons . N o t e t ha t i f t he s e e x i s t , t he y a r e m or e o r l e s s i m p l i c i t - -f o r e xp l ic i t s t ra t e g i c c a l c u l a t ion i s on l y pos s i b l e i f t he r e i s a l re a dy a c e n t e r o ft rans la t ion . 6

W ha t m i gh t s uc h s t r a t e g i e s l ook l i ke ? T h i s , a ga i n , i s a n e m p i r i c a l m a t t e r .B u t s i n c e n o o r d e r i n g i s e v e r c o m p l e t e , w e m i g h t e x p e c t a s e r i e s of s t r a t e g i e st o c oe x i s t a nd i n t e r a c t . T h i s , a t a ny r a t e , i s t he c l a i m m a de by s e ve r a l a c t o r -ne t w o r k w r i te r s . T hu s , i n a r e c e n t st udy o f m a na ge m e n t , I ha ve de t e c t e d a r a ngeo f s t ra t e g ie s - -" e n t er p r is e ," " a d m i n is t ra t io n , " " v o c a t i o n , " a nd " v i s i o n " -w h i c h c o l l e c t i ve l y ope r a t e t o ge ne r a t e m u l t i - s t r a t e g i c a ge n t s , o r ga n i z a t i ona la r r a nge m e n t s , a nd i n t e r - o r ga n i z a t i ona l t ra ns a c t i ons . I nd e e d , t he a r gu m e n t i s t ha t6This concern with implicit strategy is again consistent with Foucauldian sociology (see, for in-stance, Foucault, 1981, pp. 9 4-95 ).

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3 9 0 L aw

T h e s e , t he n , a r e the k i nds o f que s t i ons i t a s k s o f o r ga n i z a t i ons , a nd t hep o w e r f u l w h o h e a d t h o s e o r g a n i z a ti o n s . W h a t a r e t h e k in d s o f h e t e r o g e n e o u sb i t s a nd p i e c e s c r e a t e d o r m ob i l i z e d a nd j ux t a pos e d t o ge ne r a t e o r ga n i z a t i ona le f fe c ts ? H o w a r e th e y j u x t a p o s e d ? H o w a r e re s i st a n c e s o v e r c o m e ? H o w it is ( i fa t a l l ) t ha t t he m a t e r i a l du r a b i l i t y a nd t r a ns po r t a b i l i t y ne c e s s a r y t o t he o r ga n i -z a t iona l pa t t e r n i ng o f s oc ia l r e l a t ions a r e a c h i e v e d? W ha t a r e t he s t r a te g i e s be i ngp e r f o r m e d t h ro u g h o u t t h e n e t w o r k s o f th e s o c i a l a s a p a r t o f th i s? H o w f a r d ot h e y s p r e a d ? H o w w i d e l y a r e t h e y p e r f o r m e d ? H o w d o t h e y i n t e r a c t ? H o w i t i s( i f a t a ll ) t ha t o r ga n i z a t i ona l c a l c u l a t i on i s a t t e m p t e d? H ow ( i f a t a ll ) a r e t heresu l t s o f tha t ca lcu la t ion t rans la t ed in to ac t ion? H ow i s it ( i f a t a ll ) t ha t theh e t e r o g e n e o u s b i t s a n d p i e c e s t h a t m a k e u p o r g a n i z a t i o n g e n e r a t e a n a s y m -m e t r i c a l r e l a t i ons h i p be t w e e n pe r i phe r y a nd c e n t e r ? H ow i s i t , i n o t he r w or ds ,t ha t a c e n t e r m a y c om e t o s pe a k f o r a nd p r o f i t f r om , t he e f f o r t s o f w ha t ha sb e e n t u r n e d i n t o a p e r i p h e r y ? H o w i s i t t h a t a m a n a g e r m a n a g e s ?

L ooke d a t i n t h i s w a y , o r ga n i z a t i on i s a n a c h i e ve m e n t , a p r oc e s s , a c on -s e q u e n c e , a s e t o f r e s is t an c e s o v e r c o m e , a p r e c a r i o u s e f fe c t. I t s c o m p o n e n t s - -t he h i e r a r c h i e s, o r ga n i z a t i ona l a r r a ng e m e n t s , p ow e r r e la t i ons , a nd f low s o f in f o r -m a t i o n - a r e t h e u n c e rt a in c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e o r d e r in g o f h e t e r o g e n e o u s m a t e -r ia l s. S o i t i s t ha t a c t o r - ne t w or k t h e o r y a na l y s e s a nd d e m ys t i f i e s . I t de m ys t i f i e st he pow e r o f t he pow e r f u l . I t s a ys t ha t , i n t he l a s t in s t a nc e , t he r e i s no d i f f e r e nc ei n k i nd , no g r e a t d i v i de , be t w e e n t he pow e r f u l a nd t he w r e t c he d . Bu t t he n i ts ays tha t the re i s no such th ing as the l a s t i ns t ance . And s ince the re i s no l a s ti n s t a nc e , i n p r a c t i c e t he r e a r e r e a l d i f f e r e nc e s be t w e e n t he pow e r f u l a nd t hew r e t c h e d , differences in the methods and materials that they deploy to generatethemselves. O ur t a s k is t o s tudy t he s e m a t e r i a l s a nd m e t hods , t o unde r s t a nd howt he y r e a l i z e t he m s e l ve s , a nd t o no t e t ha t i t c ou l d a nd o f t e n s hou l d be o t he r w i s e .

A C K N O W L E D G M E N T SI d id no t w a n t t o c l u t te r t he te x t , s o I ha v e i nc l ude d f e w r e f e r e nc e s t o a c t o r -

ne t w or k t he o r y i n the bo dy o f t h i s no te . ( C i t a t ions w i l l be f ound i n foo t no t e 2 .)H ow e ve r , t he no t e r e po r t s on a l a r ge body o f ( s ubs t a n t i a l l y e m p i r i c a l ) w or k bya s e r i es o f a u t ho r s . I a m g r a t e f u l to t he m a l l f o r t he ir s uppo r t o ve r a de c a de .

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