labour market segregation between men and women what to measure how to measure it
TRANSCRIPT
Labour market segregation
between men and women
What to measure
How to measure it
ILO Bureau of Statistics 2
Contents
• A definition
• Causes
• Types
• Indicators
• Data needs
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A definition
• Labour market segregation in general:Practice of restricting particular population group(s) to certain (economic/non-economic) activities in order to maintain the economic advantages and higher social status of the other population group(s)
• Types of labour market segregation:– SEX– Race, ethnicity– Religion– Migrants/non-migrants
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Causes
• De jure - enforced by law– Laws forbidding/hindering women from working or from doing
certain jobs
• De facto – widespread individual preferences, social customs– Traditional female roles of family caretakers impede/encumber
that they work (in certain types of jobs) or look for (certain types of) work, on an equal footing as men
– Subordination to men means that women are not free to work (in certain types of jobs) or look for (certain types of) work without approval of husband/father/brother
– Social and educational conditioning that hinder competitiveness to allow women to work on an equal footing as men
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Types of segregation
• In the entry to/exit from the labour market• In the types of economic activities carried out• In their labour inputs• In their returns to labour
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Entry/exit
• Do they work ? Employment• Do they look for work? Unemployment• Do they work or look for work? Labour force• Do they enter and exit the labour market? Labour
turnover, life cycle patterns
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Types of activities
• The type of work they do - occupations• The type of establishment they work in - industries• The type of contract - status in employment• The type of employer - institutional sector• The size of establishment where they work• Where they work - place of work• Hazardousness of their work – occupational injuries and
disease• Their voice – union density and representation• Social security coverage
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Labour inputs
• How much do they work - hours actually worked/usually worked, overtime, part-time/full-time
• How inconvenient are the hours they work - Night work, shift work, weekend work
• How often are they absent from work and for what reasons – family reasons, economic reasons, social reasons
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Returns to labour
• Income from employment– Basic wages– Overtime payments– Fringe benefits– Social security benefits– Regular and irregular payments
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Indicators
• Types of indicators• Indicators to measure segregation in:
– The entry to/exit from the labour market– The types of economic activities carried out– Labour inputs– Returns to labour
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Types of indicators
• Measures of relationship– Ratios : relation between two quantities (a/b)– Proportions, percentages : quotient between one part and the total
(a/(a+b))– Index numbers
• Measures of central tendency – Mean, median, mode
• Measures of variability – Frequency distribution, range, standard deviation
• Shape of the distribution – Skewness, kurtosis
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Index numbers
• Value in relation to a standard value (often =100)• When are index numbers used
– Summarize large quantities of qualitative information
ID= ½ ∑ | Mi/M - Fi/F |– Indicate variations in time
Wage index = (Wt – W(t-1))/W(t-1)
• Types– Simple index number
Gender pay gap = Wm-Wf
– Weighted index number
Laspeyres price index = ∑ Pi1Qi0/ ∑ Pi0Qi0
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Indicators to measure entry/exit
• Activity rate– Gross: Labour force/total population * 100– Net: Labour force/working age population * 100
• Employment rate– Employed persons/working age population * 100
• Unemployment rate– Unemployed persons/Labour force * 100
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Indicators to measure activities carried out
• Share of women in category iWomen in category i/total workers in category i * 100
= Fi/Ni * 100
• Percentage of all women in category IWomen in category i/all women * 100
= Fi/F * 100
• Sex ratio (in category i)Women in category i/Men in category i * 100
= Wi/Mi * 100
• Dissimilarity index (ID)
ID= ½ ∑ | Mi/M - Fi/F |
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Indicators to measure labour inputs
• Distribution of workers by hours worked per week• Percentage women/men who work less/more than x
hours per week• Distribution of workers by working time arrangements
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Indicators to measure returns to labour
• Gender wage gap
(Wm – Wf)/Wm * 100• Gender wage gap corrected for differences in
occupations/industries
1/N ∑Ni * (Wmi - Wfi)/Wmi• Average wage
1/N ∑ Wi• Median wage - wage below and above which half of the
population is found• Distribution of workers by categories of income earned
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Data needs
• Complete worker coverage• Sufficient detail• Explanatory variables
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Complete worker coverage
• Coverage because of the SNA-93 definition of work• Coverage in labour statistics concepts• Coverage because of use of short or long reference
periods– Seasonal/casual activities
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Definition of work, SNA-93
Activities that produce goods
(for the market or for free)
Activities that produce services for the market or that are carried out for payment
Activities that produce unpaid services for the consumption of own/another household
Productive activities
Economic activities
Non-economic activities
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Treatment of non-market activities, SNA-93
Included(if the amount of that good is quantitatively important in relation to the
total supply of that good in a country)Excluded
Growing or gathering field crops, fruits and vegetablesProducing eggs, milk and foodHunting animals and birdsCatching fish, crabs and shellfishCutting firewood and building polesCollecting thatching and weaving materialsBurning charcoalMining slatCutting peatCarrying water
Threshing and milling grainMaking butter, ghee and cheeseSlaughtering livestockCuring hides and skinsPreserving meat and fishMaking beer, wine and spiritsCrushing oil seedsWeaving baskets and matsMaking clay pots and platesWeaving textilesMaking furnitureDressmaking and tailoringHandicrafts made from non-primary products
Constructing dwellingsConstructing farm buildingsBuilding boats and canoesClearing land for cultivation
Cleaning, decorating and maintaining dwelling, including small repairCleaning, repairing household durables, vehicles or other goodsPreparing and serving mealsCaring for, training and instructing childrenCaring for the sick, invalid or old peopleTransporting household members or their goods
Source: Based on System of National Accounts, 1993.
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Coverage in concepts
• Employment• Unemployment• Informal sector• Income• Industrial disputes
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Coverage in employment
• Persons at work for at least one hour– Persons who work a few hours and whose social role is to be a
housewife, student or retired– The self employed– Unpaid family workers– Armed forces– Unpaid workers
• Persons not at work– Extended absences
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Coverage in unemployment
• Actively seeking work– Willingness to wrok
• Being available to work– Any work– Only at home
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Coverage in informal sector
• Sectors often excluded:– Agriculture– Domestic work– Outwork/homework– Work for the benefit of own household
• Main and secondary jobs• Workers without fixed work location
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Coverage in income
• Components of income:– Basic wages– Bonuses– Payments in kind and services– Social security benefits
• Family-related payments
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Coverage in industrial disputes
• Legal or official disputes• Minimum duration of disputes• Workers directly and indirectly involved
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Sufficient detail
• The more detail, the clearer it is to see gender differences– Examples
• Sample size may not always allow the detail required– In household surveys– In establishment surveys
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Examples of sufficient detail
• Occupations– Professionals by type: doctors vs nurses, physicists vs teachers– Managers in small vs large firms– Craftworkers in mining vs clothes manufacturing
• Status in employment– Regular vs. casual employees– Subsistence workers and homeworkers vs employers
• Income– Basic pay vs overtime pay, bonuses and social security
contributions
• Hours of work– Normal hours vs overtime and absence from work
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Explanatory variables
• All these indicators should be calculated not only by sex, but by:– Levels of education– Age groups– Family context
• Marital status• Presence and number of preschool children • Presence of elderly persons requiring care
• Therefore, statistics should be readily disaggregated by these variables
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