landscapes of health: the kochi case study · landscapes of health: the kochi case study i. m....

Landscapes of health: the Kochi case study

I. M. Madaleno Portuguese Tropical Research Institute, Portugal

Abstract

The first list containing the Indian spices traded by the Portuguese navigators was written in 1516, in Kochi. However Pires, an herb-pharmacist, had already authored an extensive report about landscapes visited in India and the Extreme Orient in 1515. Several other sixteenth century manuscripts provide us with impressive images of India, where Europeans traded Malabar Coast spices by the sea route Vasco da Gama discovered in 1498. In this research the Portuguese Tropical Research Institute (IICT) explored Kochi, searching for the same herb species mentioned in the manuscripts, as well as other nutritious plants, gardened within city limits or in rural farms elsewhere in Kerala state. This paper uses a comparative method that puts localism at the service of abstraction. The research hypothesis is that gardening contributes to generate more sustainable agglomerations, providing income and health for the poor and spaces that can regulate water cycles and produce oxygen. Keywords: sustainable cities, Indian gardens, landscapes.

1 Introduction

The shift of authority over healthcare from national to global levels has weakened the influence of local knowledge [1]. Due to rapid urbanisation trends, disease problems experienced by the poor, particularly the urban poor constitute a serious sanitary problem. However, most rural-urban migrants preserve ancient medical knowledge, and ethnic and cultural therapeutic practices, which continuation is vital for the family in the urban realm. Hence, the Portuguese Tropical Research Institute (IICT) conducted the first survey to focus groups of medicinal plants users, traders, farmers, wild species collectors and plant therapists in Belen, Brazil, in 1998 [2]. A total of eight Latin American countries and ten cities and

WIT Transactions on Ecology and The Environment, Vol 191, www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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doi:10.2495/SC141452

The Sustainable City IX, Vol. 2 1709

metropolitan regions were investigated to the year 2012. The surveys included the narratives of 1,254 informants, 70% of which were urban gardeners and peri-urban farmers [3]. During the first half of 2013, the IICT started similar research in Asia, with the Kochi case-study, in India. The framework was the search for sustainable urban agglomerations. In fact, the UN Rio 1992 Conference marked the beginning of a new urban planning paradigm based on local government initiatives, NGO movements and community-led processes [4]. The “healthy cities” concept was introduced by the UK, soon after, aiming to strengthen social cohesion, to provide economic security, particularly food security to the urban poor, as well as to give environmental quality to all citizens [4]. In the last few years, climate change mitigation and adaptation concerns drove the United Nations to promote urban agriculture in developing countries. Urban agriculture (UA) is defined as an industry located within, or on the fringe of a town, a city or a metropolis, which grows and raises, processes and distributes a diversity of food and non-food products, re (using) largely human and material resources, products and services found in and around that urban area, and in turn supplying human and materials resources, products and services largely to that urban area [5]. The promotion of urban and peri-urban agriculture amid the less-wealthy families, in order to provide food and medicinal plants to the households and to reduce their expenses, meaning, intended to improve both the diet and the access to medicine, is now a priority for the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [6]. However, UA is just one of the strategies that can be used to ameliorate the urban environment. The advantage of this oxymoron is that it improves the food security and the health of the urban gardeners and peri-urban farmers and diminishes the carbon footprint [7]. Urban sustainability is the focus of a wide array of studies that use a couple of different approaches: 1. the eco-centric interpretation envisions the city as a living organism and aims to reach a status of equilibrium. That’s the case with the urban resilience studies; they seek the self-reliance of the citizens (the human capital) and the fortitude of the built-up areas (the physical capital) to environmental catastrophes, such as floods, droughts, earthquakes [8, 9]. Again, solutions advised include the increase of the ecological capital (parks, gardens, UA); 2. the anthropocentric view of the city, on the contrary, sees the human capital first and foremost (the urban residents), and seeks to promote communal and cooperative work within the neighbourhoods towards a more liveable urban environment, demand-based, democratic, participative, capable to deal with long-term urban problems. UA is one of the strategies adopted [4]. Whichever approach one chooses, reality increasingly imposes solutions for the problems encountered in the urban settings. Such constrictions are diverse as not only natural catastrophes provoke environmental constrains, but also growing phenomena such as civil unrest, wars and financial crises affect the citizens and require urgent answers. Present research looks for answers to two of the three basic human needs: food, health and shelter. The research hypothesis is that gardening contributes to generate environmentally sustainable agglomerations, and provides income and health for the poor, meaning, UA promotes the socio-economic


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1710 The Sustainable City IX, Vol. 2

sustainability of cities. Urban gardens are spaces able to regulate water cycles and to produce oxygen. When they offer medicinal plant species they become landscapes of health.

2 Kochi, the port city of spices

The first Portuguese maritime journey to Kerala State, then known as Malabar Coast or simply the Coast of Spices, was achieved in the late fifteenth century (1498), by Captain Vasco da Gama. Gama soon realised that Calicut was not the best alliance for his king to successfully maintain the spice trade. From the beginning of the sixteenth century Cochin or Kochi, (in local Malayalam language), became the main trading post with Lisbon. That explains why the manuscripts and letters of Pires, written to the King D. Manuel of Portugal were usually sent from this Indian Ocean port city. Following Tomé Pires lists of spices, fruits and medicinal herbs [10, 11], current research aimed to investigate the uses of the same botanical species at the present time. Table 1 further includes the uses of those plants reported in other 16th century manuscripts, authored by Duarte Barbosa [12] and Garcia d’Orta [13]. I must add that the list of medicinal species, spices and fruits mentioned in Barbosa and, in particular, in the manuscript authored by the herbal medicine expert Orta, were more extensive. The botanical species considered vital to the maritime trade with Europe totalled ninety (90). Pires listed 40 in his writings. India is still a rural country, in our days, expected to become 50% urban by about 2040 [14]. Kochi has 601,574 inhabitants and is ranked the second urban agglomerate of the state of Kerala, after the capital city (Thiruvananthapuram). Calicut (Kozhikode) is next, including 432,097 residents, in 2011 [15]. Kochi has a tropical climate with two differentiated seasons, the monsoon (March to June) and the dry season (from July to February). Average temperatures vary from 30 to 25 degrees centigrade.

3 Methods

Standard surveys included a range of questions related to the growth, collection, trade or application of medicinal herbs, roots, leaves, stems, barks or even whole plant species for a wide array of therapeutic applications [16]. Previous research has demonstrated that health decisions often involved the extended family, as well as ancient cultural practises and religious beliefs [16–18]. The surveys were designed using a qualitative approach common in social sciences [19], using the same questionnaire for each focus group. The questions constituted the basis for in-depth interviews ranging from 15 minutes to several hours. The questionnaires were applied to three focus groups: 1. The urban agriculture practitioners who grew medicinal plant species (40). These semi-structured interviews included questions about fruit culture, spices and staple foods grown and consumed by the household; 2. The second group consisted of leaf, seed, root, bark, spices and medicinal herb traders (8);


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3. The last one included one Ayurvedic medicine doctor and one practitioner. The survey totalled fifty interviews (50). Additional data was gathered in spice farms from the rural realm, making possible the botanical identification of species mentioned in the manuscripts of the sixteenth century; additional information also permitted to identify and photograph some medicinal plants, exotic or native, which use and trade was not reported in the archives.

4 Results and discussion

The failure of the Copenhagen Climate Change Agreement to limit global warming to no more than 2º centigrade [20] generated wide criticism worldwide. That’s because there is increasing awareness of the recurrence of floods, hurricanes, cyclones, and tsunamis. However, it is also acknowledged that the lack of political will to reach an agreement was due to the Second Great Depression, and the subsequent austerity measures imposed to several collapsed economies [21]. That doesn’t avert popular questioning about the solutions needed to cope with problems posed by inadequate urban morphology and the vulnerability of the low height above sea level cities [22, 23]. In the USA, Hurricane Katrina (2005) was not catastrophic enough to change the American way of life [22, 24], in spite of the attribution of the Nobel Prize to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and to Al Gore, former USA vice-president. The acceleration of natural catastrophes, in particular the recent occurrence of weather extremes, such as heat waves (summer of 2013) and the frosty polar vortex (January 2014), also proved incapable of changing reliance on cars and excess energy consumption [25]. Moreover, all natural disasters have so far left North-American governments (both the USA and Canada), but also some emerging countries rulers unmoved. That’s not the case with the scientific community, in general. Garden and landscape researchers are addressing the subject of food and the city, and discussing the idea of implementing small vegetable gardens as integral part of self-sufficient landscapes [26]. This issue is not new to geographers and urban planners. The cities feeding people movement was initiated as far back as 1983, under the Canadian International Development Research Centre (IDRC) funding [7, 27]. In recent years, health concerns related to overweight and obesity in children gave way to farm to family programs that facilitate the access to affordable produce among low-income families, in the USA [28]. The local food movement is also cherished in Asian countries, namely South Korea and Taiwan [29]. In fact, consumer concerns about chemical fertilisers, pesticides and fungicides have led to a greater demand for safer organically produced vegetables, worldwide [30]. These programmes do not always use on-site production or intra-urban cultivation, but also fringe urban food growth, mostly organic, and promote easier delivery logistics that favour the access to fresh produce. This way, shorter transportation times and decreasing fuel consumption (and cost) considerably diminish the carbon footprint.


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Table 1: Medicinal species cited in manuscripts of the sixteenth century.

Common name

Botanical name 1 2

3 4 Uses according to 16th century authors

1.Aloe Aloe soccotrina DC.*, XANTHORRHOEACEAE

v v v Purgative, urinary infections, diuretic.

2.Areca Areca triandra Roxb. ex Buch.-Ham.*

ARECACEAE

v

v

v

Halitosis, digestive

3.Asafoetida Ferula assa-foetida L.* APIACEAE

v v Stimulant, tonic.

4.Betel leaf or vine Piper betle L. PIPERACEAE

v v Halitosis, digestive, toothaches, narcotic.

5.Betel-nut Areca catechu L. ARECACEAE

v

v

Narcotic, halitosis

6.Camel Hay or grass Cymbopogon Shoenanthus (L.) Spreng* POACEAE

v

v

Perfume

7.Camphor

Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl.

LAURACEAE

v

v

Antiburns

8.Castor-bean Ricinus communis L. EUPHORBIACEAE

v Purgative

9.Chebulic myrobalan Terminalia chebula Retz* COMBRETACEAE

v v v Purgative, used to dye tissues.

10.Chinese rhubarb Rheum officinale Baill.* POLYGONACEAE

v v Purgative

11.Cinnamon

Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume

LAURACEAE

v v v Sedative, analgesic, digestive, halitosis,

antidisenteric 12.Clove

Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry

MYRTACEAE

v v Spice, analgesic, halitosis

13.Coconut Cocos nucifera L.

ARECACEAE v v v Skin problems, the

water is digestive. 14.Coral swirl

Holarrhena antidysenterica

(L.) Wall. ex A. DC*. APOCYNACEAE

v

v

Antidisenteric, anti-worms, digestive

15.Cubeb Piper cubeba L. f.* PIPERACEAE

v v Infertility

16.Escamonea

Convolvulus ammonea L* CONVOLVULACEAE

v Purgative

17.Ginger

Zingiber officinalis L. ZINGIBERACEAE

v v v Spice, in salads

18.Grapes Vitis vinifera L. VITACEAE

v Raisins were consumed

19.Incense Boswellia sacra Flueck.* BURSERACEAE

v

v

Perfume, analgesic, anti-worms, anti-

diarrhoea 20.Indian Laburnum or Purging Cassia

Cassia fistula L.* FABACEAE

v v v Purgative, scabies, antipyretic

*Plant species uncommon nowadays. Sources: 1–2. [10, 11], 3. [12], 4. [13].


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Table 1: Continued.

Common name

Botanical name 1 2

3 4 Uses according to 16th century authors

21.Lesser Galangal

Alpinia officinarum Hance ZINGIBERACEAE

v v Digestive, halitosis, favoured labour in pregnant women

22.Liquidambar Liquidambar orientalis Mill.* ALTINGIACEAE

v Balm

23.Mace Myristica fragrans Houtt. MYRISTICACEAE

v v Antidisenteric, balm

24.Myrrh Commiphora myrrha (T. Nees) Engl.

BURSERACEAE

v v Perfume.

25.Nard

Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC.*

CAPRIFOLIACEAE

v

v

Biblical perfume

23.Nutmeg Myristica fragrans Houtt.

MYRISTICACEAE v v Spice, halitosis

26.Pepper

Piper nigrum L. PIPERACEAE

v

v v Spices, anti-fever

27.Poppy Papaver somniferum L. var. nigrum DC., var. album Boiss.

PAPAVERACEAE

v v Sedative, narcotic

28.Rose Rosa spp. ROSACEAE

v v Sedative, purgative

29.Sandalwood Santalum album L.* SANTALACEAE

v v Skin troubles, balm, perfume

30.Sesame Sesamum indicum L. PEDALIACEAE

v Oil used to cook

31.Siam benzoin Styrax benzoides Craib* STYRACACEAE

v v Spice and balm

32.Sweet Flag or Calamus

Acorus calamus L. ACORACEAE

v Sedative, halitosis, digestive

33.Tamarind Tamarindus indica L. FABACEAE

v v Digestive, smallpox, purgative

34.Turbit Curcuma spp. ZINGIBERACEAE

v v Purgative

35.Zedoary Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe*

ZINGIBERACEAE

v

v

v

Anti-poison

*Plant species uncommon nowadays. Sources: 1–2. [10, 11], 3. [12], 4. [13].

Another concern that feeds UA movements is evident in India. The quality of health practitioners is sometimes questionable, as a report from New Delhi reveals in the case of tuberculosis, which leads to patient withdrawal from formal conventional medicinal programmes [1]. In Kerala state, the practice of Ayurvedic medicine is state sponsored and widely recognised as efficient, and thus interviewed consumers, mostly urban gardeners, rely on its therapeutics for communicable as incommunicable diseases. This research found that traditional healing practices are still essential for the less wealthy communities living in the city of Kochi; there are also a growing number of natural medicine and plant therapy believers from higher cultural and socio-economic strata that add to the study.


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Evidence from Kerala state informs us that by 2010, India was predicted to account for 60% of the global burden of heart disease [31]. That’s because the economic growth experienced and the increasing rural-urban migration changed some old food habits into consumption of industrialised foods, such as refined sugar, and increased the ingestion of fat. Current research found that 11.4% of the medicinal plant species grown in front and backyards, and sought after in the herb trade, were meant to help the families cope with heart diseases, such as hypertension and high cholesterol but also with diabetes. These were: aloe, betel-nut, cassie, cow’s hoof, cinnamon, curry, passion fruit, neem or pride-of-India, tulasi and the vinca. Table 2 lists the top ranking food and health crops examined in the urban gardens of Kochi. These plant species and their uses were first presented in the second half of 2013 to the Urban Geography Commission Conference of the International Geographical Union that took place in South Africa. Conducted by the IICT in the Coast of Spices, during the first half of the year, the survey totalled eighty-eight plant species. The fruit trees, spices, tubers and medicinal herbs consumed today do not outnumber the plant species mentioned in the sixteenth century manuscripts (90). Some of the old purchases are uncommonly used in the 21st century Kochi, as is signalled in Table 1. Krishna tulasi is the top ranking occurrence in the gardens (30), because this Indian species is sacred for Hindus (see the pot in Fig. 1). One of its many recommendations is to chew the leaf, together with curry leaves, in order to control diabetes. The tree of curry is also native to India and was found in eleven gardens (Fig. 2). Unlike tulasi, curry is traded in the markets and purchased in supermarkets, because it is a widely used spice. Another use of this leaf is to chew it fresh against high cholesterol. To cure respiratory ailments, the most consumed species is black pepper, already used for similar purposes in the sixteenth century [13]. Pepper is grown in six front and backyards; the informants inhaled the leaf so that they could breathe better (Fig. 3). In grain the fruit is used as antipyretic. Another leaf squeezed and ingested against fever was the khurunthotti (Sida acuta Burm. f.), a Malvaceae. Panikoorka or Indian borage is also a good prescription against cough and flu, respectively ingested together with tulsi and with ginger, mixed in a cup of coffee. Thumba (Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link), a Lamiaceae, is a good anti cough and analgesic, applied to the members in frictions in case of ant bites, sometimes combined with Ocimum basilicum. Kochi gardens displayed a wide array of antiseptic plant species, mostly native. Turmeric has been used against skin affections from ancient times, and was named Zerumba in the 16th century manuscripts. It is also a strong insecticide that gardeners use to eradicate ants. Previous research from Easter Island informed us that the rhizome of this species was used to tattoo the body in Polynesia [16]. As to eye troubles, the survey gives the indication that crape jasmine flower (Fig. 4) is the traditional treatment, simply squeezed in the eyes. Called Nandiyar vatta in Malayalam, it is a strong antiseptic species.


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Table 2: Top-ranking plant species consumed in Kochi.

Common name (in Malayalam)

Botanical name Nº Medicinal uses

1.Sacred Holy Basil Tulasi, Krishna Tulasi, Tulsi

Ocimum sanctum L. LAMIACEAE

30

Analgesic, anti-diarrhoeal, anti-diabetes, anti-cough, anti-pyretic,

aphrodisiac

2.Banana, Plantain Payam

Musa paradisiaca L. MUSACEAE

19

Diuretic, aphrodisiac and nutraceutical

3.Mango

Mangifera indica L. ANACARDIACEAE

16

Fruit eaten regularly

4.Curry Tree Kariveppela

Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. RUTACEAE

14

Used as spice. Anti-cough, anti-cholesterol.

4.Chilli Capsicum annuum L. SOLANACEAE

14 Used as spice and medicine.

5.Papaya Carica papaya L. CARICACEAE

12 Nutraceutical and anticancer

6.Neem Vepu maram

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. MELIACEAE

11 Wound healing, anti-worms, anti-lice, anti-flu, anti-halitosis, anti-

diabetes 6.Coconut Palm, Thengu

Cocos nucifera L. ARECACEAE

11 Wound healing and anti-herpes. Ayurvedic

medicine. 7.Black Pepper

Piper nigrum L. PIPERACEAE

10 Spice, anti-pyretic

7.Crape Jasmine Nandiyar vatta, Nandiarvattom

Tabernaemontana divaricata (L.) R. Br. ex Roem. & Schult.

APOCYNACEAE

10 Anti-conjunctivitis and skin healer

7.Indian Borage Panikoorka

Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng.

LAMIACEAE

10 Analgesic, anti-pyretic, anti-flu, anti-cough

8.Ginger Zingiber officinale Roscoe ZINGIBERACEAE

9 Spice, weight loss

8.Indian turmeric Curcuma longa L. ZINGIBERACEAE

9 Skin affections, antiseptic, also used as

insecticide in the gardens 8.Aloe Kattarvazha

Aloe vera (L.) Burm f. XANTHORROHOEACEAE

9 Skin problems, cuts, hair beautification (ext.),

preventive for several diseases (int.)

9.Jack tree Plavu

Artocarpus integer Merr, A. heterophyllus Lam.

MORACEAE

8 Anti-diarrhea

10.Garlic Allium sativum L. AMARYLLIDACEAE

7 Spice, biological insecticide and

fungicide, used in gardens together with

neem. 10.Coriander Coriandrum sativum L.

APIACEAE 7 Anti-cough, anti-fever,

spice Source: survey (2013).


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Figure 1: Krishna tulasi. Figure 2: Curry tree..

Figure 3: Pepper plant. Figure 4: Nandiyar vatta flower.

As to the fruit trees, they constitute the second occurrence in the gardens (27.9%), following the medicinal plants (37.6%). Spices rank third (26.5%) and vegetables and staple foods are the last occurrence (see Table 3). It is not easy to typify the plant species grown and sought after in Kochi: Bananas are considered medicinal from ancient times [13], the papaya leaf is ingested as anticancer, the jack fruit is eaten against diarrhea, and the coconut oil is an Ayurvedic medicine, used for wound healing purposes and to cure herpes simplex. On the contrary, the native mango tree is only cultivated in the front and backyards for its fruit. Surprisingly in Belen, the mango city of Brazil, the bark of Mangifera indica is used to cure cancer [2, 3, 16]. The option for natural insecticides (garlic, neem, thumba) in the gardens of health of the Indian city of Kochi goes with the rejection of chemical fertilisers. In fact, just one gardener (a Christian) used synthesized fertilisation. Hinduism preaches that natural food growth is healthier both for the soul and the body. The


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norm is mandatory for plants used for therapeutic purposes. And in fact, that norm is followed by most Christians, either. About 25% of the households didn’t fertilise their gardens. Over one third applied cow manure as is the practise in the rural areas. Self-consumption was the destiny of the fresh produce, the fruits as the medicinal plants. Krishna tulasi is used for prayer in Hinduism and therefore it is not only its therapeutic value that explains the preference for its growth in Kochi gardens.

Table 3: Types of species consumed in Kochi.

Classes Occurrences per species % Fruit culture 101 27.9 Medicinal plants 136 37.6 Spices 96 26.5 Vegetables and staples 29 8.0

Source: survey (2013).

5 Conclusions

The search for urban sustainability is the objective of most urban planning studies as much as the target of municipal governments, worldwide [32]. The visions of the ideal city vary greatly. Nevertheless, the main aim of developers and politicians is to build agglomerations that can resist physical and socio-economic vulnerabilities. Scientific research proves that post-disaster communities never return to their pre-disaster condition [33]. Therefore, successful recovery greatly depends on the ability to enhance actual social status and the capacity to improve the resilience of urban institutions and the maintenance of extended family networks. Kochi case-study proves that the existence of food and health gardens for self-consumption is adequate to cope with dietary and disease problems in India. Furthermore, Kochi is a low height port city with flooding risks. Consequently, urban agriculture practise supplies spaces of infiltration that add to the parks and public gardens. Fruit and spice trees, medicinal herbs and bushes, and other native plant species gardened in Kochi preserve genetic biodiversity and produce oxygen that improves air quality in Kerala. Sustainable cities are those that overcome the human-nature divide [32]. Religious beliefs dominant amid the interviewed gardeners widely respect nature, natural foods and therapeutic plants. These are unarguably landscapes of health.

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