LANGUAGE IN LANGUAGE IN

SOCIETYSOCIETY

LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE AND

CULTURECULTURE

11

CULTURECULTUREWWhateverhatever a person needs to know in a person needs to know in

order to functionorder to function in a particular in a particular

society in a manner acceptable to its society in a manner acceptable to its

membersmembers

SSociallyocially acquiredacquired kknowledgenowledge --

necessary behaviours necessary behaviours llearned from earned from

other members of the community, do other members of the community, do

not come from genetic endowmentnot come from genetic endowment

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEENRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE AND CULTURECULTURE

ThreeThree differingdiffering viewsviews: :

Structure of Structure of langlanguageuage determines the way determines the way

that speakers of that that speakers of that langlanguageuage view the view the

world world

CCultureulture is reflected in language. Cultural is reflected in language. Cultural

requirements do not determine structure of requirements do not determine structure of

langlang, but influence how , but influence how itit is usedis used

LLittleittle or no relationship bor no relationship betetwweeneen langlanguageuage

and cultand cultureure

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SapirSapir--Whorf Whorf / / Whorfian hypothesisWhorfian hypothesis

Edward SapirEdward Sapir::

Human beings Human beings do not live in the objective world do not live in the objective world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but ordinarily understood, but areare very much at the very much at the mercy of the particular languagemercy of the particular language which has which has become the medium of expression for their become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an society. It is quite an illusion to imagine illusion to imagine that one that one adjusts to reality essentially adjusts to reality essentially without the use of without the use of languagelanguage….….

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SAPIR’S IDEA SAPIR’S IDEA (CONT.)(CONT.)

The fact of the matter is that The fact of the matter is that the the ‘real world’ ‘real world’

is unconsciously built up on the language is unconsciously built up on the language

habits of the grouphabits of the group. We see and hear . We see and hear

and…. experience very largely as we do and…. experience very largely as we do

because because the the language habits of our language habits of our

community predispose certain choices of community predispose certain choices of

interpretationinterpretation

((LanguageLanguage, 1929, 1929))

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Benjamin Lee WhorfBenjamin Lee Whorf

TThe he background linguistic systembackground linguistic system (in other (in other

words the words the grammargrammar) of each language is ) of each language is

not merely a reproducing instrument for not merely a reproducing instrument for

voicing ideas but rather voicing ideas but rather is itself the shaper is itself the shaper

of ideas of ideas …. the guide for the individual’s …. the guide for the individual’s

mental activity…mental activity… Formulation of ideas is Formulation of ideas is

not an independent process, but… is not an independent process, but… is part part

of a particular grammarof a particular grammar……

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WHAT FOLLOWS?WHAT FOLLOWS?

Different speakers will view the world Different speakers will view the world

differently in so far as the languages they differently in so far as the languages they

speak differ structurally.speak differ structurally.

We perceive only what our language We perceive only what our language

allows us, or predisposes us, to perceive. allows us, or predisposes us, to perceive.

Our language controls our world view, thus Our language controls our world view, thus

speakers of different languages will have speakers of different languages will have

different world viewsdifferent world views..77

Data Data in favour of the Whorfian in favour of the Whorfian hypothesishypothesis

BBothoth peoplepeople andand bullsbulls have have legslegs in English, but in English, but inin Spanish Spanish peoplepeople havehave piernaspiernas, , bullsbulls havehavepataspatas..

Bedouin ArabsBedouin Arabs:: many different words for many different words for camelscamels, , SamisSamis:: several for several for reindeerreindeer, , InuitsInuits: : words for words for many diffmany differenterent kinds of kinds of snowsnow..

EnglishEnglish has a cover term has a cover term animalanimal,, but but nono term to term to cover both cover both fruit and nutsfruit and nuts.. ChineseChinese does have does have oneone..

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ConclusionsConclusions fromfrom datadata

Our world view, Our world view, shapedshaped byby our native our native

tongue, makes it difficult to immediately tongue, makes it difficult to immediately

understand distinctions that speakers of understand distinctions that speakers of

other languages make. However, other languages make. However,

understandingunderstanding ((asas wellwell asas translationtranslation) is ) is

possible.possible.

Habitual thought may be conditioned by Habitual thought may be conditioned by

language, language, butbut oopposingpposing relationship, that relationship, that

is, effect of society and environment is, effect of society and environment

(=culture) on (=culture) on langlanguageuage is more obviousis more obvious..99

EEffectffect of culture on of culture on langlanguageuage

PPhysicalhysical environment environment -- reflected in reflected in

langlanguageuage, normally in the lexicon, normally in the lexicon, , e.ge.g.: .:

EskimoEskimo wordswords toto referrefer toto differentdifferent typestypes of of

snowsnow

SSocialocial environment environment also reflected in also reflected in langlang, ,

and hasand has an an effect on structure of effect on structure of

vocabularyvocabulary,, ee..gg..: a society’s kinship : a society’s kinship

systemsystem1010

EEffectffect of culture on of culture on langlanguageuage((contcont.).)

CChangeshanges in in societysociety ((socialsocial changeschanges) ) maymay

produce corresponding produce corresponding linguistic changelinguistic changess, ,

egeg.: .: inin RussiaRussia and and RussianRussian..

–– sshurinhurin (19th cent) →→(19th cent) →→ brat brat zhenizheni ((nownow))

–– nevetskanevetska →→ →→ zhenazhena bratabrata

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LLongeronger phrasal terms phrasal terms indicate current indicate current lack of lack of

importanceimportance given to certain kinship given to certain kinship

relationshipsrelationships

GeGeneralneral linguistic principlelinguistic principle:: truly truly important important

objects and relationshipsobjects and relationships are are ((tend to betend to be))

expressed through single words expressed through single words rather rather

than phrasethan phrases (s (cfcf. . separateseparate InuiteInuite wordswords forfor

snowsnow vs. vs. EngEng drydry snowsnow, , finefine snowsnow, etc.), etc.)

1212

TABOO AND EUPHEMISMTABOO AND EUPHEMISM

TABOO: TABOO: thingsthings people do not talk aboutpeople do not talk about

EUPHEMISMS: EUPHEMISMS: thingsthings peoplepeople talktalk aboutabout in in

a roundabout waya roundabout way

1313

TABOOTABOO

InIn societysociety: c: concernedoncerned with with behaviourbehaviour

believed to be believed to be harmfulharmful to society’s to society’s

members for members for supernatural reasonssupernatural reasons, or , or

regarded regarded immoral or improperimmoral or improper, , becausebecause

violating a moral code.violating a moral code.

In language: associated with In language: associated with things not things not

saidsaid, and with , and with words and expressions not words and expressions not

usedused..

1414

TTABOOABOO ((contcont..))

In practice: In practice: inhibitions / restrictions inhibitions / restrictions to the to the

useuse of of itemsitems ofof thisthis sortsort

Failure to adhere to strict rules of use: may Failure to adhere to strict rules of use: may

lead to lead to punishment or public shamepunishment or public shame..

1515

TTABOOABOO ((contcont22..))

Taboo wordsTaboo words: : good reflection in a good reflection in a

language of language of society’s value and belief society’s value and belief

systemsystem

Taboo wordsTaboo words: : wordswords usedused inin spellsspells

((magicmagic), ), words related to words related to left hand, female left hand, female

relations, game animalsrelations, game animals

Taboo Taboo topicstopics: : sex, death, excretion, bodily sex, death, excretion, bodily

functionsfunctions,, religious mattersreligious matters

1616

TTABOOABOO ((contcont33..))

Use of taboo wordsUse of taboo words in nonin non--permitted permitted

contexts: contexts: e.ge.g. . on TV, provokes violent on TV, provokes violent

shock and disgustshock and disgust. .

BUT BUT –– irrationalirrational, , because it is because it is thethe word word

thatthat is is taboo taboo ((not the concept or the idea not the concept or the idea iitt

denotesdenotes).).

Clearly, taboo is a Clearly, taboo is a linguistic and linguistic and

sociological factsociological fact..

1717

TTABOOABOO ((contcont44..))

ThoughThough rrapidapid change in patterns of taboo change in patterns of taboo

words in words in EnglEnglishish, , rulesrules of of useuse areare relaxingrelaxing,,

sstill, till, a a lotlot of lof linguisticinguistic taboos.taboos.

If If violatedviolated: : itit is is for for drawing attention drawing attention to to

oneself, to show oneself, to show contemptcontempt, to be , to be

aggressive or provocativeaggressive or provocative, to , to mockmock

authority,authority, toto expressexpress freedomfreedom, etc. , etc.

1818

Secondary effect of taboo on languageSecondary effect of taboo on language

WWordsords phonetically similar to taboo words phonetically similar to taboo words

disappear from language because of nondisappear from language because of non--

useuse, , e.ge.g.: .: roosterrooster usedused inin AE AE forfor cockcock

AlsoAlso inin bilingualbilingual situationssituations

1919

EUPHEMISMS EUPHEMISMS

Euphemistic words and expressionsEuphemistic words and expressions:: allow allow

us to us to talk about unpleasant things or talk about unpleasant things or

neutralize the unpleasantnessneutralize the unpleasantness, e.g. subject , e.g. subject

of death and dying, criminality or of death and dying, criminality or

unemployment. unemployment.

GGiveive labels to unpleasant tasks / jobs labels to unpleasant tasks / jobs to to

make them sound less repulsive, more make them sound less repulsive, more

attractive.attractive.

2020

ConclusionsConclusions

Language, culture and thought are Language, culture and thought are

interrelated in a number of intricate ways.interrelated in a number of intricate ways.

Effect of environment and society Effect of environment and society

(=culture) on language use is obvious in (=culture) on language use is obvious in

several areasseveral areas ((lexiconlexicon,, kinship systemkinship system)), ,

but there is also evidence for the structure but there is also evidence for the structure

of language to determine the world view of of language to determine the world view of

the speaker. the speaker. 2121

ConclusionsConclusions ((contcont.).)

Language use is sensitive to social Language use is sensitive to social

changes, in that changes in society and changes, in that changes in society and

culture will appear in language use. culture will appear in language use.

Each social group differs from every other Each social group differs from every other

in the way they are constrained in their in the way they are constrained in their

language use by culture, but no social language use by culture, but no social

group uses language quite uninhibitedlygroup uses language quite uninhibitedly..

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