Running head: CHAPTER TWO EARLY ROOTS EARLY THEORIES 1

Federico R Lastra

Florida International University

Chapter 2. Early Roots: Early Theories and Models Applicable to Reading (400 B.C.E – 1899)

Thick Notes

            Reading theories do not stand alone they are intermingled with other educational and

psychological theories that gave birth to the following theories: Mental Discipline,

Associationsim, Unfoldment, and Structuralism. This chapter aims to provide an insight into the

roles of these theories in regard to reading instruction and research, then further elaborated upon

by providing real-world illustrational anecdotes.

General History of Reading and Writing (20,000 B. C. E. – 400 B. C. E.)

Logographic communication on cave walls found in France as far back as 20,000 B. C. E.

Cuneiform (clay tablet record keeping) Mesopotamia 3600-3100 B. C. E.

Phoenician alphabet -2000 B. C. E.

Egyptians used papyrus (paper) around 1000 B. C. E.

Greeks created the first significant literary works 850 B. C. E.

o Homer’s Iliad & Odyssey (750 B. C. E.)

o Revised Phoenician alphabet (added consonants & vowels)

Educational & Psychological theories emerged around 400 B. C. E.

 Mental Discipline Theory

Created in “the birthplace of civilization”

Is considered as the 1st major foundational educational theory

Traced as far back as Plato and Aristotle (mid 400s to 300s B. C. E.)

 “The mind is like a muscle - its various parts, or faculties, need to be exercised regularly

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(e.g., through the repetitive reciting of texts) in order to become strong and function

optimally”

“…learning is a matter of strengthening, or disciplining, the faculties of the mind, which

combine to produce intelligent behavior”

This theory gives rise to the practice of scaffold learning and repetition.

Plato and Aristotle lead to metacognition which greatly influences Western educational

theory.

Many educators agree that the mind is a muscle that needs to be exercised

Employing the exercise of reviewing previous material before moving on to new

information is common practice among teachers.

Associationism

Blends psychology and education to explain how learning occurs by the mind making

associations and connections in order to learn, and lasted about 2000 years, until Locke.

Aristotle speculated three types of connections that facilitate learning: (a) contiguity, (b)

similarity, and (c) contrast.

Buckingham and Finger (1997) state that these three principles can be observed in:

(a) knowledge from experience, (b) habit or frequency, (c) associations due to similarity,

and (d) links forged by opposition.

Locke proposed the Tabula Rasa (Blank Slate) Theory – which believes that all learning

is a consequence of people's interplay with their environment.

Associationism was the first theory that said that you are not born smart but made smart

by external influences that are carefully orchestrated to prime learning.

Associationism, to this day, continues to set the standard for foundational learning.

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Teachers go on to stress that prior knowledge is important and serves to make the

connections needed to understand new material; and, that students who are visually or

cognitively challenged need prior knowledge to facilitate the comparisons and

associations needed to understand new material.

Unfoldment Theory

Unfoldment Theory was the 1st to challenge Mental Discipline and Associationism.

18th century, first to express that learning was the result of a natural curiosity and interest

that was linked to passion for the subject of interest or for learning itself.

His belief was exemplified in Rousseau’s Emile where a young boy is raised away from

society’s influences and allowed to explore on his own, resulting in the development of a

good and moral adult- this view suggests that society corrupts.

As a result, Rousseau led educators to believe that the child as opposed to the teacher

leads the interest in what is to be learned; because children would fight topics of interest

and their learning would be impeded.

Adult’s should intervene as little as possible and just let children “unfold”…that abilities

would develop naturally with “enriched manipulatives.” Reading and writing was to be

postponed until 10 to 15 years of age.

However, child psychologists do emphasize play as learning and this theory is well in

line with early explorative learning and further on in allowing children to choose a topic

of interest, as well as following their passion when choosing a career in college or

university. We believe this passion will fuel the desire and motivation to learn.

Pestalozzi, adjusted the Unfoldment Theory to incorporate informal instruction, in a way

that stimulates interest in learning with heavy emphasis sensory manipulation to stimulate

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interest…”children learn through the head, the hand, and the heart” and that the

“appreciation and love for those we educate is critical.”

This is why reading in the United States (US) includes the use of familiar objects,

pictures, and storylines that the children already enjoy to stimulate interest.

This is observable in teachers and parents noticing what topics their children enjoy

reading and providing the children with access to the topics they already enjoy, as they do

in kindergarten  that is child’s garden.

1900s Dewey influenced US education by building learning instruction around children’s

interests and incorporated the activities to facilitate it.

Teachers often credit the Unfoldment Theory in their design instruction because it uses

an already existing interest for which reading instruction can be designed around it, such

as art used in creating their own stories.

Structuralism and Early Scientific Foundations of Reading

Rooted in the psychological theory of structuralism (e.g., structure of the mind),

perception research (i.e., scientific foundation), and set the course for reading research.

Discoveries in research:

o Late 1800s reading speed faster in associated words than disconnected letters

o Eye movement occurs in jumps not smooth flow while reading

o Eye-voice-span, time between what you see and read aloud

Huey’s The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading (1968) looked at rate, perception,

subvocalization, meaning, and nature of reading instruction.

Gave rise to new technologies and programs in reading and provides scientifically based

methods of reading instruction.

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Classroom Applications

            Many teaching practices are grounded in educational and psychology theories that rose

over 2,000 years ago:

Mental Discipline Theory

Is used to strengthen skills through practice (i.e., letter sounds to metacognitive control)

…basis for repeated readings where teachers control guidance and feedback in

pronunciation, expression, and pace….speed reading is rooted in this theory.

Used in ELL learners because it uses rehearsing and repetition and use of pictures for

words.

Associationism

Activities that build on students background knowledge, such as in literacy education

Activities designed to build awareness via association by using a visual stimulus (i.e.,

pictures and videos); commonly referred to as brain storming or webbing activities (e.g.,

graphic diagrams)

Unfoldment Theory

Literacy center  in classrooms designed to create a desire to read by making it a social

activity

This social engagement serves as a tool to motivate and inspire curiosity

Literacy center also support: Social Learning Theories, Emergent Literacy, and

Motivation theories as well.

Classroom literacy centers requires setting the stage and planning it out and having the

necessary tools in it to foster reading yearning that begins with modeling (teachers)

This theory works especially well for ELLSs since by 2030 (40%)

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Structuralism

Is observable in literacy instruction that requires accuracy in guided reading with lights or

pointers, and in online programs or using a SMART Board

This theory works well on improving text perception

Research Applications

Are visible in the field and within the classroom, in the scopes of practice and repetition

and its influence on achievement.

Research focused on reading achievement (that is oral language development, phonemic

awareness, exposure to print, and experience with storybook reading).

The Journal of Educational Psychology  in 2011, published the effects of adult learning

(blocked vs. random) framed by the Mental Discipline Theory; assessing what was

immediately learned during and after. They found that blacked fosters greater immediate

effects and random greater long-term and transfer learning effects.

 Associationism structured Cognitive Psychology and Behaviorism, which ties it all

together and is seen in such applications as the Venn Diagram (58% according

to Co leman, 2010), KWL charts, and story mapping.  

Unfoldment Theory is preferred amongst researchers who are conducting studies

concerning the influences of the learning environment on students’ performance. As well

as classroom literacy as it pertains to reading centers and motivation, environment, innate

curiosity, and engaging acitivities.

o Morrow (2002) research on literacy centers includes factors such as physical

layout of the classroom, teacher-model use, types of collaborative activities

that take place during independent reading and writing times. Findings showed:

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Greater enjoyment in reading and writing, print recognition, phonemic awareness,

phonics, reading comprehension, vocabulary development, oral reading fluency,

and writing ability.

Structuralism would be applied by researchers focusing on the neurological and

perceptual processes of reading although Cognitive-Processing Theories are more

accurate nowadays because it better explains the biological aspects of reading.

o Founded by Catell, Quantz, Dearborn, and Huey (late 1800s to mid 1900s)

o Schaywitz et al. (2000) modern day extension, using technology created

the specific phonological deficit hypothesis…linked to process of speech sounds.

Summary

Before the 1900s educational/reading theories stemmed from four theoretical roots:

Mental Discipline Theory, mind as a muscle; Associationism, mind making connections:

Unfoldment Theory, cultivating a child’s innate curiosity; and, Structuralism, study of perceptual

process. The first three are nonexperimental philosophies, applicable to all areas, and the last,

Structuralism, is the first experimental philosophy. They are all still applicable.

Activities

Making connections. Readers are asked to make 3 types of connections: text-to-text,

connections between text and other written material; text-to-self, connections between

text and experiences and feelings; and text-to-world connections, current events and

issues. They make a list and share it with each other, what connects where and why?

Class-to-Life Writing Assignments – 3 to 5 page paper describing and applying each

theory to the classroom setting.

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References

Tracey, D. H., & Morrow, L. M. (2012). Early roots: Early theories and models applicable to

reading (400 B.C.E. -1899). Lenses on reading. An introduction to theories and

models (2nd ed., pp. 17-39). New York, NY: Guilford Press.