large type version of the 2011 earth science reference tables

Average Chemical Compositionof Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere

ELEMENT(symbol)

CRUST HYDROSPHERE TROPOSPHERE

Percent by mass Percent by volume Percent by volume Percent by volume

Oxygen (O) 46.10 94.04 33.0 21.0Silicon (Si) 28.20 0.88Aluminum (Al) 8.23 0.48Iron (Fe) 5.63 0.49Calcium (Ca) 4.15 1.18Sodium (Na) 2.36 1.11Magnesium (Mg) 2.33 0.33Potassium (K) 2.09 1.42Nitrogen (N) 78.0Hydrogen (H) 66.0Other 0.91 0.07 1.0 1.0

Radioactive Decay DataRADIOACTIVE

ISOTOPEDISINTEGRATION HALF-LIFE

(years)

Carbon-14 14C 14N 5.7 × 103

Potassium-40 40K 40Ar 40Ca 1.3 × 109

Uranium-238 238U 206Pb 4.5 × 109

Rubidium-87 87Rb 87Sr 4.9 × 1010

Specifi c Heats of Common Materials MATERIAL SPECIFIC HEAT

(Joules/gram • °C)

Liquid water 4.18Solid water (ice) 2.11Water vapor 2.00Dry air 1.01Basalt 0.84Granite 0.79Iron 0.45Copper 0.38Lead 0.13

Reference Tables for

Physical Setting/EARTH SCIENCE

The University of the State of New York • The State Education Department • Albany, New York 12234 • www.nysed.gov

2011 EDITIONThis edition of the Earth Science Reference Tables should be used in the classroom beginning in the 2011–12 school year. The fi rst examination for which these tables will be used is the January 2012 Regents Examination in Physical Setting/Earth Science.

Eurypterus remipes

New York State Fossil

Equations

Eccentricity = distance between focilength of major axis

Gradient = change in fi eld valuedistance

Rate of change = change in valuetime

Density = massvolume

Heat energy gained during melting......................334 J/gHeat energy released during freezing .................334 J/gHeat energy gained during vaporization ............2260 J/gHeat energy released during condensation .......2260 J/g

Density at 3.98°C .................................................1.0 g/mL

Properties of Water

LARGE-TYPE EDITION

2 Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition

Gen

eral

ized

Lan

dsca

pe R

egio

ns o

f New

Yor

k St

ate

Appalachian P

late

au (U

pla

nds)

Inte

rio

r L

ow

lan

ds

Gre

nv

ille

Pro

vin

ce

(Hig

hla

nd

s)

New

Engla

nd Pro

vince

(Hig

hlands)

Atlan

tic C

oasta

l P

lain

Alle

ghen

y Pl

atea

u

Erie

-Ont

ario

Low

land

s(P

lain

s)

Tug

Hill

Plat

eau

Adiro

ndac

kM

ount

ains

Lake

Erie

Lake

Ont

ario

Inte

rio

rL

ow

lan

ds

St. L

awre

nce L

owlan

ds

Champlain Lowlands Huds

on H

ighl

ands

Man

hatta

n Pr

ong

The

Cat

skills

Taconic Mountains

Hudson-Mohawk Lowlands

NewarkLowlands

Maj

or g

eogr

aphi

c pr

ovin

ce b

ound

ary

Land

scap

e re

gion

bou

ndar

ySt

ate

boun

dary

Inte

rnat

iona

l bou

ndar

y

Key

N S

WE

020

40

020

4060

80Ki

lom

eter

s

Mile

s10

3050

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 3

78°

77°

44°

elev

atio

n 7

5 m

LAKE

ON

TARI

O

BU

FFAL

O

NIA

GAR

A FA

LLS

RO

CH

ESTE

R

FIN

GER

LAKE

S

Genesee River

elev

atio

n 1

75 m

LAKE43°

79°

ERIE

JAM

ESTO

WN

NiagaraRiver

73°

72°41

°

73°40

°30'

73°3

0'74

°

ATLA

NTI

C O

CEA

N

41°

LONG

ISLA

NDSO

UND

LONG

ISLA

NDRIV

ERH

EAD

42°

SLID

E M

T.

KIN

GST

ON

CONNECTICUT

RiverHudson

MASSACHUSETTS

ALB

ANY

75°

76°

ELM

IRA

ITH

ACA B

ING

HAM

TON

River

Sus

queh

anna

Delaware

PE

NN

SY

LV

AN

IA

River

77°

78°

79°

42°

41°

NEW

YO

RK

CIT

Y

NEW

JE

RSEY

44°

OLD

FO

RG

E

VERMONT

PLAT

TSB

UR

GH

MT.

MAR

CY Hudson

River

LAKECHAMPLAIN

45°75

°74

°

MAS

SEN

A

St. Lawre

nce Rive

r

73° 45

°

43°

SYR

ACU

SEU

TIC

A

Moh

awk

Riv

er

WAT

ERTO

WN

76°

N S

WE

020

40

020

4060

80Ki

lom

eter

s

Mile

s10

3050

Gen

eral

ized

Bed

rock

Geo

logy

of N

ew Y

ork

Stat

e m

odifi

ed fr

omG

EOLO

GIC

AL

SURV

EYN

EW Y

ORK

STA

TE M

USE

UM

1989

GE

OL

OGIC

PERIO

DS

AND

ERAS

IN

NE

W Y

OR

K

CR

ETAC

EOU

S an

d PL

EIST

OC

ENE

(Epo

ch) w

eakl

y co

nsol

idat

ed to

unc

onso

lidat

ed g

rave

ls, s

ands

, and

cla

ysLA

TE T

RIA

SSIC

and

EAR

LY J

UR

ASSI

C c

ongl

omer

ates

, red

san

dsto

nes,

red

shal

es, b

asal

t, an

d di

abas

e (P

alis

ades

sill)

PEN

NSY

LVAN

IAN

and

MIS

SISS

IPPI

AN c

ongl

omer

ates

, san

dsto

nes,

and

sha

les

DEV

ON

IAN

lim

esto

nes,

sha

les,

san

dsto

nes,

and

con

glom

erat

es

SILU

RIA

N

Silu

rian

also

con

tain

s sa

lt, g

ypsu

m, a

nd h

emat

ite.

OR

DO

VIC

IAN

lim

esto

nes,

sha

les,

san

dsto

nes,

and

dol

osto

nes

CAM

BRIA

N

CAM

BRIA

N a

nd E

ARLY

OR

DO

VIC

IAN

san

dsto

nes

and

dolo

ston

es

m

oder

atel

y to

inte

nsel

y m

etam

orph

osed

eas

t of t

he H

udso

n R

iver

CAM

BRIA

N a

nd O

RD

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N (u

ndiff

eren

tiate

d) q

uartz

ites,

dol

osto

nes,

mar

bles

, and

sch

ists

in

tens

ely

met

amor

phos

ed; i

nclu

des

porti

ons

of th

e Ta

coni

c Se

quen

ce a

nd C

ortla

ndt C

ompl

exTA

CO

NIC

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UEN

CE

sand

ston

es, s

hale

s, a

nd s

late

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htly

to in

tens

ely

met

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phos

ed ro

cks

of C

AMBR

IAN

thro

ugh

MID

DLE

OR

DO

VIC

IAN

age

sM

IDD

LE P

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IC g

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ses,

qua

rtzite

s, a

nd m

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es

Line

s ar

e ge

nera

lized

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ctur

e tre

nds.

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DLE

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ano

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rock

s

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om

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Inte

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ock

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(regi

onal

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1,0

00 m

.y.a.

)


Surf

ace

Oce

an C

urre

nts

Nor

thA

mer

ica

Sout

hA

mer

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Ant

arct

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Aus

tral

ia

Nor

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Ant

arct

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Afr

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Asi

a

Eur

ope

Afr

ica

Peru C.

North

Equ

ator

ial C

.

Sout

h Eq

uato

rial C

.

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ther

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Arc

tic

Oce

an

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Sout

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.

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tralia C.

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an Equa

toria

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ount

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Oyashio C.

Kamchatk

a C.

North

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ific

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. California C.

Brazil C.

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Sout

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.

Falkland C.

Gui

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C.

North

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ator

ial C

.

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am C

.

Canary C.

Labrador C.

West Greenland C.

East G

reen

land C. Norw

egian C.

Nor

th E

quat

oria

l C.

Equa

toria

l Cou

nter

curre

nt

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thP

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Sou

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tic

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an

War

m c

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nts

Coo

l cur

rent

s

Key

Equa

toria

l Cou

nter

curre

nt

80°

40°

40°0° 80°

20°

60°

60°

20°

0°40

°80

°12

0°16

0°18

0°16

0°12

0°80

°40

°20

°60

°10

0°14

0°20

°60

°10

0°14

0°20

°

0°40

°80

°12

0°16

0°18

0°16

0°12

0°80

°40

°20

°60

°10

0°14

0°20

°60

°10

0°14

0°20

°

NO

TE: N

ot a

ll su

rface

oce

an c

urre

nts

are

show

n.

Arct

ic C

ircle

(66.

5° N

)

Trop

ic o

f Can

cer

(23.

5° N

)

Trop

ic o

f Cap

ricor

n(2

3.5°

S)

Anta

rctic

Circ

le(6

6.5°

S)

Equa

tor

East Australia C.

Anta

rctic

Circ

umpo

lar C

urre

nt

North

At

lant

ic C

.

Anta

rctic

Circ

umpo

lar C

urre

nt


Phi

lippi

neP

late

St. H

elen

a H

ot S

pot

Can

ary

Isla

nds

Hot

Spo

t

Icel

and

Hot

Spo

t

Tasm

an

Hot

Spo

t

Haw

aii

Hot

Spo

t

Gal

apag

os

Hot

Spo

t

East

er Is

land

H

ot S

pot

Bouv

et

Hot

Spo

t

Yello

wst

one

Hot

Spo

t

Mid-Indian Ridge

East African Rift

Southe

ast

Indi

an R

idge

Trench

TongaTrench

East

Pacific Ridge

Peru-Chile Trench

Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Aleu

tian

Tren

ch

Mid-Atlantic Ridge

M

ariana

Southw

est In

dian

Ridge

San

Andr

eas

Faul

t

Ant

arct

icP

late

Scot

ia

Pla

te

Sand

wic

h P

late

Sout

h A

mer

ican

P

late

Naz

ca

Pla

te

Coc

os

Pla

teC

arib

bean

Plat

e

Afr

ican

P

late

Ant

arct

icP

late

Fiji

Pla

te

Indi

an-A

ustr

alia

n P

late

Pac

ific

P

late

Juan

de

Fuc

a P

late

Nor

th A

mer

ican

P

late

Eur

asia

n P

late

Arabian

Plate

Eur

asia

n P

late

Ke

y

Not

all

man

tle h

ot s

pots

, pla

tes,

and

bo

unda

ries

are

show

n.

Rel

ativ

e m

otio

n at

pla

te b

ound

ary

Tran

sfor

m p

late

bou

ndar

y (tr

ansf

orm

faul

t)D

iver

gent

pla

te b

ound

ary

(usu

ally

bro

ken

by tr

ansf

orm

fa

ults

alo

ng m

id-o

cean

ridg

es)

Con

verg

ent p

late

bou

ndar

y (s

ubdu

ctio

n zo

ne)

subd

uctin

g pl

ate

over

ridin

g pl

ate

Man

tle

hot s

pot

Com

plex

or u

ncer

tain

pl

ate

boun

dary

NO

TE:

Tect

onic

Pla

tes


This generalized graph shows the water velocity needed to maintain, but not start, movement. Variations occur due to differences in particle density and shape.

Erosion

Wea

ther

ing

&Er

osio

n(U

pli ft

)Metam

orphism

MeltingSolidific

ationMeltingWeathering & Erosion

(Uplift)

Metamorphism

Weathering & Erosion

(Uplift)

Heat and/or Pressure

Heatand/or Pressure

Melting

Cementation and Burial

Compaction and/or Deposition

IGNEOUSROCK

SEDIMENTS

MAGMA

METAMORPHICROCK

SEDIMENTARYROCK

0.0001

0.001

0.01

10.0

100.0

0.1

1.0

1000500

50 100

10510.5

0.10.05

0.01

STREAM VELOCITY (cm/s)

Boulders

Cobbles

Pebbles

Sand

Silt

Clay

25.6

6.4

0.2

0.006

0.0004

PA

RT

ICL

E D

IAM

ET

ER

(cm

)

Relationship of Transported Particle Size to Water Velocity

INTR

USI

VE(P

luto

nic)

EN

VIR

ON

ME

NT

OF

FO

RM

AT

ION

IGN

EO

US

RO

CK

S

non-

crys

tallin

ele

ss th

an1

mm

1 m

mto

10 m

m

MAFIC (rich in Fe, Mg)

HIGHER

DARKER

100%

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

TIC

S

FELSIC(rich in Si, Al)

LOWER

LIGHTER

COMPOSITION

DENSITY

COLOR

100%

(rela

tive

by v

olum

e)M

INE

RA

LC

OM

PO

SIT

ION 75%

50%

25%

0%

75%

50%

25%

0%

EXTR

USI

VE(V

olca

nic)

Obsidian(usually appears black) Basaltic glass

CRYSTALSIZE TEXTURE

Glassy

Fine

Non-vesicular

Vesicular(gas

pockets)

Coarse

Verycoarse

Non-vesicular

10 m

mto

larg

er

Peri-dotite

Du

nit

e

Scoria

Vesicular basaltVesicularandesite

AndesiteBasalt

Diabase

GabbroDiorite

Vesicular rhyolite

Pumice

Rhyolite

Granite

Pegmatite

Olivine(green)

Pyroxene(green)

Plagioclase feldspar(white to gray)

Biotite(black)

Amphibole(black)

Quartz(clear towhite)

Potassiumfeldspar

(pink to white)

Scheme for Igneous Rock Identifi cation

Rock Cycle in Earth’s Crust


Slate

Schist

Gneiss

ROCK NAME

Phyllite

Hornfels

Metaconglomerate

Quartzite

Marble

Anthracite coal

Low-grade metamorphism of shale

Platy mica crystals visible from metamorphism of clay or feldspars

High-grade metamorphism;mineral types segregated into bands

COMMENTS

Foliation surfaces shiny from microscopic mica crystals

Metamorphism of quartz sandstone

Metamorphism of limestone or dolostone

Pebbles may be distorted or stretched

Various rocks changed by heat from nearby magma/lava

Metamorphism of bituminous coal

COMPOSITIONTEXTUREGRAINSIZE

TYPE OF METAMORPHISM

MAP SYMBOL

FOLI

ATED

Fine

Fineto

medium

Mediumto

coarse

MIN

ERAL

�AL

IGN

MEN

TBA

ND

-IN

GN

ON

FOLI

ATED

Coarse

Fineto

coarse

Fine

Fine

Regionalor

contact

Regional(Heat and pressure increases)

Contact (heat)

Regional

Quartz

Calcite and/or dolomite

Variousminerals

Variousminerals

Carbon

INORGANIC LAND-DERIVED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

COMPOSITION MAP SYMBOL

CHEMICALLY AND/OR ORGANICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

MIC

A

QU

AR

TZ

PY

RO

XE

NE

FE

LD

SP

AR

AM

PH

IBO

LE

GA

RN

ET

TEXTURE

Clastic(fragmental)

Crystalline

TEXTURE

Bioclastic

Crystalline orbioclastic

GRAIN SIZE

Fineto

coarsecrystals

Microscopic tovery coarse

Rock salt

Rock gypsum

Dolostone

Limestone

Bituminous coal

ROCK NAME MAP SYMBOL

Crystals from chemical precipitates and evaporites

COMMENTS

Precipitates of biologicorigin or cemented shell fragmentsCompactedplant remains

Halite

Gypsum

Dolomite

Calcite

Carbon

COMPOSITION

GRAIN SIZE

Mostly quartz, feldspar, and clay minerals; may contain fragments of other rocks and minerals

Pebbles, cobbles, and/or boulders embedded in sand, silt, and/or clay

Sand(0.006 to 0.2 cm)

Silt(0.0004 to 0.006 cm)

Clay(less than 0.0004 cm)

COMMENTS ROCK NAME

Rounded fragments

Very fine grain

Compact; may split easily

Conglomerate

SandstoneFine to coarse

Angular fragments Breccia

Shale

Siltstone

Scheme for Sedimentary Rock Identifi cation

Scheme for Metamorphic Rock Identifi cation


BA C D

(Index fossils not drawn to scale)

E F G H I J K

ElliptocephalaCryptolithus

PhacopsCentrocerasValcouroceras Eucalyptocrinus

CtenocrinusTetragraptus

ManticocerasHexamerocerasStylonurus

Dicellograptus EurypterusCoelophysis

L M N

Eon Period Life on EarthEra Epoch

GEOLOGIC HISTORY NY Rock Record

Sediment

BedrockMillion years ago

CENOZOIC

MESOZOIC

PALEOZOIC

QUATERNARY

NEOGENE

PALEOGENE

JURASSIC

TRIASSIC

PERMIAN

CRETACEOUS

Million years ago

3000

500

1000

PR

EC

AM

BR

IA

N

2000

0

4000

4600

EA R L Y

PR

OT

ER

OZ

OI

CA

RC

HE

AN

EA R L Y

LA T E

DEVONIAN

SILURIAN

ORDOVICIAN

CAMBRIAN

PENNSYLVANIAN

MISSISSIPPIAN

Oldest known rocks

LATE

LATE

MIDDLE

EARLY

LATE

MIDDLE

EARLY

LATE

MIDDLE

EARLY

LATE

EARLY

EARLY

EARLY

EARLY

LATE

580

542

488

444

416

359

318

299

251

Abundant reptiles

Earliest dinosaurs

146

200

Earliest mammals

PH

AN

ER

O-

ZO

IC

MI D D L E

LA T E

MI D D L E

Abundant stromatolites1300

MIDDLE

LATEMIDDLE

CA

RB

ON

IF-

ER

OU

S

First sexually reproducing organisms

Evidence of biological carbon

Earliest stromatolites Oldest microfossils

Oceanic oxygen produced by cyanobacteria combines with iron, forming iron oxide layers on ocean floor

Oceanic oxygen begins to enter the atmosphere

Estimated time of origin of Earth and solar system

MIDDLE

EARLY

EARLYLATE

MIDDLE

LATEEARLY

LATE

Earliest insects Earliest land plants and animals

Abundant eurypterids

Earliest amphibians and plant seeds Extinction of many marine organisms

Earth’s first forests Earliest ammonoids and sharks Abundant fish

Mammal-like reptiles

Extensive coal-forming forests

Abundant amphibians

Earliest flowering plants Diverse bony fishes

Earliest birds

Abundant dinosaurs and ammonoids

65.5

1.85.3

0.01 0

23.033.9

55.8

PLEISTOCENEPLIOCENE

MIOCENE

EOCENE

OLIGOCENE

PALEOCENE

HOLOCENEHumans, mastodonts, mammoths

Large carnivorous mammals Abundant grazing mammals Earliest grasses

Many modern groups of mammals

Burgess shale fauna (diverse soft-bodied organisms)Earliest fishes

Earliest trilobites Extinction of many primitive marine organisms

Great diversity of life-forms with shelly parts

Invertebrates dominant Earth’s first coral reefs

Mass extinction of dinosaurs, ammonoids, and many land plants

Mass extinction of many land and marine organisms (including trilobites)

Large and numerous scale trees and seed ferns (vascular plants); earliest reptiles

Ediacaran fauna (first multicellular, soft-bodied marine organisms)


119 million years ago





MacluritesMastodontBeluga Whale Aneurophyton

CondorNaples Tree Cystiphyllum EospiriferMucrospiriferLichenaria Pleurodictyum

Z

Platyceras

PO RQ S T U V W X Y

CooksoniaBothriolepis

OF NEW YORK STATETime Distribution of Fossils

(including important fossils of New York)The center of each lettered circle indicates the approximate time of existence of a specific index fossil (e.g. Fossil lived at the end of the Early Cambrian).

A

SO

Important Geologic Events in New York

Inferred Positions of Earth’s Landmasses

ADU (2011)

Advance and retreat of last continental ice

Dome-like uplift of Adirondack region begins

Intrusion of Palisades sill

Pangaea begins to break up

Catskill delta forms Erosion of Acadian Mountains

Salt and gypsum deposited in evaporite basins

Rifting and initial opening of Iapetus Ocean

Erosion of Grenville Mountains

TR

ILO

BIT

ES

NA

UT

ILO

IDS

AM

MO

NO

IDS

CR

INO

IDS L

BIR

DS

DIN

OS

AU

RS

MA

MM

AL

S

VA

SC

UL

AR

PL

AN

TS

CO

RA

LS

BR

AC

HIO

PO

DS

GA

ST

RO

PO

DS

PL

AC

OD

ER

M F

ISH

GR

AP

TO

LIT

ES E

UR

YP

TE

RID

S

C

B

A

E

D

F G

H

I

J

K

N

M P

Q

T

U

V

R

W

X

Y

Z

Initial opening of Atlantic Ocean North America and Africa separate

Sands and clays underlying Long Island and Staten Island deposited on margin of Atlantic Ocean

Alleghenian orogeny caused by collision of North America and Africa along transform margin, forming Pangaea

Erosion of Taconic Mountains; Queenston delta forms

Widespread deposition over most of New York along edge of Iapetus Ocean

Grenville orogeny: metamorphism of bedrock now exposed in the Adirondacks and Hudson Highlands

Acadian orogeny caused by collision of North America and Avalon and closing of remaining part of Iapetus Ocean

Taconian orogeny caused by closing of western part of Iapetus Ocean and collision between North America and volcanic island arc


Inferred Properties of Earth’s Interior

MELTING POINT

MEL

TING

PO

INT

} LITHOSPHERE

ATLANTIC OCEAN

NORT

H A

MERIC

A

PAC

IFIC

OUTE

R CORE

OC

EAN

STIF

FER

M

ANTLE

(IRON &

NICKEL)

CRUS

T RI

GID

MANTL

E

MID-ATLANTIC

RIDGE3.0 basaltic oceanic crust2.7 granitic continental crust

DENSITY (g/cm3)

MOHO

ASTH

ENOSP

HERE (PLASTIC MANTLE)

12.8–13.1

9.9–12.2

3.4–5.6

(IRO

N &

NICKEL)

EARTH’S CENTER

INNE

R CORE

2000 4000 6000DEPTH (km)

1000 3000 5000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

TE

MP

ER

AT

UR

E (°

C)

6000

7000

0

CASCADES

TRENCH

PARTIAL MELTING

PR

ES

SU

RE

(milli

on a

tmos

pher

es)

4

3

2

1

0

INTERIOR TEMPERATURE

0


TR

AV

EL

TIM

E(m

in)

24

23

22

21

20

19

18

17

16

15

14

13

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8EPICENTER DISTANCE (� 103 km)

9 100

P

S

Earthquake P-Wave and S-Wave Travel Time


Dewpoint (°C) Dry-Bulb

Tempera ture (°C)

Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°)0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

– 20 –20 –33– 18 –18 –28– 16 –16 –24– 14 –14 –21 –36– 12 –12 –18 –28– 10 –10 –14 –22

– 8 –8 –12 –18 –29– 6 –6 –10 –14 –22– 4 –4 –7 –12 –17 –29– 2 –2 –5 –8 –13 –20

0 0 –3 –6 –9 –15 –242 2 –1 –3 –6 –11 –174 4 1 –1 –4 –7 –11 –196 6 4 1 –1 –4 –7 –13 –218 8 6 3 1 –2 –5 –9 –14

10 10 8 6 4 1 –2 –5 –9 –14 –2812 12 10 8 6 4 1 –2 –5 –9 –1614 14 12 11 9 6 4 1 –2 –5 –10 –1716 16 14 13 11 9 7 4 1 –1 –6 –10 –1718 18 16 15 13 11 9 7 4 2 –2 –5 –10 –1920 20 19 17 15 14 12 10 7 4 2 –2 –5 –10 –1922 22 21 19 17 16 14 12 10 8 5 3 –1 –5 –10 –1924 24 23 21 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 2 –1 –5 –10 –1826 26 25 23 22 20 18 17 15 13 11 9 6 3 0 –4 –928 28 27 25 24 22 21 19 17 16 14 11 9 7 4 1 –330 30 29 27 26 24 23 21 19 18 16 14 12 10 8 5 1

Relative Humidity (%) Dry-Bulb

Tempera ture (°C)

Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°)0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

– 20 100 28– 18 100 40– 16 100 48– 14 100 55 11– 12 100 61 23– 10 100 66 33

– 8 100 71 41 13– 6 100 73 48 20– 4 100 77 54 32 11– 2 100 79 58 37 20 1

0 100 81 63 45 28 112 100 83 67 51 36 20 64 100 85 70 56 42 27 146 100 86 72 59 46 35 22 108 100 87 74 62 51 39 28 17 6

10 100 88 76 65 54 43 33 24 13 412 100 88 78 67 57 48 38 28 19 10 214 100 89 79 69 60 50 41 33 25 16 8 116 100 90 80 71 62 54 45 37 29 21 14 7 118 100 91 81 72 64 56 48 40 33 26 19 12 620 100 91 82 74 66 58 51 44 36 30 23 17 11 522 100 92 83 75 68 60 53 46 40 33 27 21 15 10 424 100 92 84 76 69 62 55 49 42 36 30 25 20 14 9 426 100 92 85 77 70 64 57 51 45 39 34 28 23 18 13 928 100 93 86 78 71 65 59 53 47 42 36 31 26 21 17 1230 100 93 86 79 72 66 61 55 49 44 39 34 29 25 20 16


Temperature Pressure

One atmosphere

millibars(mb)

inches(in of Hg*)

30.701040.0

1036.0

1032.0

1028.0

1024.0

1020.0

1016.0

1012.0

1008.0

1004.0

1000.0

996.0

992.0

988.0

984.0

980.0

976.0

972.0

968.0

*Hg = mercury

30.60

30.50

30.40

30.30

30.20

30.10

30.00

29.90

29.80

29.70

29.60

29.50

29.40

29.30

29.20

29.10

29.00

28.90

28.80

28.70

28.60

28.50

Key to Weather Map Symbols

196

+19/

.25

28

27

21

Station ModelStation Model Explanation

196

+19/

.25

28

27

12

Amount of cloud cover(approximately 75% covered)

Barometric pressure (1019.6 mb)Barometric trend(a steady 1.9-mb rise in past 3 hours)

Precipitation(0.25 inches in past 6 hours)

Wind direction(from the southwest)

Temperature (°F)

Present weather

Visibility (mi)

Dewpoint (°F)Wind speed

(1 knot = 1.15 mi/h)

whole feather = 10 knotshalf feather = 5 knots

total = 15 knots

Air MassesPresent Weather Fronts Hurricane

Tornado

cAcPcTmTmP

continental arcticcontinental polarcontinental tropicalmaritime tropicalmaritime polar

Cold

Warm

Stationary

OccludedFreezing

rainHaze

Rain

FogSnow

Hail Rainshowers

Thunder-storms

Drizzle

Sleet

Smog

Snowshowers

Fahrenheit(°F)

Celsius(°C)

Kelvin(K)

Water boils220

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

–20

–40

–60

Room temperature

Water freezes

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

–10

–20

–30

–40

–50

380

370

360

350

340

330

320

310

300

290

280

270

260

250

240

230

220


Planetary Wind and Moisture Belts in the Troposphere

The drawing on the right shows the locations of the belts near the time of an equinox. The locations shift somewhat with the changing latitude of the Sun’s vertical ray. In the Northern Hemisphere, the belts shift northward in the summer and southward in the winter.

(Not drawn to scale)

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Selected Properties of

Earth’s Atmosphere

Gamma rays

X rays

Ultraviolet Infrared

Microwaves

Radio waves

Visible light

Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red

Decreasing wavelength Increasing wavelength

(Not drawn to scale)

Temperature(°C)

Pressure(atm)

Concentration(g/m3)

Alt

itu

de

Temperature

Zones

Atmospheric

Pressure160 100km mi

40 25

80 50

120 75

Sea Level 0 0

Mesopause

Mesosphere

Stratopause

Stratosphere

Troposphere

WaterVapor

Thermosphere(extends to 600 km)

Tropopause

100°–90° –55° 15°

0 20 400 1.0–100° 0°

Tropopause

Polar front

Polar front jet stream

Subtropicaljet streams

Polar front jet stream

WET

DRYN.E.

DRY

60° SWET

30° SN.W.

Winds

DRY

S.E.Winds

0°WET

DRY

N.E.Winds

30° N

S.W.Winds

60° N

S.E.


Solar System Data Celestial

Object

Mean Distance

from Sun

(million km)

Period of

Revolution

(d=days) (y=years)

Period of

Rotation at Equator

Eccentricity

of Orbit

Equatorial

Diameter

(km)

Mass

(Earth = 1) Density

(g/cm3)

SUN — — 27 d — 1,392,000 333,000.00 1.4

MERCURY 57.9 88 d 59 d 0.206 4,879 0.06 5.4

VENUS 108.2 224.7 d 243 d 0.007 12,104 0.82 5.2

EARTH 149.6 365.26 d 23 h 56 min 4 s 0.017 12,756 1.00 5.5

MARS 227.9 687 d 24 h 37 min 23 s 0.093 6,794 0.11 3.9

JUPITER 778.4 11.9 y 9 h 50 min 30 s 0.048 142,984 317.83 1.3

SATURN 1,426.7 29.5 y 10 h 14 min 0.054 120,536 95.16 0.7

URANUS 2,871.0 84.0 y 17 h 14 min 0.047 51,118 14.54 1.3

NEPTUNE 4,498.3 164.8 y 16 h 0.009 49,528 17.15 1.8EARTH’S MOON

149.6 (0.386 from Earth) 27.3 d 27.3 d 0.055 3,476 0.01 3.3

20,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 3,000

Blue Blue White White

2,000

RedOrange

30,000

Color

0.0001

0.001

0.01

(Rat

e at

whi

ch a

sta

r em

its e

nerg

y re

lativ

e to

the

Sun)

WHITE DWARFS(Late stage)

idani B40 Er

Procyon B

SunAlpha Centauri

Sirius

Aldebaran

GIANTS(Intermediate stage)

MassiveStarsBetelgeuse

SUPERGIANTS(Intermediate stage)

Deneb

RigelSpica

10,000

100,000

1,000,000

1

10

100

1,000

Lu

min

osit

yCharacteristics of Stars

(Name in italics refers to star represented by a .)(Stages indicate the general sequence of star development.)

Surface Temperature (K)Yellow

ProximaCentauri

Barnard’sStar

SmallStars

Pollux

Polaris

0.1

MAIN SEQUENCE

(Early stage)

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition

Properties of Common Minerals

LUSTER HARD- NESS C

LE

AV

AG

E

FR

AC

TU

RE

COMMON COLORS

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS USE(S) COMPOSITION* MINERAL NAME

Meta

llic

lu

ste

r

1–2 silver to gray

black streak, greasy feel

pencil lead, lubricants C Graphite

2.5 metallic silver

gray-black streak, cubic cleavage, density = 7.6 g/cm3

ore of lead, batteries PbS Galena

5.5–6.5 black to silver

black streak, magnetic

ore of iron, steel Fe3O4 Magnetite

6.5 brassy yellow

green-black streak, (fool’s gold)

ore of sulfur FeS2 Pyrite

Eit

her

5.5 – 6.5or 1

metallic silver or earthy red red-brown streak ore of iron,

jewelry Fe2O3 Hematite

No

nm

eta

llic

lu

ste

r

1 white to green greasy feel ceramics,

paper Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 Talc

2 yellow to amber white-yellow streak sulfuric acid S Sulfur

2 white to pink or gray

easily scratched by fi ngernail

plaster of paris, drywall CaSO4•2H2O Selenite gypsum

2–2.5 colorless to yellow

fl exible in thin sheets paint, roofi ng KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 Muscovite mica

2.5 colorless to white

cubic cleavage, salty taste

food additive, melts ice NaCl Halite

2.5–3 black to dark brown

fl exible in thin sheets

construction materials

K(Mg,Fe)3AlSi3O10(OH)2

Biotite mica

3 colorless or variable

bubbles with acid, rhombohedral cleavage

cement, lime CaCO3 Calcite

3.5 colorless or variable

bubbles with acid when powdered

building stones CaMg(CO3)2 Dolomite


cleaves in 4 directions

hydrofl uoric acid CaF2 Fluorite

5–6 black to dark green

cleaves in 2 directions at 90°

mineral collections, jewelry

(Ca,Na) (Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6

Pyroxene(commonly augite)

5.5 black to dark green

cleaves at 56° and 124°

mineral collections, jewelry

CaNa(Mg,Fe)4 (Al,Fe,Ti)3Si6O22(O,OH)2

Amphibole(commonly hornblende)

6 white to pink

cleaves in 2 directions at 90°

ceramics, glass KAlSi3O8

Potassium feldspar(commonly orthoclase)

6 white to gray

cleaves in 2 directions, striations visible

ceramics, glass (Na,Ca)AlSi3O8 Plagioclase feldspar

6.5 green to gray or brown

commonly light green and granular

furnace bricks, jewelry (Fe,Mg)2SiO4 Olivine


glassy luster, may form hexagonal crystals

glass, jewelry, electronics SiO2 Quartz

6.5–7.5 dark red to green

often seen as red glassy grains in NYS metamorphic rocks

jewelry (NYS gem), abrasives Fe3Al2Si3O12 Garnet

*Chemical symbols: Al = aluminum Cl = chlorine H = hydrogen Na = sodium S = sulfur C = carbon F = fl uorine K = potassium O = oxygen Si = silicon Ca = calcium Fe = iron Mg = magnesium Pb = lead Ti = titanium

= dominant form of breakage

large type version of the 2011 earth science reference tables

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