Cnnprnn 5

THE PEOPLE OF THE CHANNEL ISLANDS

he southern Channel Islands of Santa Catalina,San Clemente, and San Nicolas were occupiedby the Gabrielino, who also utilized tiny Santa

Barbara Island for quarrying activities. Although theislands received their current names from the Spanishexplorer Sebasti6n Vizcaino (Wagner 194l:30-31;Jones 1969:87), according to Jos6 Zalvideathey werecollectively known to the Gabrielino as "we Xajm6mte 'a5un4a wow, all the mountain ranges whichare in the sea" (Harrington 1986:R102 F463). Eachisland had its own name as well.

The Gabrielino occupation of the southernChannel Islands may have come rather late inCalifornia prehistory. Archaeological evidencesuggests that these islands may originally have beenunder the cultural influence of Hokan-speakingChumash peoples. Sometime prior to European contactthese Hokan-speaking peoples were replaced by Uto-Aztecans (Meighan personal .communication, 1984;Raab and Yatsko 1990:19). Perhaps as the Gabrielinocame into contact with the Chumash and became moresophisticated in the exploitation of marine foodresources they adopted the plank canoe, graduallymigrating to the Channel Islands to join or displace theresident Chumash peoples. Regardless of the process,by the time Spanish seafarers began arriving in thesixteenth century the southern Channel Islands werefirmly in Gabrielino hands.

Saxu Bannaru.Isr,u,ro

Santa Barbara Island, the smallest of the southernChannel Islands, is administered by the National parkService as part of Channel Islands National park.Santa Barbara Island lies 38 miles from the mainlandand about 24 miles west of Santa Catalina Island. The

island is triangular in shape, one and one-half miles inlength from north to south and one mile in width, withan area of about one square mile. A central ridge withtwo peaks dominates the island. Signal peak, thehighest point on the island at 635 feet above sea level,is located near the southwest coast, while North peaknear the northwest coast is 562 feet above sea level.Two islets which are detached segments of the mainridge lie off the north and southwest coastsrespectively. A few narrow beaches exist in coves onthe southern and northwest coasts (Gleason 1958:93;Swartz 1960; Glassow 1980:13-14).

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Map 10. Tiny Santa Barbara Island comprises one square mile ofterritory. Although visited by the Gabrielino, it was tob small tosupport a permanent population. The Gabrielino name for SantaBarbara Island was 'Ichunash.

H o w l a n d s L a n d l n g

N A J Q U Q A R

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76 The First Angelinos

Map 11. Santa Catalina Island, the largest of the southern Channel Islands occupied by the Gabrelino. The Gabrielino name for the

was Pemuu'ngc, while the Isthmus was known as Ndjquqar

The water supply on Santa Barbara Island isIimited; the island receives about 12 inches of rainfallper year during the winter months. The only animalsindigenous to the island are the white-footed mouse,the island night lizard, and a small bat. Sea lions areabundant during the breeding season. The island isalso frequented by several species of seal, includingharbor seal, northern elephant seal, and northern furseal (Swartz 1960; Glassow 1980:16).

Santa Barbara is believed to have been usedprimarily for quarrying activities, with occupationlimited to periodic, temporary visits. The island'scentral location with respect to the mainland and SanNicolas, Santa Catalina, and Anacapa islands may alsohave made it an important "stopping-off" point for

seafarers (Swartz 1960; Glassow 1980:36;1981:193-194). The Spanish explorer Pedroreported that the "Indians of the plain of San

Santa Barbara" using "their rafts of reeds"

Archaeological work conducted on SantaIsland up to 1980 had identified 15sites, including a workshop area for thestone tools. Artifacts recovered from these.include fishhook fragments, a bone fishing

communicate with the islanders of San Clemente

1937:23). Harrington (1933:145, note 66)that the island may have been an importantthe black basaltic stone used in theritual charmstones used bv shamans.

bone abalone pry, steatite bowl fragments,

The People of the Channel Islands 77

Fig. 15. The southern shore of Santa Catalina Island lookingwest. Note the steep cliffs and narrow beaches. Photograph byauthor.

point fragments, and mortar and pestle fragments(Swartz 1960; Glassow 1980:28). A summary of thesurvey and excavation project undertaken on the islandis presented in Glassow (1980:19-33).

According to Fernando Librado, a Chumashconsultant employed by Harrington, both theFernandefio and the Gabrielino referred to Santa Bar-bara Island by the Chumash name 'Ichunash, meaning"'a notice,' as for example the blow of a trumpet."The name is based on the Chumash word 'Ichunash.

which reportedly means "whistle" (Hudson 1981:193-re4\.

Saxu Carar,nql Isr,axo

Santa Catalina, which is the island nearest themainland, lies approximately.2l miles from the PalosVerdes Peninsula. The island is 20 miles in lengthand varies in width from eight miles at its widest spotto one-half mile at its narrowest point. The total areaof the island is 75 square miles. The terrain on SantaCatalina is rugged, with some peaks reaching orexceeding 2,000 feet above sea level. Beaches are forthe most part limited to the mouths of canyons.

During Gabrielino times, water was availablethroughout the year in at least a half-dozen springs andcreeks. The primary land mammals were groundsquirrel, fox, and quail (Williamson 1903:14; Beanand Smith 1978:540; Rosenthal et al. 1988). Someacorn groves may have existed on the island, althoughthey were not extensive (Finnerty et al. 1970:7).However, maritime food resources such as fish. shell-fish, and sea-mammals were plentiful.

Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo visited Santa Catalina in1542, perhaps anchoring at Avalon, where ,,a greatnumber of Indians came out of the bushes and grass,shouting, dancing, and making signs to come ashore"(Wagner 194I:46). Avalon may have been visitedagain in I602by Sebasti6n Vizcaino. On this occasionIndians "began to raise smokes on the beach," andwhen the Spaniards anchored "the women, children,and old men began to shout and make demonstrationsof joy in proof of their happiness. They came runningto the beach to receive the guests who were arriving"(Wagner 1929:236). On the following day a tent wasset up on the island and mass was said with more than150 "Indian men and women" present (Bolton1908:84). Two days later the Spaniards sailed to theisthmus, which they described as the "Puerto de SantaCatalina" and where they found a "pueblo

[town orvillagel and more than three hundred Indians, men,women and children" (Bolton 1908:85).

A map of Catalina drawn in 1602 by FatherAntonio de la Ascensi6n places the pueblo at theisthmus; excavations by both antiquarians and modernarchaeologists have confirmed the presence of animportant settlement that may have served as a depotfor the maritime trade with the mainland (Holder1910:27-28; Wagner 1929:235; Finnerty et al. 1970).The Ascensi6n map also locates another settlementnear the first anchorage at the midpoint of the northerncoast; however, it has been suggested that Avalon Baywas the probable anchorage (see Wagner 1,929:401,note 133).

While anchored at Isthmus Cove the Spaniardsexplored the island's interior, discovering "a levelprairie, very well cleared, where the Indians wereassembled to worship an idol which was there" (Bolton1908:85). Father de la Ascensi6n described the "place

of worship" as "a large flat patio" which held an altarand "a great circle all surrounded with feathers ofvarious colors and shapes" (Wagner 1929:237). Hisdescription of the sacred enclosure was quoted atlength in Chapter 2.

Santa Catalina was visited in 1769Antonio, a supply ship attached toExpedition. During this voyage Father Juan Vizcainodescribed "some ravines, and particularly one verygreen one, and a flat place where there are Indians"(Vizcaino 1959:17). The ship was visited by Indianswho "came up to us in two canoes with signals ofpeace," and from them the sailors obtained fresh

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The First Angelinos

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The People of the Channel Islands 79

water in "a bottle made of reeds tarred on the inside.from which we drank, and it is good" (Vizcaino1959:18) .

In March, 1805, Santa Catalina was visited by thebrig Lelia Byrd captained by William Shaler; thevessel returned again in May of the same year.According to Shaler the island was occupied by "about

150 men, women, and children" (Shaler 1935:47).The historian Hubert Howe Bancroft reported that in1807 Santa Catalina was visited by another ship, theO'Cain, under the command of Jonathan Winship.According to Bancroft, the crew found 40 to 50Indians living on the island, although it is not clearwhether they represented the entire population of theisland. The Indians offered the visitors "grain andvegetables," which might be an indication thatagriculture had reached the island (see Bancroft1886:84) .

Unfortunately, despite the historical accounts andmore than a century of relic hunting by antiquariansand scientific excavations by modern archaeologists,the site distribution and settlement patterns of theCatalina Gabrielino remain poorly understood.Coastal middens suggest the presence of communitiesor settlements where beaches have developed at themouths of canyons. Such places include Avalon,White's Landing, Empire Landing, Isthmus Cove,Howland's Landing, Catalina Harbor, and LittleHarbor. One early writer noted that "every caflonhaving a beach on the north coast . . . had its ancienttown-site-some large, some small" (Holder l9l0:27-28; Wlodarski 1982:Figure 1).

Numerous sites in the island's interior served avariety of special economic purposes such as soapstonequarrying, seed and plant food gathering, and theprocessing of meat from fish, shellfish, and sea-mammals (Cottrell et al. 1980; Bickford and Martz1980; Rosenthal 1981:60-61; Rosenthal et al. 1988).Extensive steatite quarries were located near thepresent-day airport, and occupation sites existed inconjunction with some of these (Meighan andRootenberg 1957; Rosen 1980; Reinman and Eberhart1980; Williams and Rosenthal 1993).

Although early population estimates based uponarchaeological data suggest populations for the islandas great as 2,000 to 3,000 (Meighan and Johnston1957:24; Gleason 1958:16), ethnographic data are notavailable to substantiate such estimates. A detailed

bibliography of Santa Catalina Island archaeologyappears in Wlodarski (1982).

Reid recorded the name "Pineug-na,' for SantaCatalina, but this spelling is likely a printer's error forPimugna (Reid 1852:8). Thename "pimu', appears tohave been applied to both the island and a settlementon the island (Heizer 1968:109, note lZ). Jos6Zalvidea reported the names "Pimf" and "pimri'4a"

for Santa Catalina, although he did not give names forany settlements on the island (Kroeber l9O7:I43;Harrington 1986:R102 F467, 850). A Juanefloconsultant gave Kroeber the name "pipimar" forCatalina (Kroeber 1907:I44, 1925:62I). In the presentvolume this name will be spelled pemuu,nga.According to Jos6 Zalvidea "the isthmus is calledN6jquqar" (Harrington 1986:R102 F850); this wasprobably also the name of the Gabrielino communityonce located at the isthmus,

SaN CT,BImNTE IsLAND

San Clemente Island lies 20 miles south of SantaCatalina and approximately 57 miles from the mainlandat its nearest point. This island, which is a restrictedarea under the jurisdiction of the United States Navy,is 21 miles in length, and although its width varies, itnowhere exceeds four miles. The area of the island is57 square miles (McKusick and Warren 1959; yatsko198e).

The topography of San Clemente Island consists ofsix primary zones. The predominant topographic zoneis the central plateau, which covers 40% of the island'ssurface. The second largest zone comprises the

U.S. Navy Photograph, Courtesy of the Natural Resources Office, NAS North IslandFig. 16. San Clemente Island looking southeasr. Although SanClemente is 21 miles long, nowhere does its width exceed 4 miles.The central plateau and the steep cliffs along the eastern shore areclearly visible in this photograph.

The First Angelinos

1 0

Warren 1959:110; Hathaway and Greenwood 1981:27-28; Yatsko 1989: 188-189).

The primary land animals on San Clemente are theisland fox, the white-footed mouse, the island nightlizard, and land snails. Middens on the island provideample evidence that shellfish, fish, sea-mammals,birds, and foxes were important elements in the diet ofthe Indian inhabitants of the island (McKusick andWarren 1959:109-110).

In 1769, San Clemente was visited by the SanAntonio. and Father Juan Vizcaino recorded hisobservations, which include descriptions of the islandand its Indian occupants. Approaching China Point onMarch 1,5, 1769, the padre observed "people whoraised smoke," and passing Pyramid Head he saw "not

a tree, only the grass was beginning to grow green"(Vizcaino 1959:8). Two days later, on March 17,Yiz-cafno wrote of San Clemente that "it is a rugged land,green, with many ravines cutting deep into the sea, andno trees, save in one huge ravine, which opens out onthe beach in a small bay, where we could see smalltrees, and two or three Indians. They made a littlesmoke. Almost all the lower coast stood like arampart, green against the hills" (Vizcaino 1959:9-10).

During the following days the San Antonioremained in the vicinity of San Clemente, and the crewmembers traded with the Indians who paddled out tothe ship in their plank canoes. Padre Vizcaino usedthe opportunity to record his observations of theseIndians, describing their fur robes, the cord they madefrom plant fiber, their plank canoes, and their fishingtechniques (Vizcaino 1959: 1 1-16). These observationswill be recounted in greater detail in Chapter 7.

In 1803, the Boston ship Lelia Byrd visited SanClemente and discovered 11 men, women, andchildren living in a cave and subsisting on baked fish.Although this small group may not have representedthe island's entire population, the observation doessuggest that San Clemente had experienced a severepopulation decline by the early years of the nineteenthcentury (Cleveland n.d. : 1 94; Johnson 1988 :5).

Culturally, San Clemente is believed to have beenclosely associated with Santa Catalina (Kroeber1925:620). Fernando Librado, a Chumash consultantfor Harrington, reported that San Clemente wasoccupied by a mixture of Gabrielino and Fernandeflo(Hudson 1981:194). Data from the mission registersof San Gabriel, San Fernando, and the Plaza Churchdocument marriages between people from the two

Map 13. San Clemente Island, known to the Gabrielino asKiinkepar.

upland marine terraces, which are located along thewestern side of the island and account for another34% of the island's area. A precipitous escarpmentextends along the eastern margin of the island andaccounts for another ll% of the surface area, whilethe northern. western. and southern coastlines aretypified by a series of coastal terraces that comprise8% of the island's surface. Canyons (located on thesouthwestern slopes of the island) and sand dunesaccount for another 7% (Yatsko 1990).

During one l5-year period (1962-1977) rainfallon San Clemente varied from 3.21 inches to 11.53inches per year, with an average of about 5 inches orless per year. Water is generally available on theisland from a number of ponds and springs and fromnatural tanks located in the canyons along thesouthwestern slope of the island (Holder 1910:156;McKusick and Warren 1959 : I 10; Zahniser 198 1 : 3- 16;Yatsko l99O:7; Raab and Yatsko 1990:26). Nativegrasses on San Clemente are believed to have oncereached a foot in height, and grasslands on the islandwere interspersed with trees and shrubs; however, theintroduction of sheepherding around 1868 quicklydecimated this vegetation. Today the original grasseshave been replaced by introduced oats gone wild, andtrees are reported to be extremely rare (McKusick and

The People of the Channel Islands 8 l

islands, as well as examples of close relatives livingon different islands. In addition, there exist instanceswhere people born on one island (as reported in thebaptismal registers) have relocated to the other islandby the time their marriages are recorded (Johnson1 9 8 8 : 1 5 ) .

San Clemente has been the focus of considerablearchaeological research in recent years, includingextensive resurveying of the island (Yatsko 1989). Asa result of this work a new understanding of thesettlement distribution patterns on San Clemente isemerging.

Radiocarbon dates demonstrate that the island hasa history of occupation extending at least 10,000 yearsinto the past (Salls 1990b:62). Eel Point, an importantsite located on the west coast of San Clemente, wasoccupied from as early as 7785 B.C. until the lateprehistoric or early Mission Period. Data obtainedfrom Eel Point demonstrate important adaptations insubsistence patterns which occurred during the ten-thousand-year span of the site. An early dependenceupon shellfish, such as mussel and abalone, graduallygave way to an increase in fishing. The extensiveexploitation of one particular species of fish, thesheephead, suggests the use of specialized techniquessuch as spear fishing. The remains of barracuda andother offshore species also demonstrate the use ofwatercraft (salls 1990b).

Preliminary data from archaeological work on SanClemente suggest that the characteristic site type wasthe seasonally occupied individual household and thatthe family was the primary social unit on the island.Individual families engaged in a nomadic, foraging

U. S. Navy Photograph, Courtesy of the Natural Resources Office, NAS North Island

Fig. 17. China Cove, located at the southeast end of SanClemente Island. Ethnohistorical accounts suggest that a numberof Gabrielino settlements were located near the southeast shore ofthe island. This view is lookins south.

economy in which sites were occupied and abandonedon a seasonal basis (Yatsko 1989:198). Large,complex sites are also reported to extend over portionsof the island's central spine. Based upon Father JuanVizcaino's account written in 1769. a number ofsettlements are believed to have been occupied betweenChina Point and Pyramid Head at the eastern end ofthe island (Woodward 1959:xiv-xvi: Zahniser 1981:3-13) .

Caves were utilized as shelters by the SanClemente Gabrielino, and perhaps the most interestingsite is Big Dog Cave, located at the southern end ofthe island. Big Dog Cave is 70 feet wide at the mouthand 34 feet deep. Most important from anarchaeological viewpoint, the cave contained astratified archaeological deposit consisting of fourdistinct layers totalling 36 inches in depth.

Big Dog Cave was first excavated in 1939 by anexpedition sponsored by the Natural History Museumof Los Angeles County (Woodward 1959:xvii, xxii,xxv). Included among the finds from this impressivesite were a number of human and animal burials, twofragments of a plank canoe, arrow and harpoonfragments, fire drill fragments, stone knives hafted inwooden handles, shell artifacts, bone artifacts, andfragments of cloth that was woven at one of themainland missions (McKusick and Warren 1959:128-1,36). The cave was re-excavated in 1985 by theArchaeological Field School at UCLA. A subsequentanalysis of the fish remains recovered from the cavedisclosed that 59% of the species taken by the islanderscould be caught from the shore, while the remaining4l% reqtfted watercraft to reach the nearby kelp beds(Salls 1990a).

A number of the animal burials discovered in BigDog Cave during the 1939 excavations wereaccompanied by offerings, providing evidence of ritualactivities performed by the islanders. Included in theseanimal burials were a large dog wrapped in a robe ofsea otter fur, a hen wrapped in fur and cord netting,and a fighting cock wrapped in tan and blue missioncloth. These burials were believed to have beeninterred by Indians living on San Clemente between1780 and 1800 (Woodward 1941:l5l-t52 McKusickand Warren 1959: 135-136).

Important evidence of ritual activity was alsodiscovered at Lemon Tank, an archaeological sitesituated on the central plateau not far from the easterncoast. Lemon Tank is located near the midpoint of

82 The First Angelinos

U.S. Navy Photograph, Courtesy of the Natural Resources Office, NAS North Island

Fig. 18. Big Dog Cave, located at the southern end of SanClemente Island. The cave was first excavated in 1939 during anexpedition sponsored by the Natural History Museum of LosAngeles County. A number of human and animal burials wererecovered in 1939, including that ofa large dog wrapped in a robeof sea otter fur.

San Clemente, with ready access to most areas on theisland. Basketry, fishing lines and netting, animalburials, and floral remains were recovered from thesite, generally in an excellent state of preservation.More important, however, the site contained numerouscache pits, hearths, and post holes that showedevidence of important ritual activity (Eisentraut 1990).

Several of the cache pits discovered at LemonTank contained animal burials, including a dog, a fox,and two raptors, one of which was identified as a red-tailed hawk. The dog appears to have been buriedwith grave goods such as red pigment, asphaltum-impregnated basketry, and burned plant remains,suggesting it was ceremonially interred. Grave goodsalso accompanied the red-tailed hawk burial. Many ofthe artifacts found at the site, including "flower pot"mortars and pigment pots, may have beenceremonially broken. Caches of red maid seeds(Calendrinia ciliata) were stored inside containersmade from two abalone (Haliotis) shells cuppedtogether. Sometimes these seed caches includedhuman teeth (Eisentraut 1990).

The archaeological evidence suggests that LemonTank may have been the site of the annual mourningceremony held by the Gabrielino on San Clemente (theGabrielino mourning ceremony is described in Chapter8). Seed caches on San Clemente Island have beenreported from only two other sites, the Ledge Site andthe Old Airfield Site. both of which are also situatedon the central plateau within view of Lemon Tank.Together these three sites may have formed an

important ritual complex for the San ClementeGabrielino (Eisentraut 1990).

There are presently too few data from SanClemente to attempt a population estimate, althoughthe island is believed to have been occupied on apermanent, year-round basis (Zahniser 1981:3-16).Interestingly, the antiquarian Ralph Glidden suggestedthat San Clemente was the least populated of theChannel Islands on the basis of his failure to locatelarge numbers of burials (see Zahniser 1981:1-10).

The archaeology of San Clemente Island has beendiscussed in a number of important professionalpublications (Woodward 1941,, 1959; McKusick andWarren 1959; Meighan 1983). Bibliographies ofinvestigations and publications are also available(Zahniser 1981; Yatsko 1989).

Reid (1852:8) reported the name "Kinkipar" forSan Clemente. This is substantiated by an entry fromthe mission register of San Gabriel which notes"Guinguina, ra. de la ysla [rancheria or village of theislandl" (Merriam 1968:109). Manuel Santos reportedto Harrington that "Ki4ki . . . is [an] island in the sea.Call the people Kiakijam. . . . They are pipimaram[although the term pip'rmaram properly refers to theCatalineflos, it also appears to have been used duringthe early 1900s as a general term for the Gabrielinol"(Harrington 1986:R102 F475). In the present volumethe name for San Clemente Island will be spelledKiinkepar. As noted earlier in this chapter, Kinki orKinkipar essentially duplicates the name Kiinkenga, thename of a community on the Palos Verdes Peninsula.

SIN Nrcor,As ISLAND

San Nicolas is the most distant of the southern ChannelIslands, lying 60 miles from the mainland. The islandis about 9 miles in length, 3.5 miles in width, and22miles in area. Although the coastal regions are lessthan 400 feet above sea level. elevations near thecenter of the island can reach 900 feet (Schwartz,personal communication, 1989).

San Nicolas can be divided into three broadtopographic zones. A broad, grassy plateau dominatesthe center of the island, while deeply eroded ravinescharacterize the coast along the northeast, east, andsoutheast shores. Sand dunes typify much of thewestern end of the island, especially near the coast(Schwartz, personal communication, 1989).

The People of the Channel Islands

0 5

Map. 14. San Nicolas Island, the most distant of the channelislands occupied by the Gabrielino. The Gabrielino knew SanNicolas as Xaraashnga.

During Gabrielino times a large portion of SanNicolas was covered with grass and scrub growth,which at the west end of the island extended to withina quarter mile of the coast. The introduction ofsheepherding in 1852 or 1853 quickly denuded theisland, and by 1866 extensive sand dunes had begunto form (Jones 1969). Ranching on the island endedaround 1941, and since that time the native vegetationhas made a gradual comeback. By the time the authorof the present volume made his first visit in late 1989,much of the island had regained a cover of vegetation.

Fresh water can be found at several springs in thenorthwest corner of San Nicolas. Land animals onSan Nicolas are limited to the island fox, the white-footed mouse, the island night lizard, and the landsnail (Meighan and Eberhart 1953:113-lI4; Schwartz,personal communication, 1989). Important marinefood resources for the Nicoleflo included seals. sealions, sea otter, shellfish, fish, and marine birds(Meighan 1954).

Prime locations for Nicoleflo communities appearto have been the coastal strip extending inland 200yards from the shoreline and the island's centralplateau (Meighan and Eberhart 1953:lI4). Theoccurrence of coastal settlements on sand dunes. afeature often reported on San Nicolas, may simply bethe result of differential erosion which has worn downthe soil surrounding the middens to a greater extentthan the midden itself (Jones 1969:93).

Although early estimates of the island's Indianpopulation based on archaeological data ranged from1,000 to 2,000 inhabitants (Meighan and Eberhart1953 : 1 1 9 ; Meighan 1954:23 ; Reinman 1962: 13), theseearly estimates assumed that all of the sites on SanNicolas were occupied during a recent and fairly shortspan of time. Radiocarbon data now demonstrates thatSan Nicolas has been occupied for at least 8000 years(Raab and Yatsko 1990:18). Clearly, further work isneeded before the population size and settlementpatterns of San Nicolas can be understood.

One of the most intriguing sites on San NicolasIsland is the Cave of the Whales. a cavern located onthe southwest shore, which the author was privilegedto visit in 1990 and 1991. The Cave of the Whaleshas a special magic that is unmatched by any otherGabrielino site. The cave lies at the end of a narrowinlet situated between a rookery of elephant seals andanother of sea lions. The main chamber extends 35feet into the island and reaches a height of nine feetnear its center. Petroglyphs (rock carvings) of sharksor killer whales decorate a large boulder near the caveentrance and the east wall of the cavern.

Further inside, the cave takes on a dark, eerieaspect. The crashing of waves echoes from thechamber's damp, mossy walls. In the spring, thebarking of sea lions adds to the din; occasionally alone sea lion pup wanders into the cavern. At the rearof the main chamber lies a small, crumbling stonepanel decorated with pictographs executed in blackpaint. Once again the subject of the art is killerwhales, their faint outlines still visible on the sandstonesurface (see Rozaire and Kritzman 1960).

Another unusual feature on San Nicolas is theSpring Site, located on the island's northwest shore.The site is named after a freshwater spring that seepsfrom a sandstone exposure located at the base of alarge sand dune. The freshwater that drips from thisspring runs out onto a sandstone shelf that varies from2 to 12 feet in width. A shallow groove carved intothe surface of the soft sandstone channels the freshwater to the edge of the shelf. Here the lip of theshelf has been undercut so that a tarred water bottlecould collect the fresh water trickling from thechannel.

The artificial groove, which is more than 40 feetin length, actually consists of two primary channels,one 38 feet long, the other 5 feet long, and a numberof small feeder channels. A test performed on this

I 84 The First Angelinos

U.S. Navy Photograph, Courtesy of the Natural Resources Office, NAWS Point

Mugu

Fig. 19. San Nicolas Island looking northwest. The broad centralplateau is clearly visible in the photograph.

Fig. 20. The Cave of the Whales, located on the southern shoreof San Nicolas Island. The cave lies at the end of a narrow inletand is occasionally flooded during periods of exceptionally hightides. The entrance to the cave is located to the right ofcenter inthis photograph. Photograph by author.

water system in 1962 demonstrated that the flow offreshwater was sufficient to fill a 16-ounce jar in oneminute, 35 seconds (Reinman 1962:12). During theauthor's visit in 1991 the flow filled a 16-ouncemeasuring cup in six minutes.

A number of archaeological reports on SanNicolas Island have been published; a generalsynthesis of the work done on the island is alsoavailable (Schwartz and Martz 1992). Furtherinformation can be found in the bibliography of thepresent volume (see Meighan and Eberhart 1953;Meighan 1954; Rozairc 1959; Reinman and Townsend196O; Heizer and Elsasser 1961; Reinman 1962).Today San Nicolas is a restricted area under thecontrol of the United States Navy.

San Nicolas is perhaps best known as having

Fig.2l. A petroglyph located near the entrance to the Cave of theWhales. The erect dorsal fin suggests a shark or killer whale.Photograph by author.

Fig.22. The Spring Site, on the northwest shore of San Nicolas,view looking east. The long, narrow groove carved into the surfaceof the rock (to the right of center) captures ftesh water seepingfrom the base of the hill and channels it to ttre collection pointwhere it can be captured in a container. Photograph by author.

once been the home of Juana Mar(a, also known as the"Lone Woman of San Nicolas," a Nicoleffo who wasaccidentally abandoned on the island in 1835 when theIndians were removed to the mainland. She livedalone on the island until 1853, when she was taken toSanta Barbara. Unfortunately, she became ill shortlyafter arriving on the mainland, perhaps due to a dietarychange imposed by her move. She was christenedJuana Maria on her deathbed and buried in thecemetery at Mission Santa Barbara. Her tragic, yetheroic, story is the basis for the novel Island of theBlue Dolphins by Scott O'Dell. The story of JuanaMarfa will be told in greater detail in Chapter 11.

According to Harrington's Chumash consultantFernando Librado, the Nicoleflo people originally camefrom Santa Catalina Island and were Gabrielino

The People ofthe Channel Islands 85

Fig. 23. Another view of the Spring Site (see Figlure 22).Photograph by author.

(Hudson 1981:194). A number of Gabrielino namesfor San Nicolas have been re.ported. Librado reportedthat "minar is the Gabrieleflo name for San NicolasIsland. [t] means 'only one who would know wheregood water was in island, but yet good water.' Forthe water shot up a foot and a half at low tide, andthen only" (Harrington 1986:R102 F480).

Jos6 Zalvidea stated that "Har6svit" was "otra

sierra adendro del agua near pimf'ngna," that is,"another mountain in the water near pimri'4a[Catalina],

" leading Harrington to conclude incorrectlythat Harasvil was "surely and clearly San ClementeIsland" (Harrington 1986:R102 F462). However,Kroeber (1925:635) reported that the Chumashpronunciation of "Haras-nga" was "Ghalas-at," andGhalas-at was the Chumash name for San NicolasIsland (Kroeber 1925:635). Jos6 Zalvidea also gavethe names "Xdrvo" and *Xardsqa" for San Nicolas.According to Jos6, "the other island beyond Santa

Catalina is called X6rvo," and he went on to say thatthe name Xarasqa "means the same as'stony."' Har-rington noted that "[t] is the etym. [etymology] whichhe gives for X6rvo" (Harrington 1986:R102 F473).Reid reported the name "Harasg-na" in his list ofGabrielino placenames; however, he gave no locationalinformation (Reid 1852:8; see also Heizer 1968:110-IIl, note 24). Other possible names for San Nicolasinclude " Jalashat" and " Ha-Ia-ca't." Inreporting thelatter name, H. W. Henshaw noted that "magicians'

stones [come] from this island" (Heizer 1955:198). Inthe present volume the Gabrielino name for SanNicolas will be spelled Xaraashnga.

Suiwranv

The Gabrielino occupation of the southern ChannelIslands may have come rather late in Californiaprehistory. Prior to the arrival of the Uto-Aztecan-speaking Gabrielino, the southern Channel Islands mayhave been held by Hokan-speaking Chumash peoples.

Santa Barbara Island's small size (about one squaremile) and limited water supply ,restricted Gabrielinooccupation to temporary visits used primarily to gatherlithic materials. Archaeological work conducted on theisland until 1980 had identified 15 sites, including aworkshop for the production of stone tools. FernandoLibrado, a Chumash consultant who worked withHarrington, reported 'Ichunash as the Chumash namefor Santa Barbara; according to Librado, theGabrielino also referred to the island by this name.

Santa Catalina, the southern Channel Island that isnearest to the mainland, lies approximately 21 milesfrom the Palos Verdes Peninsula. It is also the largestof the southern islands, encompassing 75 square miles.During Gabrielino times water was available on theisland in at least a half-dozen springs and creeks.Some acorn groves may have existed on Catalina;however, the primary food resources were fish,shellfish, and sea-mammals.

Santa Catalina was visited by several Spanishexplorers including Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo (in 1542)and Sebasti6n Vizcaino (in 1602). In his account ofthe latter voyage, Father Antonio de la Ascensi6ndescribed a Gabrielino yovaar, or sacred enclosure,which the explorers observed near Isthmus Cove. In1769, the island was visited by the San Antonio, asupply ship for the Portol6 Expedition. Father Juan

86 The First Angelinos

Vizcaino's account of this visit provides importantethnographic data on Gabrielino fishing and seafaringtechnologies.

Archaeological sites reportedly once existed at themouths of most of the island's canyons opening ontothe beaches. Avalon, White's Landing, EmpireLanding, Isthmus Cove, Howland's Landing, CatalinaHarbor, and Little Harbor are specifically reported tohave had sites. Sites located in the island's interiorserved a variety of special economic pursuits includingsoapstone quarrying, seed and plant food gathering,and meat processing. The Gabrielino name for SantaCatalina was Pemuu'nga. Jos6 Zalvidea gave thename of the isthmus as Ndjquqar; this was probablyalso the name of the community situated at thatlocation.

San Clemente Island lies 20 miles south of SantaCatalina and approximately 57 miles from themainland. The total area of the island is 57 squaremiles. Water is generally available on San Clementein a number of ponds and springs and from naturaltanks in canyons located along the island'ssouthwestern slopes. Archaeological remains indicatethat the primary food resources for the Gabrielino ofSan Clemente were fish, shellfish, sea-mammals,marine birds and foxes.

San Clemente was visited in 1769 by the SanAntonio; the vessel remained near the island forseveral days while crew members traded with theGabrielino, receiving lengths of cordage and robesmade from woven otter fur in exchange for articles ofEuropean clothing. Important observations concerningthe islanders and their culture were recorded by FatherJuan Vizcaino during this visit. San Clemente wasvisited again in 1803 by the Lelia Byrd, avessel out ofBoston. By the time of this visit the island populationseems to have declined dramatically.

Archaeological evidence indicates that SanClemente has been occupied for at least 10,000 years.During the Gabrielino period the island is believed tohave maintained extensive social, political, andeconomic ties to Santa Catalina. A number ofimportant archaeological sites have been investigatedon San Clemente including Big Dog Cave, LemonTank, the Ledge Site, and the Old Airfield Site. Eachof these locations offered important data regardingGabrielino ritual and mortuary activities. Big DogCave is also one of the few archaeological sites in theGabrielino territory with a clearly stratified deposit,

each strata relating to a phase in the cultural history ofthe cave.

The Gabrielino name for San Clemente Island wasKiinkepar; this may also be the name of a communitylocated on the island.

San Nicolas Island is the most distant of the foursouthern Channel Islands, lying 60 miles from themainland. San Nicolas is 22 square miles in area; ofthe four islands held by the Gabrielino only SantaBarbara Island is smaller. Fresh water is available atseveral springs located in the northwest portion of theisland. Important Gabrielino food resources on SanNicolas resemble those of the other islands andincluded fish, shellfish, sea-mammals, and marinebirds. Nicoleflo communities appear to have beenlocated along the shoreline and on the island's centralplateau.

One of the most intriguing of the archaeologicalsites on San Nicolas is the Cave of the Whales. Thecave receives its name from the petroglyphs andpictographs that decorate its walls. Sharks and killerwhales appear to be the most prominent of thecreatures depicted in the images that have survived thenatural erosional processes of the cave.

Another important archaeological site on SanNicolas is the Spring Site, located on the island'snorthwest shore. The site takes its name from afreshwater spring at the base of a large sand dune.Water seeping from the spring enters a shallow groovethat has been carved into the surface of the rock shelfat the base of the dune. This artificial groove thenchannels the water to a spot where it can beconveniently captured in a container.

San Nicolas is perhaps best known as the home ofJuana Marfa, a Nicoleflo woman who was stranded onthe island for 18 years between 1835 and 1853.During Gabrielino times San Nicolas may also havebeen the primary source of the ritual implementsknown as tooshawt stones. Several different nameshave been offered for San Nicolas including minar andXaraashnga; the latter name may mean stony.

The islands of Santa Catalina, San Clemente, SanNicolas, and Santa Barbara were the most distantoutposts of the Gabrielino homeland, yet each was anintegral part of the political and economic frameworkthat united the First Angelinos. Throughout thishomeland a sophisticated social organization evolved

The People of the Channel Islands

and functioned under the leadership of an elite groupof tonryaars and shamans. Through their collectivewisdom the Gabrielino prospered to become one of themost influential Indian societies of southern California.The organization and structure of this complex societyare explored in depth in Chapter 6.