Language and Culture BackgroundInformation LeafletSomalia

Somalia is located in the Horn of Africa, bordered by Djibouti to the northwest, Kenya to the southwest, the Gulf of Aden and Yemen to the north, Ethiopia to the west and the Indian Ocean to the east. Its capital is Mogadishu.

Somalia’s history is one of colonisation having been partitioned by Britain, France, and Italy into British Somaliland, French Djibouti and Italian Somaliland. In 1960 Britain withdrew from British Somaliland allowing it to join with Italian Somaliland and form the new nation of Somalia. In 1969, a coup headed by Mohamed Siad Barre brought in an authoritarian socialist government. The regime was overthrown in 1991 and since then, Somalia has been without an effective central government.

The country fragmented into regions led in whole or in part by three distinct entities: the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) in Mogadishu, the semi-autonomous region of Puntland in the northeast, and the self-declared Republic of Somaliland in the northwest. Somaliland has maintained a stable and peaceful existence and continues efforts to establish a constitutional democracy including holding municipal, parliamentary, and presidential elections even if its independence is not recognised by international bodies.

In 2000, the Somalia National Peace Conference (SNPC) resulted in the formation of the Transitional National Government (TNG) with the aim of reconciling warring militias, but the administration made little progress in uniting the country by the end of its mandate. In 2004, after talks in Kenya, the main political representatives signed a deal to set up a new parliament which later appointed a president, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, to lead the Transnational Federal Government (TFG). A former army officer and faction leader, Mr Yusuf had led a guerrilla movement in the 1970s aimed at ousting Siad Barre.

The new administration, the fourteenth attempt to establish a government since 1991, has faced a formidable task in bringing reconciliation to a country divided into clan based fiefdoms. The authority of the interim government was further compromised in 2006 by the rise of a rival administration - the Union of the Islamic Courts.

Background

SOMALIAEthiopia

Yemen

Djibouti

Eritrea

Kenya

The Union movement emerged out of a judicial system funded by the powerful business community in an attempt to instil more law and order. It seized Mogadishu and much of the South from US-backed warlords in June 2006. The US, alongside other Western Countries, alleges that the movement and its military wing, Al-Shabab, are linked to Al-Qaeda, and that it has links to the group’s leadership hiding out in Pakistan’s tribal areas. At the end of 2006, with the assistance of Ethiopian troops, military forces aligned to the interim administration seized control from the Islamists and a surge in violence ensued.

The TFG’s international partners, including the United States, United Kingdom, the EU, and Turkey, have sought to build the capacity of Somalia’s weak governmental institutions and some

regional administrations. The current Prime Minister, Nur Hassan Hussein, also known as Nur Adde, has stated that he is willing to speak with armed opponents of the interim government, including islamists.

The estimated population of Somalia is 10.5 million according to the July 2014 estimates by the World Bank. Population counting in Somalia is complicated by the large number of nomads and by refugee movements in response to famine and clan warfare. Many families have been torn apart by the civil war and many have relatives still living in the refugee camps of Ethiopia, Djibouti, Kenya and Yemen.

The Somali community in England is best understood as a complex heterogeneous group made up of long-settled local communities (particularly from Somaliland),

civil war refugee families (from both the North and the South), and recent arrivals from Europe, especially Scandinavia. Many of the latter group are European Union passport holders who have come to the UK for the more established Somali community infrastructure that exists in England, as well as to escape what they perceive as increasing discrimination in mainland Europe.

Population Education

Somali is the official language of Somalia and is spoken by all Somalis. Arabic is another official language according to the Transitional Federal Charter. Other languages spoken by Somalis in other parts of Somalia and neighbouring countries include: Amharic (Ethiopia); English

(Somaliland); French (Djibouti); Italian (southern Somalia); and Kiswahili (Kenya). The majority of the community in the UK speak Somali, though a small Chiwmini1 speaking minority has also been identified. Approximately 15% of Somalis are also reported to speak fluent Arabic.

Before the state collapsed in 1991, education was free and compulsory for children aged 6-3. Mass education programmes undertaken by the military government in the 1970s received public support throughout the nation and new primary and secondary schools were opened across the country. Children spent three years in primary school, four years in intermediate school and five years in secondary school.

Education was very competitive and rigorous in that, if children did not get the grades required to progress to the next year, they were required to repeat the year until they got the required grades needed to progress. As a result of this, literacy rates in the nation increased from 5% of the adult population in the early 1970s to nearly 65% percent in 1990.

Since 1991 the education sector has borne the brunt of the civil war with the near complete destruction and closure of all education institutions in the country. There were direct attacks on schools, school children and teachers across the country. The Ministers for Education and Higher Education, and over 100 students lost their lives in suicide bombings.

In response to the growing need for education, Somali educated intellectuals have established privately owned educational institutions. These privately run schools have merged to

form Education Umbrellas. They typically use different curricula, set and issue their own certificates.

The public education system is lacking except for a few schools that are under the supervision of the department of education but funded by different education partners. Somalia has one of the world’s lowest enrolment rates for primary school-aged children with only 42% of children in school. Of those, only 36 per cent are girls. The number of out-of-school and at risk children and youth aged 6-18 years has been estimated at 4.4 million. In 2013, the current government requested UNICEF to provide assistance in developing and supporting a comprehensive strategy for enabling 1 million additional children and youth to gain education. Out of this request, the initiative, Go-2-School: Educating for Resilience (2013-2016) was born. UNICEF’s role is one of coordination, advocacy and partnership strengthening.

1 Chimwini or Chambalaz is a Bantu language spoken by people from the city of Brava. Bravanese also speak standard Somali which is the official language of Somalia and has been retained as the national language of the various regional governments.

Language

Somalis are Sunni Muslims and Islam influences all aspects of their life and culture. Villages set their own Koranic classes and some teachers travel across the country providing this religious instruction where there are no schools.

Many Somali women attend mosques regularly, although not for Friday prayers, whilst others recite prayers at home in small groups or alone. It is less common for women in Somalia to attend mosques because they will usually get their religious teaching through the education system whereas in England they need to attend mosques for Quranic studies2.

Important religious holidays include Ramadan, Id al-Fitr, Id Arafa, and Moulid. Ramadan is the ninth month of the lunar calendar. During the 30 days of the holiday, people pray, fast and refrain from drinking during the day. They will end their daily Ramadan fast at sunset with an evening meal called Iftar. Pregnant women, people who are very ill, and children (usually interpreted as under 14 years old) are exempted from the fast. Some religious observance of Ramadan extends the fast for an additional seven days.

Immediately following Ramadan is the holiday of Id al-Fitr which marks the end of the fast. This celebration involves big family gatherings and gifts for children. Id Arafa (also called Id al-Adhuha)

is the most important holiday of the calendar year. This is the time for making pilgrimages (Hajj) to Mecca.

Moulid is another important holiday, occurring in the month after Ramadan. It commemorates the birth and death of the Prophet Mohammed.

Many social norms are derived from Islamic tradition, and thus may be similiar to other Islamic countries. Married women are expected to cover their bodies including their hair. Some women wear veils to cover their faces. Trousers are not a generally accepted form of attire for women, but may be worn under a skirt.

During communication, the use of indirect words, phrases or expressions with meanings differing from their literal meaning is quite common. The Somali people have a very large oral tradition of literature consisting of proverbs and poems which cover many subjects. These are heavily drawn on in communication.

Touching during conversations is acceptable for members of the same sex but little or no touching between members of the opposite sex. Friends and family will usually hug closely and/or share a kiss on the cheeks or hand. Public displays of affection between genders are to be avoided and married couples often walk side by side but not hold hands. Same sexes usually shake hands when greeting each other, together with nodding and sometimes a little bow especially when greeting a prestigious person.

The right hand is considered the clean and polite hand to use for daily tasks such as eating, writing, and greeting people. If a child begins to show left-handed preference, the parents will actively try to

train them to use the right hand. Thus left-handedness is very uncommon in Somalia.

Family is extremely important in the Somali community and more important than the individual in all aspects of life. It is based around an extended family and living with extended families is the norm. All resources are pooled and it is understood that whatever you have is not only yours.

Men are usually the head of the household. Women manage the finances and take care of the children.

Young Somalis are seen by the older generations as increasingly moving away from Somali culture as they adopt what is perceived as a British way of life. Somali youth however are creating new British identities developed from a fusion of an attachment to Somalia, clan group identities and Britishness.

People, social customs and etiquette Religion and Festivals

2 Department for Communities and Local Government (2009), The Somali Muslim Community in England: Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities.

Most influence in the community rests primarily with leaders of community organisations, mosques and Imams. Mosques are the primary centre for religious and social gatherings where relatives, new arrivals, friends and members of the community come for prayers and to socialise. Traditionally Somalis attend mosques established by the more settled Muslim communities, particularly Pakistani and Bangladeshi mosques. However, there are now a small number of mosques around the country that are specifically built and run by Somalis.

While Somali communities have been settled in the UK for over 100 years and there are numerous civil society organisations in every major area of settlement, Somali community organisations are perceived to be at an early stage of establishment compared to the older migrant community structures, with whom they have to compete for funding and support. Somali civil society organisations are also much localised and not networked into wider partnerships. Some of the larger and better funded organisations often have good relationships with their local authority, and a few local authorities across the country are seen as more successful and proactive in engaging with their community than others. Hence their impact and influence does not often extend beyond their local area.

Somali community organisations in England and Ealing include:

Somali Refugee Action Group (SORAG) is a not-for-profit making charity organisation founded in 1990 to respond to the large influx of refugees arriving in the United Kingdom. The project was set up primarily to assist the refugees find homes, schools and access health services.

Somali Banadir Community Council offers advice, information and support for members of the Somali Banadir community, including refugees and asylum seekers. They offer translation and interpreting services, help with networking and support for isolated and vulnerable people and special services for elderly members of the community.

Ealing Somali Welfare and Cultural Association provides advice and information on housing, homelessness, education and immigration and nationality. They also offer English classes, supplementary Saturday schools for children and a lunch club for older people on Fridays.

Groups, Societies & Community

Somalia has a mixed legal system of civil law, Islamic law, and customary law (referred to as Xeer).

The UK hosts the largest Somali community outside Somalia. Among Somalis outside Britain, the UK is also thought to have a reputation for religious tolerance and being a more multicultural society than other European states. There is anecdotal evidence that 75 per cent of Somalis in Leicester are from other countries apart from Somalia, mostly from Scandinavian countries3.

When addressing Somali culture, it is considered disrespectful to refer to clans or tribes. It is a very sensitive issue that is best avoided because it reinforces the prejudices produced by the civil war.

There is a lack of literacy among many adult members of the community, who missed out on their schooling due to either war or migration during the post-independence years in Somalia. On the whole, Somali men tend to have better English language and Somali literacy skills than women. Significant differences exist between the education, employment and social opportunities available to men and women. Amongst Somali women in Britain there is generally a lower level of education and language proficiency than men, though there are some women who are highly educated and qualified within the community.

Somali children that have arrived in the UK as asylum seekers or refugees usually have traumas resulting from many years of civil war and life in refugee camps, forced migration and family breakdowns that affect their health and wellbeing. The education system is still unable to offer appropriate support and it is believed that this leads to some children dropping out of school, being excluded and generally underachieving in education.

The most famous UK citizens of Somali origin are: Mo Farah, double Olympic 5000m and 10000m champion and Rageh Omar, the journalist and writer.

Useful Facts

3 Department for Communities and Local Government (2009), The Somali Muslim Community in England: Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities.

Sources/References

BBC (2008) Somalia country profile: Somalia, BBC: news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/world/africa/country_profiles/1072592.stm (20.6.2008)

Central Intelligence Agency (2013), World Fact Book: Somalia, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html

Department for Communities and Local Government (2009), The Somali Muslim Community in England: Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities.

Dominic Casciani (2005), ‘Somalis’ Struggle in the UK’, The Somaliland Times, 30.5.2006.

Ethnomed, Somali Cultural Profile https://ethnomed.org/culture/somali/somali-cultural-profile

Sheffield University, Post-Conflict Identities: Practices and Affiliations of Somali Refugee Children – Briefing Notes http://www.identities.group.sheffield.ac.uk/pdfs/Briefing%20Somali%20Migration%20to%20the%20UK.pdf

Stephanie McCrummen and Karen DeYoung (2008), ‘U.S. Airstrike Kills Somali Accused of Links to Al-Qaeda’, The Washington Post, 2.5.2008

UNICEF (2014), Go-2-School Initiative (2013-2016) Educating for Resilience, http://www.unicef.org/somalia/SOM_resources_gotoschool.pdf

World Bank (2014), http://data.worldbank.org/country/somalia

Municipality ofBologna

With the financial support of the European Community Programme for employment and Social Solidarity PROGRESS (2007-2013)