landscape of laundry in late 5th c rome

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1/28

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The Landscape of Laundry in Late Cinquecento RomeAuthor(s): KATHERINE W. RINNESource: Studies in the Decorative Arts, Vol. 9, No. 1 (FALL-WINTER 2001-2002), pp. 34-60Published by: on behalf of theUniversity of Chicago Press Bard Graduate CenterStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40662798Accessed: 31-12-2015 16:03 UTC

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2/28

KATHERINEW.

RINNE

The

Landscape

f

Laundry

n Late

Cinquecento

Rome

Althoughwater s a sinequa non for ll human ife, rchaeological,

historical,

nd

literary

ecords

oncerning

ts

management,articularly

regarding

omestic

ractices

uch s

cooking, ardening,

nd

aundry

re

scant.Since

women

ypically

erformed

hese

ssential

veryday

asks,

lack

of

knowledge

f

the activities

imits

nderstanding

f their

ives.

Waterwas needed

for ll such

chores

nd was

typically

ollected

t

fountains,

prings,

ells,

r streams.

nlike

most omestic

abor,

which

was conducted

nside

he

home,

aundering

as a

public

ctivity,

ften

performed

utside t

a fountain

r

along

riverbank.

nside hehome

woman

ad more

ommand

ver he

onditions nder

which

heworked

thanshe did outside,wherepiazzas, treets,nd streamswereusually

under ivil

upervision.

ence,

the

public

laces

wherewomen

ollected

water,

r did

their

aundry,

ad

the

potential

o become

flash

oints

or

physical

nd emotional

ensions

etween

women,

nd

the civil

author-

itieswho

sought

o control

ublic

ctivities.

n

investigation

f

these

interactions

rovides

nsight

ntohitherto

eglected spects

fwomen's

lives

n

late

cinquecento

ome.

Just

s

growing

nowledge

f

mperial

Roman

bathing ractices

eveals

much about

the social and cultural

institutions

hat

haped

he

public

ivesof ancient

Romans,

articularly

men,

n increased

wareness

f

practices

ssociated

with

washing

inens

andclothingn thecinquecento anreveal great eal about hedaily

lives of

women,

who

held the

primary

esponsibility

or

doing

the

laundry.

he official

hoice

of ocations

or

ublic

aundry

ctivities,

he

physical

haracter

f the

sites

within

he

topography

f

the

city

s a

whole,

nd

the

policies

developed

y

communities

nd

governments

o

oversee hose

ites

nd activities

ommunicate

uch

bout

he tatus

f

women

whoworked

t

these asks

nd

about heofficial

ttitudes

oward

the use

of

public

treets

nd

piazzas

or

omestic asks.

Control

nd

distribution

fwater

s crucial o the

mooth

unction-

ing

f

ny ity.

hus t

s

remarkable,

onsidering

he xtent

nd fame

f

Roman

queducts

nd

water

ystems,

hat

he record or

omestic

ater

use

n

ancient

Rome

s so slim.

As

Dora

Crouch,

ne

of he

few cholars

to tackle

he

subject

f

water

istribution,

oints

ut

n Water

Manage-

ment

n Ancient

reek

ities

1993),

very

ittle s

known bout

domestic

Katherine

W.

Rinne is

Associate

Fellow,

nstitute

or

Advanced

Technology

n the

Humanities,

niversity

f

Virginia.

34

Studies

n

the

ecorative

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001-2002

http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp


3/28

Laundry

n

Late

Cinquecento

ome 35

water se

in

the

Greek

world,

ven

for ites hat re

well

documented,

such as Athens nd

Morgantina,icily.

Paolo

Squatriti,

n

Water nd

Society

n

Early

Medieval

taly,

A.D.

400-1000

1998),

justifiably

om-

plains hat hedocumentationosupportn understandingfdomestic

water tilization

uring

he medieval

eriod

s

meager

t

best,

nd that

evidence or he

washing

f clothes

s

almostnonexistent. or is the

situationmuch

mproved

or heRenaissance.

nly

for he ate Renais-

sance nd

Baroque

eriods

s

enough

nown o allow ome nferenceso

be drawn bout

herole

that he

public

water

upply layed

n

the

daily

life of the

city, ncluding

aundry ractices.

he

documents onsist

primarily

f

payment

ecords

o the architects nd

sculptors

f the

various

aundry

ountains,

nd

papal

edicts

warning

f

the

punishments

awaiting

hosewho dared o wash

dirty

inens n the other ivic foun-

tains,

which

were

ntended o ornament he

public

treets

nd

piazzas,

such as the PiazzaNavona. From he ate sixteenth

hrough

he

nine-

teenth

enturies,

rints, rawings,

rescoes,

nd

finallyhotographsro-

vide a wealth f visualdetail bout the

physical ettings

f

the

public

fountains,

ncludingaundry

asins

nd the

people using

hem.1

Many

laundry

asins remained unctional ntil the end of the

nineteenth

century. lthough

here re

working

ineteenth-nd

early

wentieth-

centuryaundry

ountains till

operating

n

small towns

throughout

Italy,2

here re no

survivingxamples

n

Rome tself.

In Rome

during

heRenaissance nd

Baroque eriods,

he

provision

of

public aundry

acilities,

uperficially

mundane

oncern,

ristled ith

political

and social

implications.

ere a

landscape

for

aundry

was

purposely

reated n whichwomen onducted

seemingly rivate

o-

mestic

ctivity

the

washing

f

dirty

inens in the

public

realm.The

siting, hysical onfiguration,

nd

administration

f

hese acilities ad

a

serious

mpact

n the

ivesof the

people

who used them

housewives

and their

aughters

s well as

professional

aundresses,

ome of whom

wereformer

rostitutes.3

he

juxtaposition

f

virtuous nd

compro-

mised

women,

working

ide

by

ide,

reated n

unusual ocialtension n

the

public iazzas,

oth

mong

hewomen

hemselvesnd between

hem

and the

men who observed

hem.As a

result,

aundry

ctivities

were

strictlyegulated ybothpapalandcommunal olicy, ndwomenwere

harshlyunished

or

perating

utside he

stablished

hysical

nd social

parameters.

n

examination f three

ate

cinquecento

ublic

aundry

fountainss

reflectionsf church

nd

community

olicy

s

particularly

revealing.

The three new

public laundry

ites

in

questionopened

within

twenty-fiveears

f

one another nRome. n 1563

Pope

Pius

V

opened

the

Fontedi San

Giorgio,

laundry

n

the Velabro

district,

hich

was



4/28

36

Studies

n

the ecorarne

rts/F

ll-Winter001-2002

supplied

y

a

natural

pring

ear

the Tiber

River.The

second

aundry

fountain,

heLavatoiodella Piazzadel

Popolo,

was

upplied y

he

newly

restored

queduct,

he

Acqua Vergine. ponsored y

the civil

adminis-

tration,he Commune fRome,the fountain as built n 1581 to the

west of the Piazza del

Popolo.

The

third,

he Lavatoio

Felice,

was

completed

n 1588

by Pope

SixtusV and

was

supplied y

the

Acqua

Felice,

whichhe had

inaugurated

he

year

before.

he

aqueduct

nd

laundry

erenamed or he

papalpatron

FelixPeretti.

he

laundry

as

located n

top

of the

Quirinal

hill.

All

three

aundries ere

laced

n

peripheral

reas t the

edge

ofor

beyond

he

bitato,

he nhabited rea of he

city,

ather

hanwithin he

mainresidential

reas

convenient

o the

womenwho woulduse

them.

Whereas he

siting

f the first

ountain,

he Fontedi San

Giorgio,

was

determined

y

the ocation

of

the

existing pring,

he ocations f

the

other aundries

ere

not

similarly

estricted

y

water

ource.

he

Acqua

Vergine

ervedmost f the

ow-lying ampo

Marzio,

whilethe

Acqua

Felice

upplied

he

Quirinal,

squiline,

nd

Capitoline

ills s well s the

Suburra,

he outhernnd of

he

Campo

Marzio ot erved

y

he

Acqua

Vergine,

nd

the Velabro district.What were the

politics

nd urban

policies

motivating

hechoiceofthese ites?Were

they

iable ocations

for

ublic

aundries?

The

Water

Supply

n

Rome

In order o understandresh-wateristribution

olicy

n

cinquecento

Rome,

t is

important

o understand ho controlled he

water,

what t

wasused

for,

here he

majority

f

he

population

as

ocated

n relation

to the water

ources,

ow the waterwas

physically

oved round

he

city,

nd

finally,

ow muchwater

was available or

ublic onsumption.

As mentioned

arlier,

here

s an abundanceof literaturebout the

ancientRoman

and

Baroque aqueducts

nd

fountains,

nd

yet

ittle

knowledge

fwater istribution

or ither

eriod.

Additionally,

here s

little

understanding

f waterdistribution

or he

nearly

ne

thousand

years

hat

separate

hese

periods,

when freshwater esources

ere e-

verelyimited.

Roman ountains

ere amed

hroughoutntiquity

or heir

uantity

and

beauty

s well as the abundance

nd

salubrity

f theirwaters.

Between 12

B.C. and 226

A.D. eleven

queducts

were

built o serve

staggering

umber

f fountains.4

n

97

A.D,

Sextus

Julius

rontinus,

administrator

f the waterboard

under

Emperor

erva,

reported

30

public

fountains

n the

city.

The

Regionary

atalogue,

n

inventory

f

public

works

robably

ating

rom he time fConstant

ne,

isted

,352



5/28

Laundry

n Late

Cinquecento

ome

37

public

ountains-5

llowing

or

he

ikely xaggeration

f the

Regionary

numbers,

venhalf hat

igure

ouldbe

impressive.

ith the transferf

the

capital

of the Roman

Empire

o

Constantinople

n 330

A.D.,

however,he vast ums fmoney ecessaryomaintain henetwork f

aqueducts

nd fountains ere

no

longer

vailable.

Gradually

he

system

deteriorated

nd most fthe

public

ountainseased

to function.

n

537

A.D.,

the

majority

f the

aqueducts

were

abotaged y nvading

Goth

forces,

hus

utting

ff

water o both

public

nd

private

ountains

nd

almost

ompletely epriving

he

hills of Rome of theirwater

upply.

Although

everal

queducts

were restored

lmost

mmediately, any

people

moved

downto the ow-

ying ampus

Martius

later

alled the

Campo

Marzio)

to be close to

the

river,

r

they

bandoned

he

city

altogether.

hus the hills

were

nearly mptied

f

population.

For the next

millennium he Tiber River

was the

primary

ater

source or ndustrial

nd domestic eeds.There were few

xceptions.

Individuals,

amilies,

r

organizations

uch s monastic ommunities ith

some

wealth

might

wnor

drill newwellfor heir

rivate

se.

A

small

number f

natural

prings,

uch s the

Fons

Juturna

n theRoman

Forum,

continued o flow t eastuntil

heNorman ack of

1084,

whenmuch f

the

ity

was

reportedly

uried nder ive o tenmeters

f

rubble.6

n 1122

Pope

Callisto I diverted smallbrook

nown s the

Acqua

Marrana o

that t entered he

city

rom he

east,

hrough

he Porta

Metronia,

nd

then flowed

hrough

he

valley

of the Circus Maximus o the Tiber

River.7

lthough

ntended

o

provide

water or heanimals nd lands

owned

y

he hurch fSan

Giovanni n Laterano nd ocated

long

he

route,

he

Acqua

Marrana

was crossed

by public bridges

nd flowed

partially

hroughublic

and: tcould

onceivably

ave been accessed

y

the Roman

populace.Although

fewof the

aqueducts

were

restored

intermittently,nly

handful

f the hundreds f fountains

hey

nce

served

were

perable

etween

he ixth nd fifteenthenturies. statute

published

n

1452

by

he

Maestri

elle

Strade,

he ivil

dministration

n

charge

f the

maintenance f

public

treets,

entions heirmandate o

carefor he

public

ountains,

ut t

appears

hat

herewere

nly

few or

them o maintain

Fig.

I).8

Onlya fewpiazzashadworkingountains, herewomen ollected

fresh ater hat

hey

arried

ome for

rinking,

ooking, aundry,

nd

bathing.

he

Acqua Virgo,

n

aqueduct

uilt

y

Agrippa

n19

B.C.,

was

only

19.04

kilometersn

length

nd ran

entirely nderground

ntil t

reached he

city. onsequently

t was the easiest

queduct

o

maintain,

and in fact t was restored

eriodicallyuring

he medieval nd Renais-

sance

periods.

xtensive nd well-documented

estorations ere

pon-

sored

y

Pope

Hadrian in the

770s

and

by Pope

NicholasV

in

1453.9



6/28

38 Studiesn the ecorative

rts/F

ll-Winter001-2002

FIGURE

1

Public

fountainsocumented

n Rome

by

1570.

Katherine

W.

Rinne,

000.

At aboutthe same time hatNicholasrestoredhe

Acqua

Virgo,

hen

known s

the

Acqua Vergine,

e also built a new

public

fountain

t

Santa Maria Maddelenanear

the

Pantheon10nd commissionedeon

Battista lberti

o remodel he

Fontana

i Trevi.11 othfountainsrew

water

rom he

Acqua Vergine.

he

Acqua

Traiana,

which ntered he

city rom est f heTiberRiver,wasbuilt yTrajan n109 A.D. It was

restored

y

Hadrian

in the

eighth entury

nd later

y

Popes

Gregory

IV

(827-844)

and

Nicholas

(858-867)

in order o insure

continuous

supply

f water o mills n

the

Janiculum

ill,

to the

Vatican,

nd to

public

ountains

ocated nthePiazzadiSan Pietro.12he

Acqua

Traina

was

probably

ot

functioning

uring

he late Middle

Ages

and

early

Renaissance.

ather,

hehandful f

public

ountainsssociated

with he

Vatican

nd St. Peter'swere

probablyupplied

rom

earby prings.13

n



7/28

Laundry

n

Late

Cinquecento

ome 39

FIGURE

2

The

eighteen

ew fountains

roposed

or

Rome n

1570.

KatherineW.

Rinne,

2000.

front f

the

Church of

Santa Maria in

Trastevere,

herewas

also a

fountain,

erhaps upplied y

one of the numerous

prings

n the

east

slope

f he

Janiculum

ill14

This

fountain,

hich

ppears

n

a

1471

map

of

Rome

by

Pietro el

Massaio,15

as

restored

y

Nicolas V for he

1450

Holy

Year nd

againby

Pope

Alexander I

in

1500- f woman

id not

livenearone ofthese

ublic

ountains,

r

f

herewas no well

or cistern

waterwithinher livingcompound, he collectedTiberRiver water

herself,

r

bought

t from he

acquaeroli

water ellers)

who sold t from

barrels arried rom oorto dooron

donkeys.

The first

omprehensive

verhaul nd

amplification

f the

public

fountain

ystem

ince

antiquity

as

opposed

to the construction r

restorationf

single

ountain)

as

nitiated

y

Pope

PiusV in 1566 n

response

o a

typhoidpidemic,

hichkilled

housands f

people

n

the

densely opulated ampo

Marzio.16 ike

Nicholas,

he too

sponsored



8/28

40

Studies

n

the ecorative

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ll-Winter

001-2002

restorationfthe

Acqua Vergine,

ut

he

wentmuch urthero increase

water

istribution,

eveloping

series f new

public

fountains. n

July

31, 1567,

Pius established

he

Congregazione

ardinalizia

uper

viis

pontibus

fontibus,he Congregationfcardinalsncharge f treets,ridges,nd

fountains,

o oversee he

public

nd

private

istributionfwater.17 n

September

8, 1568,

he

named Giacomo

della

Porta,

who was

the

architector he

ity

fRome t the

time,

s thetechnical dvisor or he

restorationf he

Acqua Vergine

nd to

supervise

he

design, lacement,

and construction

f new fountains nd their onduits.18

n

1570

the

Congregazioneroposed plan

for

ighteen

ew

public

ountains,

ll of

whichwere ntended

or he

majorpiazzas

nd streets

f

the

Campo

Marzio

Fig.

2).19

The firstf thesenew fountains as

designed

n

1572

and

completed

n

1575

for he Piazza del

Popolo (Fig.

3).

It was soon

followedyothers n the PiazzaColonna,PiazzadelPantheon,nd the

PiazzaNavona.

By

1594

the

Acqua

Vergine

upplied

t least

thirty ublic

foun^

tains

from he Piazza del

Popolo

to

the Ponte Sant'

Angelo

and the

Campo

dei

Fiori.A second

aqueduct,

he

Acqua

Felice,

was commis-

sioned

yPope

SixtusV

and

completed

n

1587,

nd

by

1594

t

supplied

an additional

wenty-threeublic

fountains.

hese too were

widely

dispersed

from

he

piazza

n

front

f the Villa

Medici,

to the Moses

Fountain n the

top

of

the

Quirinal

hill,

to the

PiazzaMontanara ext

to theTeatro

Marcello.

y

1600

therewere t east

ixty ublic

ountains

within he wallsof Rome. Mostwere either malldrinkingountains

FIGURE

3

Giacomo

della

Porta,

ontana ella

Piazza

del

Popolo,

designed

572,

ompleted

1575.

FromGianbattista

alda,

Le

fontane

di Roma

Rome,

1675).

Photo:

Fiske

Kimball

ibrary,

niversity

f

Virginia.



9/28

Laundry

n Late

Cinquecento

ome

41

FIGURE

4

Documented

ublic

fountainsn use in

intramuralome

by

1600,

ncluding

animal

roughs,rinking,

nd

laundry

fountains,

ategorized y

primary

se.

Katherine

W.

Rinne,

2000.

attached o streetwalls of

palaces,

or

purely

ecorative ountains hat

were

usually laced

n

the center f

mportantiazzas

nd intended o

ornamenthe

city,

ut

animal

roughs

nd

laundry

ountains ere

built

at several ocations s

well.

Gradually

he focus of

water-gathering

activities

hifted

way

from he Tiber River into the

neighborhood

piazzasFig.4).

Laundry

ites n

Pre-Baroque

ome

As with

ther omestic ctivities etween hesixth nd sixteenth

centuries,

ittlereliabledocumentation as come to

light

oncerning

laundry.

What s known ndicates hat

herewere

physical

imits o the

availability

f

water,

nd

therewere

moral

roblems

aced

y

hewomen

who of

necessity

ereforced

o wash clothes

n

public.

According

o



10/28

42

Studies

n

the ecorative

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001-2002

Patricia

Waddy,

oble women

nd their ttendantsn the

early

even-

teenth

entury

ad

private

aundries,

hichwere

usually

uilt

n

palace

basements.20efore henmost

alaces

did not have

piped

water,

nd it

is unclearwhere these householdswashed theirclothes and linens.

Servants

might

ave used

wellwater r

gone

down

o

the

river.

erhaps

laundry

as

transported

o a

country

illa estate

with

piped

water,

nd

then eturnedo

the

urban

alace

n

wagons.21

or

ordinary

omen,

he

TiberRiverwas

probably

he

major ublic

wash

itebetween he

ack

of

537

A.D.

and the

ate

cinquecento

hennew

public

aundries ere uilt.

Women

knelt n flat tones t thewater's

dge

nd scrubbedhe

aundry

with maller

tones,

r

stood nd

stamped

n theclotheswith heir are

feet

Fig.

5).

For he

annual

wash,

whichwasthe

pringleaning,

hen

all winter lotheswere

washed,

auldrons

ere et

up,

and clotheswere

boiled nd soaked vernightna caustic odaor ashsolution,nd then

washed t the river's

dge.

Since wet

aundry

s

extremelyeavy,

here

was

probably

drying

rea on

the

nearby

ank.

FIGURE

5

Carleton

H.

Graves,

Wash-Day

n

taly,

photo

1900.

Courtesy ibrary

f

Congress.



11/28

Laundry

n

Late

Cinquecento

ome

43

Even n the bestof times he Tiber

was a miserable

lace

to work.

The riverbank

as

squalid.

Filth washed

ashore from

hipping

nd

riversidectivitiesuch s

slaughterhouses,

rick

actories,

at

gut

deal-

ers,mills, nd tanneries. efuse lowed nto the Tiber from he few

functioning

ewers. he same

1452

edict from he Maestri elle trade

concerning

hemaintenance

f

public

ountainslso

specified

hat efuse

from

ishmongers

nd

butchers,tc.,

be

dumped

irectly

ntothe Tiber

(as

opposed

o

public

treets

nd

piazzas),

hus

ssuring

ts

primacy

s the

chief ewer f

Rome.22 he Tiber was also notorious

or

requent

nd

devastating

loods

whichmusthave

destroyed

r rendered seless

ny

riverbank ash

ites.

n

winter

he riverwas swollenwith

rain,

nd in

summer,

hen hewaters

ere low nd

rank,

herewasconsiderableisk

of disease.

At the

relatively

leaner

Tiber ites t the north nd of the

city,

women

were often hreatened

y

nude

male batherswho swam

nearby,

or

xample

t the beach

adjacent

to the

Ospedale

di Santo

Spirito

n

the

Borgo.

rom t least

1599

on,

menwerefined

hundred

scudi

f

caught ompromising

hemorals f the married omen nd

maidens earthe riverine

aundry

ites.23 aced withmiasmic

hysical

conditions

nd

morally ompromised

ocial

settings,

t seems

pparent

that f more alubrious

arge

iteshad been

available,

Roman women

wouldhave

used them.

It

appears

hat

herewere t least wo

pre-cinquecentoaundry

ites

in addition o theTiberRiver.One was

along

he

banks

f

the

Marrana

Brook nside hePorta

Metronia,

here

ohn

apgrave

bserved

everal

nuns

doing

heir

aundry

n

1450.24

herewas

probably

nother

aundry

at the Trevi Fountain.

n

a

1414

fresco

map

of

Rome

by

Taddeo di

Bartolo,

ocated

n

the

PalazzoPubblico n

Siena,

the Trevi s

depicted

with hree

eparate

asins.

Considering

he

scarcity

f fresh

ater,

t is

possible

hat ach basin

may

have been ntended or different

urpose:

one for

human

consumption,

nother or

nimals,

nd the third

or

nonpotable

ses uch

s

laundry

r

eather

anning.

he

acqua

caduta,

r

run-offater rom he main

basin,

ould

easily

ave been

piped

nto n

animalbasin nd then

laundry

asin,

s was

done with ater

Baroque

fountains.25 hen Alberti

edesigned

he Trevi

Fountain n

1453,

he

substituted single argebasin.Giacomo della Portaredesignedhe

fountain,

robably

n

1563,26

nd

perhaps

dded

laundry

asin

ike he

one that

ppears

o the

north

f the fountainn the

city

plans

of

1575

(printed

n

1577)

by

Etienne

Du

Perac,

f

1593

by

Antonio

Tempesta,

andof 1625

by

Giovanni

Maggi.27

t s unclearwhether

his ountain as

a

laundry

asin

or a basin forfullers r

purgatane

o

process

wool,

or

perhaps

oth,

t

alternate imes f the

day

or week. n

1570

Pius V

provided

fountain or

fullers,

ut in 1585 SixtusV

placed

a

long



12/28

44

Studies

n

the ecorative

rts/F

ll-Winter

001-2002

laundry

asin to the

right

f the Trevi

...

for he

use

of

fullers,

yers,

nd

laundresses,

nd other cleaners

of stains, 28

LateCinquecento aundryites

In

the

ate

cinquecento

herewere everal ites

within he abitato

that were

arge nough

o accommodate

public

wash site.

They

hv

eluded he Piazza

Navona,

Piazza

Colonna,

Piazzadi San

Pietro,

nd the

Campo

dei Fiori.

or

religious

nd ceremonial easons he Piazzadi San

Pietro

was

clearly

ut of the

question,

nd the Navona and

Campo

locationswere

lready ssigned

o other

ignificant

ivicfunctions.

ince

1477,

the Piazza Navona was used

as a communal

market,

s was the

Campo

dei

Fiori,

whichwas also an

officialite for

public

executions.

Whilethese

oisy

nd malodorous

ctivities ere onducted

n

themidst

of he

bitato,

omen

whowere

erforming

hemost

mundane askswere

shunted o

the

periphery

nd not allowed

qual

access to these entral

piazzas,

which ll contained

ublic

fountains

y

1594-

One such

aundry

ite utside he

urban enterwasthe

Fonte

di San

Giorgio

t thefoot f

hePalatine

ill

near

heTiberRiver. he

district,

known s the

Velabro,

was

richwithhistoric nd

mythic ignificance.

Structures

n the

adjacent

rea included everal

ncient

buildings,

n-

cluding

he

Temple

of Hercules

also

called the

Temple

of

Vesta),

the

Temple

of

Portunus

also

known s the

Temple

of

Fortuna

irilis),

he

Pons Sublicius

a

bridge

verthe

Tiber),

and the

Janus

uadrifrons

a

triumphal

rch,

lso known s the

Tempio

di

Giano).

In

fact,

t was

nearby

hat

he nfants omulus

nd Remus

purportedly

riftedshore

during

Tiber lood.

ndeed,

heVelabro

istrict,

nly lightly

bove the

level

of he

river,

as

frequently

looded.

he

site,

ust

t the

edge

of he

abitato,

was fed

by

a natural

pring,29

hich

provided

n

abundant,

reliable

upply

f

water,

nd had

probably

een used

s a wash itebefore

thenewbasin

wasbuilt.

A

drawing y

Maarten

an Heemskerckf bout

1535

depicts

n

earlier,

nformal

ash site near the

ruins f the

Janus

Quadrifrons.30

woman

s shown

arrying

bundle

f

aundry

n her

head,

and some clean

linens have

been set out on

the hillside nd

weighted ith tones s they ry.Althoughheneighborhoodmmedi-

ately

o

thenorthwest

as

densely opulated,

here

were

ery

ew ouses

immediately

round

he

laundry

ite itself.

he titular hurches

an

Giorgio

n

Velabro,

ant'

Anastasias,

nd Santa

Maria n Cosmedin

were

nearby.

In

order

o increase

ccess to

fresh ater n the

city, ope

Pius V

improved

onditions

round

hisnatural

pring

nd built henew

public

fountain,

hich

ncluded

laundry,

n 1563.

n a

1575

city lan printed



13/28

Laundry

n Late

Cinquecento

ome

45

in

1577),

EtienneDu Perac

depicted

he

aundry,

hichwas reached

y

a

ramp

nd ocated

n an excavated rea that eems o have been about

two meters elow

ground

evel.31The

print

hows thirteenwomen

engagedn thevarious ctivities fwashinglothes,nd the ite ppears

large nough

o

have accommodatedt least twicethat number. he

ground

utside

nd abovethework reawas usedfor

rying

lothes. he

U-shaped

asin,

pparently

bout meter

igh,32

as

ong

and

narrow,

and

women

are shown

working

n a line on both sides. An

early

seventeenth-century

ersion

y

Marcus adelerof a detailfrom he Du

Perac

print

llustrateshe character f

the ite

nd

shows he

aundry

n

the

foregroundFig.

6).

Simple

s these

rrangements

ere,

hey

ffered

real menitiesnd

nnovations. omenworked

tanding p,

which s far

less

physically

emanding

han

working

n hands nd kneeson a

hard

stone urface.

The

location,

robablynly

eleven meters bove sea level at the

bottom f

the

ramp,

was

clearly

ulnerable o

frequent looding y

the

TiberRiver.The river lowed t

an

average

height

f six

and one-half

metersbove ea

evel,

nd tcouldrise hree o fivemeters

uring

evere

wintertorms. n

average,

ome

ufferedminor

lood

bout nce

every

ten

years

nd a

major

lood

greater

han ixteenmeters bove sea

level)

once

every orty-oneears.33

or

example,

n

September

5,

1557,

the

area was under

s much s six meters f

water,

nd on

December

4,

1598,

the

year

f the most

devastating

lood ecordedn

Rome,

t

was

FIGURE 6

,

Marcus

Sadeler,

Vestigi

el

Tempio

di Giano

in

Roma,

rague,

606.

Engraving,

2 x 19

cm. Version^f

detailof

plan

of

Rome

by

Etienne

Du

Perac,

1575

printed

577).

Private

ollection.



14/28

46

Studies

n

the ecorative

rts/F

ll-Winter001-2002

under

nearly

evenmeters f water.

urthermore,

t was ocated lmost

directly

ver

he

Cloaca

Massima,

he

ancient hannel hatdrained he

RomanForum

nd the

Esquiline

Hill,

and

served s the

major

ewer or

thispart f thecity.Whenever he Tiberrose ven a fewmeters bove

itsnormal

evel,

iverwater

ouldback

up

nto heCloaca and

flood he

laundry

rea.34t is not

surprising,

hen,

hat s

early

s

1567

Sebastiano

Varo described he

laundry

s filled

with

dirt,

o thatthe earth rom

above now overfillshe

aundry

asins. 35

n

addition

o these

physical

deficiencies,

here

were ther rawbacksswell.

A

large

opulation

f

poorprostitutes

ived

n

the

mmediatereaof

the

Fontedi San

Giorgio,36

ear

hechurch f heir

atron

anta

Maria

Egiziaca,

which

occupied

he

ancient

Temple

of Portunus

lose to the

laundry.37

n the sixteenth

entury,

he

profession

f laundresswas

considereduitable

or ormer

rostitutes.38

he

proximity

f

practicing

prostitutes

iving

nearby,

nd

ex-prostitutes

orking

s laundresses

ay

have tainted

he

laundry

rea

for the virtuous

women who worked

alongside

hem.

Ordinary

ousewivesnd

girls oing

he

family

aundry

became

articularly

ulnerable

o harassment.

o wash lothes

n

public,

with

rolled-up

leeves,

hitched-up

kirts,

nd wet

bodices,

may

have

suggested

he same

level of sexual

availability

hat

lingered

round

former

rostitutes.

n

July

566

Pope

Pius V moved hese

prostitutes

o

another

hetto

known s the

Ortaccio,

n area between

he Piazza

Lombarda

now

the

Piazza

Cinque

Lune),

the Piazza

Condopula

now

the Piazza

Monte

d'Oro),

and the Porto i

Ripetta,

ear

he Mausoleum

of

Augustus.39

ven afterhe

prostitutes

ere

emoved,

owever,

omen

were till

t risk.

n

1567

SebastianoVaro

noted

many

nsolent,

m-

proper,

nd

presumptuous

ouths

who molested

he womenwithdis-

honest

words,

igns,

nd acts without

ny

regard

o

public

honor r the

privacy

f the

womenwho

gather

here,

ncludingmany

maidens

nd

married

omen. 40With

constant

looding

nd

continual

arassment,

the

situationmust

have been

almost

s intolerable s

working

t

the

Tiber

River.

The Fonte

di San

Giorgio,

hown s abandoned

n the 1625

city

plan by

Giovanni

Maggi,

eems

to have

been restored

nd

possibly

enlargedn 1637when n ironfactory as builtnextdoor.41 oth the

1637

restoration

nd

a later

ne followed

n the

aftermathf

floods,

ne

on

February

2,

1637,

nd another

n November

,

1660.42

he sitewas

described

gain

n 1662

as

being

dry

nd

full f dirt nd covered

with

plants. 43

n

1663,

however,

,744

cubic

meters f earth

wereremoved

from he

Piazza

del Pantheon

nd

then

deposited

lose

to the San

Giorgio

aundry

ountain.

he site

appeared

n a

pair

of before

nd

after

lans

that

ndicate

n intention

o

restore he

aundry

ollowing



15/28

Laundry

n

Late

Cinquecento

ome

47

the transferf earth.44

he fountain

may

have continued

n

use,

al-

though erhaps

poradically,

ntil at least

1756

when

it,

or another

nearby

aundry

f the same

name,

was isted

n a

city

ide

nventory

f

fountains.45

The second

aundry,

he Lavatoio di

Piazza del

Popolo,

was com-

pleted

n

1584-

According

o Alberto

Cassio,

writing

n

1756,

it was

intended

pecifically

for he use of

poor

womenwho did not have a

place

to wash

inens. 46 his

laundry

as located

adjacent

to a

small

growing

eighborhood

t the

edge

of the abitato

placed

within he

contextof

habitation,

ot

desolation,

s seen at the Velabro. The

laundry

itewas

a small

rectangular

rea

ust

off he Piazzadel

Popolo,

withhouses o the

south nd west

nd a walled

garden

o the

north;

ts

boundary

as

not an excavated

arthen

wall,

but houses

and

shops.

Interestingly,

t was

donated

by

the Commune

tself,

ather han the

pope.47

he

laundry ppears

n the 1593

Tempesta

ity

plan

and was

named s a distinct eaturefthe

1625

Maggiplan Fig.

7),

demonstrat-

ing

ts

cknowledgedmportance

o the

city. y

the

eighteenthentury,

it

provided

he

name for he

adjacent

treet,

ia delle Lavandare.48

fresco

ommissioned

y Pope

SixtusV for he Biblioteca

Vaticana,

nd

painted

y

Cesare

Nebbia

n

1589

to

commemorate

he erection f the

obelisk

n the Piazzadel

Popolo,49 rovides

rare

mage

f

the

aundry

fountain

n the

foreground.

he

fresco hows some of the

physical

context f he

aundry

asin,

et t the

dge

of

hePiazzadel

Popolo

with

a

smaller

nimal

trough,

nd the

ornamental ountain

esignedby

Giacomo

della Porta

nearby.

he run-off aterfrom he della Porta

fountain

upplied

oth the animal

trough

nd the

laundry

ountain.

People,

nimals,

nd

carts re shown

rossing

his

busy iazza.Although

Nebbia also

indicates hat the

area

immediately

o the south of the

fountain

as

usedfor

aying

ut clothes o

dry,

his eems

nlikely

ince

a 1551

city lan by

Leonardo

Bufalini

lready

hows he area as some-

whatbuilt

up.

The site

or

his

ublic

aundry

n thePiazzadel

Popolo

wasnot

only

physically

ifferentrom heearlier ne

in the

Velabro

but

lso different

in terms f the social

dynamics

f the

people

who

used it.

Although

professionalaundresses,erhaps x-prostitutes,ayhave used thisfa-

cility,

he absence f a

ghetto

f

prostitutes

n the mmediate

eighbor-

hood

probably

iscouraged

insolent

ouths

nd the ikefrom

aunting

the

women nd

girls

whoworked here.

lthough

hefountain as close

to a

major itygate,

the Portadel

Popolo,

therewas

nonetheless n

opportunity

orwomen o create

public

pace

for hemselvesnder he

watchful

yes

f

grandmothers

nd other

eighbors.50

ittle ewd

behav-

ior from utsiders ouldhave been tolerated nd womenwere afeto



16/28

48

Studies

n

the

ecorative

rts/F

ll-Winter001-2002

FIGURE

7

Detail of

plan

of

Rome

by

Giovanni

Maggi,

625. From

Maggi, conografia

ella

citt i Roma

Rome,1625).

The

laundry

f

the Piazzadel

Popolo

s seen at

bottom

center. hoto:

Library

f

Congress.

socialize,

ssentially

n a

communal

iving

oom

watched ver

byneigh'

bors,

s

they

erformed

omestic hores. he Nebbiafresco

learly

hows

a child

playing

with

dog

while he womenwork:

uch

Staffage

ould

have underlined

ne

of

the ocialbenefitsf

papal

and

civic

building

o

the Roman

poor.

The third

aundry omplex,

heLavatoio

Felice,

was

sponsored y

and named or opeSixtusV in 1588.Located toptheQuirinal ill, ar

away

from he abitato nd in a

relatively

ninhabited

art

of

Rome,

t

used water

providedby

the

renovated

queduct,

he

Acqua

Felice.

Hulking

remains f the Baths of

Diocletian,

recently

emodeled

y

Michelangelo

nto the Church of Santa Maria

degli Angeli,

stood

nearby.

here were other

churches

s well as

convents,

illas,

and

gardens

n

the

vicinity,

ut

only

few

mallhouses nd not muchof a

neighborhoodFig.

8).51

n

1590 Domenico

Fontana,52

hearchitect or



17/28

Laundry

n

Late

Cinquecento

ome

49

FIGURE

8

Detail of

plan

of

Rome

by Maggi,

625.

From

Maggi,

Iconografia

ella cittdi

Roma.

The

Lavatoio

Felice

s shown

directly

above the A

in

Acqua

Felice. Photo:

Library

f

Congress.

the Felice

aundry,

haracterized

he

facility

s an enclosure 90

palmi

long53

nd 251

palmi

wide,

with wo

ong

narrow asins nd a covered

area

for

rying

lotheswhen t rained.An

inscription

ver

he

doorway

stated hat

ixtusbuilt he

facility

or he use

of

poor

women.54

The

Acqua

Felice nd theFelice

aundry

hould e understoods an

integral art

f

Sixtus's

rogram

o achievewhat

Ludwig

on

Pastor alls

the establishment

f moral

discipline

n the Eternal

City. 55 major

focus f the

CounterReformat

on

agenda

carried ut

during

ixtus's

pontificate,hisprogram as reflectedhysically hrough he pope's

many uilding rojects

nd their

lacement

nd

symbolically

hrough

their

ttributes.

ixtus elocated

gyptian

belisks,

lacing

hem n front

of

pilgrimage

hurches. e removed

agan

tatues rom he columns f

MarcusAurelius nd

Trajan

and crowned ach

with n

apostlefigure.

Although

iusV had restoredhe

Acqua Vergine

n order o

bring

resh

water o the

Campo

Marzio,

hat rea was stillrifewith

disease.

ixtus

was more uccessful. e

brought

he

Acqua

Felice to the

top

of the



18/28

50 Studies

n

the ecorative

rts/Fall-Winter

001-2002

Quirinal

ill

and decorated

t with hemonumentalontana i Mose

in

the form f a

triumphal

rch,

nd thus

ymbolically

sserted ominion

over he

pestilentialampo

Marzio.

HereMoses s seen

triking

he

rock,

symbolicallyringingife-givingater o Rome ustas he broughtt to

the Sinai desert.

The

Felice

aqueduct,

ountain,

nd

laundry

were

part

of

a

papal

urban

evelopment

cheme,

roposed

nd

partiallymplemented

n

order

to facilitate

ilgrimage

ravel

hroughout

he

city.

They

werealso in-

tended to

help

create

and

support

working eighborhood

n

the

Quirinal

rea.56 ixtus onsideredhe

aundry

o

important

hat

he had

a

frescoed

mage

f t ncluded

n a mural

ycle

hathe commissioned

n

1588for isCasino Felice

n the

Villa

Montalto,

ocated

ust

o the outh

ofSanta Maria

degliAngeli Fig.

9).

These

frescoes,

ompleted

n

1589,

depictedmany

fhis

major

rban

rojects,ncluding

he

obelisks

fSan

Pietro nd of Santa

Maria

Maggiore

nd

the restorationf the Column

of MarcusAurelius.

atin text

ccompanying

he Nebbia fresco

tates

that Sixtus

rought

he

propitious

aters o the

place

where he

poor

woman

washed

dirty

aundry. 57

he

facility

was

supervised y

the

neighboring

istercian uns t

Santa

Susanna,

under he

patronage

f

Camilla

Peretti,

pious

widow

nd the sister fSixtusV. Services

were

held at

Santa Susanna

specifically

or he

womenwho used this aun-

dry.58

n the Nebbia

fresco wo nuns

appear

to be

escorting

noble-

woman nd

nobleman n

a tour f he

facility,

hile

wenty-one

omen

(apparently

nhindered

y

hildren

nderfoot)

ash lothes nd wait

or

their

aundry

o

dry.

The

siting

f this

facility oses problems.

t made

sense as to the

availability

f

water nd

ncreased ealthfulness.

hom

was t meant o

serve?

Fontana tells us

that it was

designed

o accommodate

hree

hundred

omen,59

utwhowere

hey

nd where

id

they

ive?

Certainly

they

id not ive

nearby,

or

he

aundry

as ocated n the

disabitato,

r

uninhabited

rea

of the

city.

The

inscription

verthe

doorway

id

not

refer o

laundressesut

to

poor

women

robably

ot dissimilaro

the

poor

women

for whom

the

laundry

t the Piazza del

Popolo

was

donated

y

the Commune.

Neither

id Fontana

efer o thewomen s

convenite,heterm or ormerrostitutes,o it sunlikelyhat heyived

at

one of the

nearby

onvents.Was

it

assumed

hat

womenwould

be

willing

o

carry

heir

eavy

aundry p

and down

he

Quirinal

ill,

which

was

nearly orty

eters

igher

han nd

more

han kilometer

way

rom

the Fontana

di

Trevi,

where

here eems

o have

been a

laundry

asin,

perhaps

ince 1563?

Although

ontana

made

no

specific

mention

f

laundresses

n

1590,

perhaps

he

ituation ad

changed,

ecause

n 1603

he referred

o the

women

who used the

chapel

at the

church f

Santa



19/28

Laundry

n

Late

Cinquecento

ome

51

Susanna as

lavandaie,

r

professional

aundresses.f this

was

the

case,

then

dirtyaundry

might

ave been collected

by wagons

rom arious

clients,

elivered o the

aundry,

nd then

returnedlean. The women

themselves ight ave walked o work rom hereverhey ived nthe

abitato.

Several

questions merge

bout the

physical

onfiguration

f this

laundry

acility.

ontana escribedt as a kind f afehaven.He referred

to it as a

serraglio,

r enclosed

ourtyard

verseen

y

a

porter,

ho

kept

thewomen ecure rom

every

ort f

danger

. . and

any

ort f

person

when

hey

were nside

he

hut

ate. 60

he shut

ate uggestsomething

similar

o

a

nunnery,

ather han

public

facility.

t is unclearwhether

this lose

protection,

ccompanied

y

the surveillance

f the

Cistercian

nuns,

ne of he

most loisteredffemale

rders,61

as

simply

o

protect

virtuous omen

elevatedhigh top

the

Quirinal

hill ike the

nuns)

or

to

provide

safehaven for ormer

rostitutes orking

s laundresses.62

Such an

opportunityiterally

o

wash

way

ne's ins

hrough

hehonest

FIGURE 9

Cesare

Nebbia,

Lavatoio

elice,

resco,

1589. From

udwig

on

Pastor,

istoV: II

creatore

ellanuovaRoma

Rome, 1922).

Photo:

stituto

Massimo,

ome.



20/28

52 Studies

n

the

ecorative

rts/F

ll-Winter

001-2002

labor of

washing

lothes

may

have

appealed

to

Sixtus,

knownforhis

reforming

eal.

The water lowed rom

entral

ets

fashioned

nto

mall

mountain

riads hatrecall

his

family

Montalto)

rms,

which

ymboli-

cally uggestshatthe salvation fthewomen, erhaps ormerrosti-

tutes,

lowed

irectly

rom he

pope

himself63

his is reinforced

y

the

depiction

f Moses

striking

he

rock s a

prfiguration

f salvation-

It

may

have seemed

rudent

o

segregate

uch

women,

erceived

s

availableor

vulnerable,

s a

way

to

protect

men who

might

e

easily

seduced

y

their

wn

weak

natures.

n 1581

Gregory

artinwrote hat

prostitutes

ere

egregated

n themost ileareas

fthe

City

thereby

o

restrayne

en

that steme f

their onor nd

honesty

o

abstayne

rom

such hauntes. 64

uch

a rationale

might

ave influenced

he

siting

f

laundry

acilities s well The Felice

laundrymay

have continued

o

operate

t least

until

1625.

The

gate

nd wall of the

serraglioppear

n

the

Maggi

plan

of

that

year, ust

to the south

of

the Moses

Fountain,

although

he basins

are

not visible n the

bird's-eye

iew.

Johannes

Orbaan

indicates hat

t was

finally

ecommissioned

hen the

nuns

found he voices

of the

women

sing

he

aundry

o be

unbearable,

ut

he fails

o

give

thedatefor he

document hat

he

cites.65

Illegal

Water

Use

Official

aundry

ites

uch s the

three ewones

establishedn the

later

ixteenth

entury,

n addition

o the older sites t

the Marrana

Brook nd

possibly

t the Fontanadi

Trevi,

ouldnot

begin

o

satisfy

demand

n

cinquecento

Rome.66Women

continued o

use

the Tiber

River,

nd as

a result f

the increased

water

upply

nd numerous

fountainserved

by

the

new

aqueducts,

women devised

trategies

o

appropriate

orewaterfor

aundry

ses. One tactic

was to excavate

unofficial

ites

underthe

archesof

the

Acqua

Vergine

between he

Fontana

di

Trevi

nd the

slope

of

the Pincian

hill,

where he

aqueduct

emerged

bove

ground.67

hese

illegal

aundries

iphoned

ff normous

quantities

f

water,

hus

posing

hreats o

the overall

public upply

y

seriouslympairing

ater

low

o

public

fountains

nd

to

legal,private

consumers.he fountainsocated arthestrom he queduct ufferedhe

most

ardship.68

1608

edict,

ssued

y

the

Camera

Apostolica,

trictly

forbade

apping

Acqua

Vergine

waters

oruse

in

basement

aundries

hidden

n cellars

nd other

subterranean

laces.

Those

whodid o

were

subject

o a five undred

cudi

ine,

ermination

f ll water

ervices,

nd

other

unishments

t

the discretion

f

the

arbitrator.69

he size of

the

fine,

ive imes

hat

for

llegal

nude

male

swimmers,

ndicates

he seri-

ousness

f

the threat

o the

public

water

upply.



21/28

Laundry

n

Late

Cinquecento

ome

53

FIGURE

10

Giacomo della

Porta,

ontana ella

Piazza

de'

SS. Muti sotto

Campidoglio

Fontana

dellaPiazzaAracoeli),1591. From alda,

Le

fontane

i Roma.

Photo:

Fisice

imball

Library, niversity

f

Virginia.

Women

also washedclothes n the

new ornamental nd

public

drinking

ountains,

uch as the Fontana

della Piazza Colonna

(1576-

1577)

supplied

y

the

Acqua Vergine,

nd the Fontana della Piazza

Aracoeli

1591)

supplied

y

he

Acqua

Felice,

s well s numerousthers

thatwere

ppearing

n themost

ensely opulated

reas

fthe

city Fig.

10). The use of thesefountainsor aundering as considered serious

civicviolation ecause

uchuses

ndangeredublic

health.Womenwere

penalized

or

washing

nd

rinsing

lothes

n

publicdrinking

ountains,

and

also for

emoving

ater

n

buckets

rom uch fountains.

ssuredly

the harsh

aundry oaps polluted

he water nd made t

unpotable

or

bothhumans nd animals. hat women ontinued o break he aw and

that hiswas

regarded

s a serious iolation

reevidenced

hroughout

he

seventeenth

entury

nd

later

by

the

frequency

f the edicts

directed

toward aundresses

nd the

severity

f the

fines,

which could in-

clude

public

whipping

r confiscationf the woman's ivelihood her

laundry.70

Ceremonial

ome

The fountains

hemselves,

ostly

o build nd

maintain,

ere

meant

as ornaments o the

city;

herefore

hey

were

protected

or

esthetic

reasons

s well.

Defacing

ountains as another

rave

ffense

orwhich

both men

and womenwere

punished.

Women

were

pecifically

isci-

plined,

owever,

or

hanging aundry

n the sidesof ornamental oun-



22/28

54

Studies

n

the ecorative

rts/F

ll-Winter001-2002

tains

or

adjacent

walls,

nd also for

tringing

ines between

uildings,

columns,

nd

gates

near the fountains o

hang

their

aundry

o

dry.71

These aesthetic oncerns ere o doubt

artially

elated o the

particular

locations f heornamentalountains. any f hefountains ere laced

in

specific iazzas

associatedwith

carefully

rchestrated

rocessional

movement

hrough

ome,

where

eremony

nd ritualwere

mportant.

The most famous

rocession

was the

Possesso f a new

pope,

who

proceeded

rom an Pietro o San Giovanni n Laterano o

lay

claim o

his titular hurch.Other routeswere followed

y visiting ignitaries,

principally

eads f

tate,

whooften

roceeded

rom he

Porta

el

Popolo

down he

Corso to the Piazza

Venezia,

hen

hrough

he

Campo

Marzio

to the Ponte Sant'

Angelo,

nd

finally

o San Pietro.72 he

many

new

fountainsocated

along

these

routes,

uilt

by Pope Gregory

III

and

SixtusV

in

the

ixteenth

entury,

nd Paul

V

and

Alexander II

in

the

seventeenth

entury,

ere not

only part

of the

growing

rchitectural

refinementf the

city,

ntended n

part

to

impress

isitors,

ut also

constant

emindersf

papal

munificence. ther ornamental ountains

were

placed

at

key political

sites,

ncluding

he front f the

papal

residencet the

Quirinal

alace and the

op

of he

Capitoline

ill,

which

was the seat of

municipal

overnment

nd the

symbolic

enter f the

Commune.

These locations emanded

level of civilized ecorum t

odds withdomestic

ctivities,

uch as

washing

lothes.

Rome's

hree fficial

aundry

itesdid not

compromise

he ceremo-

nial

mage

f he

city. ontrary

o ts

depiction

n theNebbia

fresco,

he

basinnear hePiazzadel

Popolo

wasnot

ctually

n the

piazza,

ut othe

west

n

a

relativelynsignificantosition,

ssentially

ut of

sight

f

any

procession.

iews

to the

aundry

rea wouldhave been blocked

y

the

hundreds

f

people

ining

he road

during

ceremonial

ageant.

ven

the

Trevi was off he

major

eremonial outes

hroughout

he

Renais-

sance

nd

Baroque eriods.

he area

only cquired

ts

premier

tatus fter

the

completion

f the

modern

ontana

di

Trevi,

designed y

Nicola

Salvi,

which liminated

he

aundry

asinthatBernini ad included n

his

1640

redesign

f hefountain.73

ashing

ctivities

ere henmoved

to the

nearby,

ut

distinctly

nceremonial,

ia del Lavatore74t thefoot

of theQuirinalhill after onstructioneganon the Salvi Fountain n

1735.75

Since

the

scendancy

f

Pope

Martin

in

1417

and therestoration

ofthe

papacy

o

Rome,

here ad been a concerted fforto reconstruct

the

mage

f the

city.

NicholasV

(14474453),

Sixtus V

(14714484),

and

Leo X

(1513-1521)

aggressively

idened nd

paved

streets,

reated

new

piazzas,

estored

queducts,

ridges,

nd

sewers,

nd set new stan-

dards f

elegance

n

palace

construction.76

n

part

his

was ntended o



23/28

Laundry

n

Late

Cinquecento

ome 55

increase

he health nd

well-being

f Roman

citizens,

ut t

was also a

tactic o increase he

prestige

f the

city

nd

the

papacy.By

1420

the

papacy

ad

assumed ome

uthority

ver heCommune

tself,

hichhad

becomeextremelyowerful uring he absence ofpopes in the four-

teenth

entury-

s

major

treets ecamemore

egulated

ith

aving

nd

building

odes,

noxious ctivities hat

might

ompromise

he

prestige

f

the

city

weremoved urthernside he slands f

habitation,

way

from

the

processional

outes-

hen,

n the aterhalf fthe ixteenth

entury,

the treets ere

socially

leansed

ymoving

ewish

esidents

nto heir

own walled

ghetto,

nd

morally

leansed s individuals

ngaged

n

shamefulr

suggestivectivity

uch as

prostitutes

nd laundresses

ere

systematicallyequestered

n

undesirable

r remote

reas.77 he

latter,

polluted

omennot

only

leansed

dirty

inens

but n

theory

at

least

for heformerrostitutesmong hem) leansed heir ouls s wellwith

water

rovided hrough apal

intervention.n

practice hey

were se-

verely

estrictedn where

hey

were llowed o

undergo

his

hoped-for

spiritual

ransformation.

Conclusions

In 1599 women onstituted

nly

bout

thirty-nineercent

f the

population

f

Rome,78

making

t

chiefly city

of men the

pope,

his

household,

ardinals nd their

families, onks,

nd

many

tinerants

traveling

n

papal

businesswithout heirwives and

families.79here

were okenwomen n cardinals' ouseholds

sisters,unts,

nd

in-laws

who entertained

istinguished

isitors nd

helped

create social com-

munity.80

hese

noble

women, owever,

ere

relatively

mall

portion

ofthe total

population.

uns,

prostitutes,

nd courtesans

robably

on-

stituted

larger roportion

fthe adultfemale

opulation

han

n

most

otherRenaissance ities.81 ourtesanswere also

subject

o

numerous

mandates ntended o control heir

ehavior;

onetheless

hey

moved

surprisingly

reely

n

society,

nd

many

f them wned

property.

om-

mon

prostitutes,

ho,

ike the

Jewish

opulation

n the

ghetto,

were

restricted

n where

hey

ould ive82 nd how

they

ould

dress,

till

lied

their rade hroughouthecity.83herewere lsofemale ervants,ut

most

of the domestic ctivities orwhich

they

were

employed

were

conducted n

basements,

ut of

sight

f the cardinals nd

princes,

nd

their

uests

ndfamilies.n

any

ase,

here

was lotof

aundry

o

do,

and

itwas he

ob

ofwomen o do it.

Ordinary

omen nd

especially

he

poor

ones,

uch s the married omen nd maidens t the

aundry

ountain,

who

operated

utside

he

papal sphere

f

influence,

may

have been

perceived

s a

potential

hreat o

public

order,

nd hence

they

were



24/28

56 Studies

n the ecorative

rts/F

ll-Winter

001-2002

targets

f

papal

nterference

n the

publicyet

mundane

ctivities f heir

daily

ives.The work

f women

has

always

een

marginalizedhrough

low

pay, poor

working

onditions,

nd

sexual harassment.

n Rome

duringhe ate 1500stheirworkwasphysically arginalizeds well, s

the

official

aundry

ites

were ocated

t the

dges

f he

ity,

ar rom

he

densest

esidential

istricts-

Dedicated

aundry

itesbuilt

n

late

cinquecento

ome

may

have

provided

leaner

nd healthierwork nvironments

orboth

ordinary

women nd

the

professional

aundresses

housed

hem. he laundriest

the Velabro

and the

Quirinal

were not

sited forwomen's

afety

nd

convenience, owever,

utrather s

a

way

o

regulate

aundry

ctivities,

to

supervise

nd control

hework f

women,

nd to

segregate

marginal

activity

rom he ceremonial

ity.

n

addition,

he work tself nd

its

association

with

converted

rostitutesorking

s laundressesmeant

thatwomen

who used the

public

aundries

were

marginalized

n

ways

similar o other utcast

roups.

ike

the

Jewish

opulation

nd

prosti-

tutes,

hey

were

ssigned

heir

wn

ghettos

n the east alubrious

reas

of Rome.

Among

he official

aundry

ites,

he

superiorxample

was the one

at the

Piazza del

Popolo,

developed

by

the Commune

tself,

where

women

were llowed

o work

within n area that

was bothrelaxed

nd

safe. t

appears

o

have offered

physical

nd social

ompromise

etween

the

openness,

ulnerability,

nd uncleanness

ftheVelabro

ite nd the

gated, oliced,

nd well-ordered

erraglio

n the

Quirinal

ill between

thelecherous

crutiny

f nsolent

ouths

t the formernd the moral

scrutiny

f the Churchat the latter.

t was this

type

of

facility,

n

continual

use

for

nearly

30

years,

hat

provided

model

forother

facilities

smaller

ountains,

ithin maller

iazzas

urrounded

y

houses

and

shops

thatcould

be

locally

ontrolled,

nd

that

came closest

o

creating

viable

andscape

or

aundry

n Rome.

The

physical

elationship

etweenwater

nd

topography

as

always

had a

profound

mpact

n

publicpolicy

n

general.

Until mechanical

pumping

ystems

ere

eadily

vailable

n the ate

nineteenthnd

early

twentieth

enturies,

he

physical

andscape

f

water the actual

topog-

raphy f a cityor site, nd the elevation f thewater upplywithin

it was

he

primary

eterminant

fwhere nd

howwaterwasdistributed.

The

relationship

f each

water

feature,

whether

queduct,

river,

r

fountain

within

he

system,

etermined

o a

largedegree

how much

water ould

be delivered

o each

part

f the

city,

nd

how t was stored

and

distributed.

opography

lso had

a

profound

ffect

n how and

where

waterwasused

whether or

itual

ses,

rinking,

aundry,actory,

irrigation,

nd

so

forth,

ow

the waterwas

displayed

hen

t

arrived

t



25/28

Laundry

n

Late

Cinquecento

ome

57

its

destination in

ets, prays,

alls, treams,

tc. and how

it left he

city.

Whether he

water ources

the

springs

nd

aqueducts)

were on-

trolled

y

private

ndividuals r

public gencies

ften etermined ho

paid for the water nd whom t served the church, tate,patron,

populace, ndustry,

r others.

As mentioned

arlier,

ater nfrastructuresone ofthe basic build-

ing

blocks

f

ny ity,

nd

yet

t s

argely

nknown,

misunderstood,

nd

disregarded y

historians nd other

scholars.

Because of the

strong

physical

elationships

etweenwater nd

topography,

nd

becausewater

distributionas been demonstratedo

be

closely

llied with

political,

cultural,

nd social

gendas,

n

understanding

fwater

nfrastructurean

provide

valuable ool for rban

nalysis.

rom hisbrief ntroduction

into

uestions

urrounding

he

provisioning

f

public aundry

acilitiesn

late RenaissanceRome, t is apparent hat an examination f water

infrastructurean illuminate

arger

uestions

bout the

daily

ife of

women,

he onstructionf n urban

mage,

he

politics

f ocial

ontrol,

and the

dynamics

f urban

evelopment.

esearch f this

ype

ncour-

ages

a new level of urban

nalysis

nd

appreciation,

ased on an

ac-

knowledgment

f the

impact

hat

hydrological

orces nd

processes,

topography,

nd

hydraulicechnology

xert n urban

rowth

nd form.

Waterfollows he same

physical

aws and satisfieshe same needs for

humans, nimals,

nd

plants egardless

f ocation.

Hence,

by xamining

Rome,

r

any

other

ity hrough

ts

water

nfrastructure,

richer nder-

standing

f urban

history,

orm,

nd

technology

s

gained

an under-

standingully rounded

n

thereal ontext f he

ity.

his

n

turn

rings

a

deeper

nderstanding

f he

pecific

istoriesnd featuresf

ndividual

neighborhoods

nd

places,

and can

help

illuminate he histories f

marginal opulations

nd activities.



26/28

58 Studies

n

the ecorative

rts/F

ll-Winter

001-2002

NOTES

The authorwishes o

acknowledge

he

help

of

Professors iraslava

Bens,

Jeffrey

ollins,

Wil-

liam

Wallace,

and

James

Wescoat

Jr.,

who

gra-

ciously ead earlier rafts f thispaper nd made

useful omments. rofessors

lizabeth .

Cohen,

ThomasV.

Cohen,

ndRobert avis

also

provided

information

oncerning rostitution

n sixteenth-

century

ome.

Particularhanks re extended o

Professor eth

Holman forher careful nd con-

structive

diting.

1. For fountains nd

laundry

acilities n seven-

teenth- nd

eighteenth-century

ome,

see the

print

eries

y

Gianbattista

alda,

Giuseppe

Vasi,

Gianbattista

iranesi,

nd Achille Pinelli.

2.

BagnoRegio,

Vitorchiano,

nd

Poli,

owns

ear

Rome,

have

aundry

ountainstill n use.

3. It is unclearwho could affordo have a laun-

dress

ollect,wash,

nd returnheir

inens,

r how

many

private

aundries,

uch as that owned

by

Simone

Boscaglia

near the Arco di

Portogallo,

were

landscape of laundry in late 5th c rome

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