laboratory calculations & procedres

1Engr. Abu Sayed, M.Sc in Textile Engineer, Email id- [email protected]

DEDICATED TOMY DEAR SIR MR. SAJESH PERINGETH

Abu Sayed Sajesh sir

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTAt first, I gratefulness goes to Almighty God to give us strength and ability to

understand good or bad. You have made our life more beautiful. May you name beexalted, honored and glorified.I am Abu Sayed, not big man but simple man. My home district is Tangail. I am proudfulthat my father is a farmer. I have completed the M.Sc in Textile Engineering fromDaffodil Internatioanal University. I am working as laboratory Manager in a reputedgroup at Narayanganj.

I want to give my heartiest gratitude to my dear sir Mr. Sajesh (Quality Assurance Manager).Thanks goes to all Engineers, officers, technicians, employees, staff and all section in- chargesfor their cordial behavior help.

SUMMARYThis Manual has arranged on the basis of Textile Dyeing lab procedure, calculations & ETP etc.Here presenting some Lab & Dyeing calculations in my Practical life. I am not Writer & If I anymistake, Excuse me. You mind it man is wrong.


Lab Dip:Lab Dip Development means the sample which is dyed according to buyer’s requirements(similar shade and so on). Depending on lab dip development sample dyeing and bulk productiondyeing planning is done. Lab work plays an important role in dyeing process. Bulk dyeingprocess completely depends on the lab dip development work. Lab work is completely managedas the following sequence.Lab dip is a process by which buyers supplied swatch is matched with the varying dyespercentage in the laboratory with or without help of “DATA COLOR”.Lab dip plays an important role in shade matching & and detaching the characteristics of thedyes and chemicals are to be used in the large scale of production. So this is an important taskbefore bulk production.

Object of Lab Dip:The main objectives in lab dip are as follows:

1. To calculate the recipe for sample dyeing.2. To compare dyed sample with swatch by light Box or Spectrophotometer.3. To calculate revise recipe for sample dyeing.4. Finally approved Lab Dip (Grade: A, B, C & D)

Common Stock Solutions:Red – 0.1%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 2.0% (very common)Yellow – 0.1%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 2.0% (very common)Blue – 0.1%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 2.0% (very common).

Preparation:To prepare 0.1% Stock solution, it is necessary to mix 0.1 g dye and 100 cc water.To prepare 0.5% Stock solution, 0.5 g dye stuff is mixed with 100 cc water.To prepare 1.0% & 2.0% Stock solution similar procedure is followed.To prepare 10% Stock solution of Soda ash, 10 g Soda is mixed with 100 cc water.Depth of Shade:0.5% to 5% shade for the goods.

Lab Dip Calculation:Usually following calculations are followed:Dye Solution = (Shade % * Sample Weight) / (Stock solution %) (cc).Salt = (Shade % * Liquor) / 1000 (gram per liter, gpl).Soda Solution = (Shade % * 100 * Liquor) / (1000 * Stock solution %) (cc).Sample Calculation for 0.5% Shade:Sample wt. = 5 mgMaterial liquor ratio = 1: 10Total liquor (5 * 10) = 50 ccDye solution required = (5 * 0.5%) / 1% = 2.5 ccSalt solution required = (50 * 25) / (20 * 10) = 6.25 ccSoda ash solution required = (50 * 10) / (20 * 10) = 2.5 ccWater required = {50 – (2.5 + 6.25 + 2.5)} = 38.75 cc


Working Procedure in Lab Dip:All ingredients had been taken according to the recipe into the pot of sample dyeing machine. Ata room temp the material had run then after 10 minutes started to rise the temperature at 1°C/min. to get 60°C temperature. For performing the required dyeing temperature it took 30minutes. The material had dyed at 60°C for 45 minutes. Then the temperature was reduced atroom temperature within in 10 minutes. The fabric washed in cold water & then the material waswashed in 1 gm/l soap solution (liquor ratio 1:20) at 90°C temperature for 15 minutes. Then afterrapidly cold washing the material was dried & preserved. And then check the shade match withthe required sample by the lighting box. Then send to buyer or merchandiser for approval.

Working Procedure of Sample Dyeing (Knit Dyeing Section):Normally a textile dyeing mill get offer through merchandiser. Merchandising department ofdyeing mill send the swatch to the central dyeing lab. Then the lab manager analysis the color ofswatch with the help of spectrophotometer. After shade matching three sample are submitted tothe buyer or buyer agents. If sample is approved by the buyer then this sample recipe are sent tofloor for bulk production. The dyeing master dyeing the sample for bulk production. Now I willgive the flowchart of sample dyeing for bulk production.

Sample dyeing machine(Scouring and Bleaching)

Water load in sample dyeing machine↓

Fabric load↓

Temperature raised in 500C↓

Scouring chemical added (dosing time 10min)↓


NaOH dosing ( dosing time 5min)↓


Hydrogen Peroxide dosing (dosing time 10min)↓

Temperature raised in 100-1100C and running at 30min↓

Cooling at 800C↓

Ringe or normal wash (10min)↓

Drain out↓

New water load


↓Temperature raised in 550C

↓Add acid + OEM ( for destroying Hydrogen Peroxide power)

↓pH check and obtain 4.5 by adding acetic acid

↓Enzyme is added and run time 60 min

↓Sample check if approved by incharge

↓Ringe (run time 15min)

↓Drain out

(Dyeing)

New water load↓

pH check and obtain 5.6 by adding acetic acid↓

Temperature raised at 50-550C↓

Dyeing auxiliaries added (leveling agent, anti creasing agent, sequestering agent etc)↓

Salt added and running at 10min↓

Color is added and dosing time 30 min ( Reactive dye, Disperse dye, Acid dye etc)↓

Running time 25 min↓

Temperature raised at 600C↓

Soda ash (dosing time 35 min)↓

Sample cutting for checking after 10 min later↓

If approve then ringe at 20 min↓

New water load↓

Add acetic acid for neutralization at 400C and run at 10min↓

Ringe at 5 min↓

Drain out


↓New water load

↓Temperature raised at 90-950C and 10 min running

↓Cooling at 800C

↓Ringe ( for cut sample)

↓Shade checking if approve by incharge then

↓Ringe and running at 15 min

↓Drain out

↓New water load

↓Temperature raised at 300C

↓Fixing agent added ( GG-100, ECO, CR) and dosing time 10min

↓Ringe ( 10min)

↓Drain out

↓New water load

↓Temperature raised at 400C

↓Softener added and run time 30 min

↓Shade matching if approve then

↓Fabric unload.


Cotton fabric dyeing by Reactive dyes

Sample weight = 5 gm.M: L = 1: 10Recipe:Reactive dyes = 0.8 %Reactive dyes = 1.0 %Reactive dyes = 0.05 %Salt = 30 g/lSoda = 10 g/lCalculations:We know, Dyes = F. weight in gm x shade %

Stock solution %

Water = 50 ml.Suppose, Stock solution = 1 %.Reactive dyes = 5 gm x 0.8 % = 4 ml.

1 %Reactive dyes = 5 gm x 1.0 % = 5 ml.

1 %Reactive dyes = 5 gm x 0.05 % = 0.25 ml.

1 %Salt = 30 g/l = 30 x 50 / 1000 = 1.5 gm.Soda = 10 g/l = 10 x 50 / 1000 = 0.5 gm.Total volume = 50 mlRequired water = 50 – (4+5 + 0.25) ml = 40.75 ml.In dye pot, 5 gm sample + 4 ml +5 ml + 0.25 ml + 1.5 gm + 0.5 gm + 40.75 ml.Time & Temperature = 60 min x 600C.

FABRIC DYEINGFabric dyeing is the method after weaving, knitting or non-woven to make fabrics. This is verypopular method of dyeing as the dyed fabrics will be processed further to garment industries veryeasily. Dyeing forms of the fabric dyeing can be used in 2 ways.1. Open width form using the fabrics to spread without any creases and dye them.2. Rope form using the fabrics with the form like a rope.

Dyeing work flow chart:

Scouring & bleaching↓

Per oxide hot with a/acid↓

Enzymes wash with a/acid↓

Leveling with sequestering↓


Dyeing dosing↓

Salt dosing↓

Soda dosing↓

Sample↓

Drain↓

Washing off↓

A/acid↓

Softener↓

Unload

Working Procedure:

Firstly the detergent, Anti-creasing agent, Anti-foaming agent and Stabilizer are mixed in mixingtank, then load to machine at 50°c

↓The temperature is risen to 60°c. Now the Caustic Soda is given to bath

↓The Hydrogen Peroxide is given at 70°c

↓Raise the temperature at 98°c and run for 60 minutes. Here the Ph = 11-12

↓Rinse the fabric

↓Hot wash is done at 80°c × 10 → Drain → Normal wash → Drain

↓Peroxide is applied at 60°c and run for 15 minutes → Hot wash

↓Add Acetic Acid at same temperature and run 10 minutes

↓pH checked (pH=6.5) → Normal wash

↓Now Acetic Acid applied at 55°c for pH control (pH= 4.50) and then Enzyme is given to bath at

same temperature with 60 minute↓

Raise the temperature (Grade rate → 2 C/min) at 80°c and run 6 minute↓

Cold wash is done 2 times and the drained out.


Procedure for Lab dips by the Different Dyestuff in the Laboratory:

Procedure for100 % Cotton Fabric:1. Calculate the recipe.2. Weight the fabric.3. Take the beaker keep the fabric in to the beaker.4. Then the dyes, chemicals & required amount of water take in to the beaker by the digitalpipeting.5. Then weight the salt by the electric balance and add in to the beaker.6. Then the beaker set in to the lab dyeing machine for dyeing.7. Start the program for dyeing the whole dyeing time 60 min at 60 °C temperature. ( the dyeingtime and temperature depends on which classes of dyes are used for dyeing .)8. After 30 min add the then add the soda ash . by pipeting .9. Again run the program next 30 min at the same temperature .10. Finished the dyeing time then the sample taken from the beaker first hot wash & then coldwash.11. Then acid wash as for neutralization.12. Then soaping required soap solution 10 min at 90° C temperature.13. After the fabric again cold.14. Then dry the lab dip and compare with the standard.

Turquoise Color:Turquoise is the color of the gem turquoise. It is a slightly greenish shade of cyan. Turquoise issometimes described as a mixture of pale blue and green. The name comes from the French forTurkish.

Turquoise ColorTypes of Turquoise Color: There are six type of Turquoise Color. They are given below:

1. Pale Turquoise (web color) (Hex: #AFEEEE) (RGB: 175, 238, 238)2. Turquoise Blue (Hex: #00FFEF) (RGB: 0, 255, 239)3. Bright Turquoise (Hex: #08E8DE) (RGB: 8, 232, 222)4. TURQUOISE (web color) (Hex: #40E0D0) (RGB: 64, 224, 208)5. Medium Turquoise (web color) (Hex: #48D1CC) (RGB: 72, 209, 204)6. Deep Turquoise (web color Dark Turquoise) (Hex: #00CED1) (RGB: 0, 206, 209)


Process Flow Chart for 100% Cotton Knit Fabric (Turquoise Color):Turquoise is very sensitive color. Its wash fastness is not good. Dyeing process of turquoisecolor is slightly difference from other color process.

Process Sequence of Turquoise Color:

Fabric loaded↓

Treating with anti-creasing agent (Room temperature)↓

Adding detergent↓

Adding Antifoaming agent↓

Caustic dosing (dosing 6min)↓

Peroxide dosing (60˚c; 5min)↓

Run time 1 hour 95˚c↓

Sample check↓

If ok↓

Drain out↓

Normal hot (70˚c, 10min)↓

Drain↓

Adding Peroxide Killer↓

Run time 55˚c, 10min↓

Adding Acetic Acid↓

Run time 10min 55˚c (ph-4.5)↓

Adding enzyme↓

Run time 1hour, 55˚c↓

Enzyme hot- 70˚c, 10min


↓Drain

↓Filling in the tank (run time 5min)

↓Rinsing -4min

↓Drain

↓Filling in the tank

↓Adding Leveling, Antifoaming & Anti-creasing agent (R.T.)

↓10min run time (R.T.)

↓10min run time (60˚c)

↓Color dosing-30min

↓10min run

↓½ Salt dosing-5min

↓½ Salt dosing -5min

↓Runtime -25min (60˚c)

↓Sample check

↓Soda dosing (2 g/l; 20min)

↓Remaining Soda dosing (30min)

↓20 min run

↓Temp rise 80˚c

↓Run time-1 hour

↓Rinsing-5min

↓Drain

↓


Filling in the tank↓

Run time (RT)↓

Drain↓


Normal hot (60˚c,10min)↓

Sample check↓

Drain↓

Adding Acetic Acid (room temp, run time-30min)↓

Sample check↓

Drain↓


Adding soaping agent (90˚c, run-10 min)↓

Drain↓

Sample check↓


Rinsing (5min room tem)↓

Drain↓


Run time (5min, room tem)↓

Drain↓


Dosing-fixing agent (15min)


↓Run time (20min, room tem)

↓Sample check

↓Drain

↓Filling in the tank

↓Dosing softener (5min)

↓Run time (20min, room tem)

↓Sample check

↓Unload.

Package Dyeing (HT HP) - Cheese Yarn Dyeing-IIReactive Dyeing of cotton yarn in cheese form:Whether it is Vinylsulphone or Bifunctional dyestuff, you may follow the following dyeing cyclefor yarn dyeing:The Chemical table shown below contains a Code No. that has to be included time to time whenthe dyeing process is going on.

Code No Name of Chemical Grams/liter

1Acetic Acid 0.5

Sequestering Agent 0.5

2Acetic Acid 0.5

Vacuum Salt or Glauber's Salt As Recommended

3 Dyestuff O.W.F.

4 Soda Ash As Recommended

5 Acetic Acid 0.5

6Sequestering Agent 0.5

Anionic Soap 0.5

7 Acetic Acid 0.5

8 Dye fixing Agent Not Necessary

9 Softener 1.0


Processing Cycle for Yarn Dyeing: Set the dye bath with soft water at ambient temperature and as per MLR Enter the RFD (Ready For Dyeing) yarn in to the processing vessel. Add Chemical [Code-1]. Circulate for 3 minutes (In -> Out) and hold for 10 minutes.

Drain. Check pH. It should be 6 - 7. Check for channeling. Fill cold water, add chemicals [Code-2], Circulate for 5 minutes (In -> Out) and hold for

10 minutes. Raise temperature to 40°C and hold for 5 minutes. Add dissolved dyestuff [Code-3] in 2 to 3 portions with Out -> In circulation at 40°C. Raise temperature to 60°C @ 1.5°C/minute and hold for 15 minutes. Add Chemicals [Code-4] in two parts with In->Out circulation and run for 45 minutes. Check the sample and drain the dye bath. Rinse at room temperature for 5 minutes and drain. Give overflow rinse as per the dept of shade - 3 to 5 minutes. Fill fresh water, add chemicals [Code-5] and hold for 5 minutes. Drain. Fill hot water (60°C), add chemicals [Code-6] and circulate for 3 minutes. Raise the temperature to 95°C and run for 15 minutes. Drain. Rinse at 70°C for 10 minutes followed by 5 minutes overflow wash. Drain. Fill fresh cold water, add chemicals [Code-7] & [Code-8] and circulate for 3 minutes,

hold for 15 minutes and then drain. Fill Cold water, add chemicals [Code-9], circulate for 3 minutes and hold for 10 minutes.

Drain. Unload the batch.

Notes on Dyeing: For Shades above 7%, two soaping operations are necessary. Dye fixing is optional but not a substitute for thorough washing. Pressure difference during In->Out and Out ->In operations has to maintain a constant.

Package Dyeing Of Unmercerised Cotton Yarn With High Exhaust Reactive Dyes


· Start Dyeing @50°C; ensure the starting bath pH be 6; adjust with Acetic Acid if necessary.

· Add salt (vacuum or Glauber’s salt) and hold for 15 minutes.· Add ½ the volume of dissolved and filtered dyestuff and hold 10 minutes.

· Add ½ the volume of dissolved and filtered dyestuff and hold 10 minutes.

· Raise the temperature @2°C/minute to 80°C and hold for 20 minutes.

· Add ½ alkali (Soda ash) and hold 25 minutes.

· Add ½ alkali (Soda ash) and hold for 30 minutes.

· Check sample.

· Drain.

· Cold wash (10 + 10 minutes).

· Neutralize @ 40°C with adequate qty of Acetic acid.

· Cold wash – 10 minutes.

· Hot Wash @ 70°C (2°C/minute) – 10 minutes.

· Soap @ 95°C – 15 minutes (1st soap).

· Soap @ 95°C – 15 minutes (2nd soap)

· Soap @ 95°C – 15 minutes (3rd soap)

· Hot Wash

· Sample check for shade and wash fastness

· Cold wash (10 + 10) minutes

· Acid wash with 1 gpl of acetic acid

· In the same acid bath – cationic softener treatment – 20 minutes

· Check pH – 6

· Unload.

Lycra Yarn – Pretreatment in Package dyeing machine:Machine Circulation Cycle Settings:Cheese winding: on plastic cones or cheeses.Cheese Weight: Not more than 500 grams/cheese

DEMINERALIZATION:o Recipe:

Kierlon Jet B Conc = 0.05% Lufibrol MFD = 0.05%

@ 50°C for 2 cycles This is done to remove the unwanted mineral contents from the

fiber. Hot Wash = 1 cycle @ 50°C Cold Wash = 1 cycle


BLEACHING:o Recipe:

Soda Ash = 2.0% Stabilizer = 0.5% Lissopol D paste = 0.5% Hydrogen Peroxide(50%) = 2.0%

@ 65° to 70°C for 45 to 60 minutes. Set the bath with chemicals other than H2O2. Raise temperature @ 1.5°C/minute Hot Wash = 1 cycle @ 50°C

Peroxide Killer Treatment:o Recipe:

Organic Peroxide killer = 0.25% Acetic acid = 1.5 g/l

@ 50°C for 1 cycle Drain, Cold wash Start Dyeing.

Note:1. Bleaching temperature should not go beyond 65 to 70°C2. Cheese weight = 500 grams and less is safer.3. If you want to use regular cheese weights of 800 to 1000 grams, then the cheeses have to beconditioned in the autoclave with moist steam at 100°C for 30 minutes, repeatedly, so that astable shrinkage percentage of yarn is reached. The linear shrinkage % should be 20 to 25%.

Sample dyeing process for cotton Recipe for cotton fabricRecipe for Machine Wash Pretreatment

Wetting agent (NOF) – 0.5g/LSequestering agent (2146 – 1g/LAnticreasing agent (JN) – 1g/LStabilizer (SIFA) – 0.7g/LCaustic – 2g/LH2O2 – 4g/L

Detergent (Sol ax) - 0.5 gm/LCaustic -1 gm/LHydrous - 2 gm/L

NeutralizationAcetic Acid – 0.5g/L

Fabric weight Enzyme treatmentEnzyme UL – 1g/L

Fabric cold wash DyeingA/Acid – 0.5g/LLeveling agent – 1g/LAnt creasing agent – 1g/LDyes – X %Salt – X g/l [salt & soda depend on liquor ratio


but general formula is 6:1 salt: soda, if usedpower soda then 3:1]Soda – X g/L

Recipe calculation After TreatmentFixing agent (Neofix ECO/CIBA fix FRD) -0.5 g/lSoaping agent(Lipotol PS-60) - 0.8 g/lAcetic acid - 1 g/l

Dye + Salt + Water and other chemicals SofteningAcetic acid - 0.2 g/lSoftener (Perrostol CWS) - 1 g/l.

Are taken by pipette in the pot, Then washfabric keep in the potSet. Time and temp. (60-80˚c x 60)Fabric unloadCold wash 2 timesHot wash with RskDyerShade matching.Sequence of cotton fabric dyeing Sequence of white fabric dyeing for cotton

Fabric loadingRequired amount of water was taken (1:10)

Required amount of water was taken into theM/C

Scouring[NOF-0.5g/l, 2146-0.5g/l, JN-0.5g/l,SIFA0.7g/l, NaOH: 3-4g/l, H2O2 4-8g/l 110°cx 60 ]́.

Fabric loadingHot wash [NOF, Soda 90°c x 20, 1:10]

Acid wash /chemical remove[A/Acid-0.5g/l, H2O2-0.5g/l, 60°c x 10 ]́.

Scouring [NOF, 2146, JN, SIFA, H2O2 110°cx 60 ]́

Enzyme[Enzyme: 0.5g/l; UL/Biosoft 2xl. 50°c x 60 ́PH 4.5].

Wash

Leveling[LRDS-0.5-1g/l, JN -0.5g/l10 ́ PH 6.5-7].

Acid wash /chemical remove [A/Acid 60°c x10 ́]

Salt (Glaubar salt– 60g/l) Enzyme [Enzyme UL 50°c x 45 ́ PH-4.5]Color [60°-90°c x 60 ́] A/Acid [PH - 6 - 6.5]Soda (power soda – 15g/l) Syno white 4BK [60°-80°c x 20 ]́RSK hot [60°c x 60 ]́ WashingA/Acid (neutralization) A/Acid

Fixing [Dyaploe-Dco 30°c x 10 ́ PH 5.5] Softener [Hcs]Softener [HCS 40°c x 20 ́] WashingUnload the dyed fabric


Calculation for Lab Deep:Recipe Calculation Formula:Dye = (Shade % * Weight of the fabric in gm) / Stock solution %.Or,Required solution = WP / C

Where,W = weight of fabric, yarn, or fiberP = shade percentageC = concentration of stock solutionCC = cubic centimeter.

For auxiliaries (chemicals) the formula is as below:Required amount of solution (mls) = (g/l required * wt of substrate * LR) / (10 * concentration(%) of stock soln)

For addition of auxiliaries in solids form such as salt the formula is:Salt in g/l = (Required amount (%) * Sample weight * LR) / 1000

Conversion formula from percentage to g/l is as below:g/l = required amount (%) * 10.

Calculation of Dyeing RecipeIf alkali conc. Is given in be. Then the formula to calculate this in g/l is as follows:Required amount of solution (mls) = (g/l required * wt of substrate * LR) / (10 * concentration(%) of stock soln)Or,= (Required amount (%)* wt of substrate * LR) / (Concentration (%) of stock soln)Or,Required alkali soln in c.c. = ( g/l required * wt of substrate * LR) / (10* conversion value fromBe. to g/l of alkali )Or,Required alkali soln in c.c. = (Required amount (%) * wt of substrate * LR) / conversion valuefrom Be. to g/l of alkali

Example: Suppose a lab deep of a fabric sample (1*1 ribs) has to be formed with followingdyes & chemicals:Dyes:1. Rema Blue RR = 1.122%2. React Red KHW = 2.014%3. React Yellow KHW = 1.486%Salt = 70%Soda Ash (conc.20%) = 5 g/lCaustic Soda (38 Be) = 1.32%L: R = 1:8Sample Wt. = 5 gm


% Stock Soln = 1Therefore, recipe calculation for dyes and auxiliaries in g/l will be as follows:For dyes:We know,Dye = (Shade % * Weight of the fabric in gm)/ (Stock solution %)For,1. Rema Blue RR = (1.122*5)/1=5.61 g/l2. React Red KHW = (2.014*5)/1= 10.07 g/l3. React Yellow KHW = (1.486*5)/1= 7.43 g/l.

For auxiliaries:We know,Salt in g/l = (Required amount (%) * Sample weight * LR) / 1000

Required Salt = (70*5*8)/1000 = 2.8 gm.

For Soda ash (conc.20%):We know,Required amount of solution (mls) = (g/l required * wt of substrate * LR) / (10 * concentration(%) of stock soln)

Required amount of soda ash in C.C. = (5*5*8)/(10*20) = 1.0

For Caustic soda (38 Be.):We know,Required alkali soln in c.c. = (Required amount (%) * wt of substrate * LR) /conversion valuefrom Be. to g/l of alkali

Required caustic soda = (1.32*5*8)/441 = 0.12 c.c.

[Since 38 °Be.NaOH= 441 gm NaOH 100% per 1lit NaOH soln]

Extra Water required:= M:L – (required water to make soln of dyes & auxiliaries) = (5*8) – [(5.61+10.07+7.43) +(1.0+0.12) ]= 40 – 24.112= 15.77 (Salt is added in solid form)

Equipments of Recipe Section:Microprocessor pH Meter (Hanna Instrument)Digital pipetteDigital Weighting Meter with Glass Box (Explorer, USA)

There are different matching systems followed in Labs. They are:Tube light matching.Sun light matching.Ultra Violet matching.Sodium light matching (show room).


Process Sequence of Lab Dip:Lab dip plays an important role in dyeing process. Bulk dyeing process completely depends onthe lab dip development work. Lab dip is completely managed as the following sequence.

Lab Dip Requisition from buyer↓

Entry in the computer↓

First recipe is given by swatch/pantone number↓

First correction↓

Second correction↓

Grading of sample (A, B, C, D)↓

Yarn and knit sample send to buyer↓

Approved by buyer↓

Order for bulk production↓

Production card with approved sample and recipe send to production section.

Process Flow Chart/Sequence of Dyeing LabAt first dyeing is performed in dyeing laboratory and then starting for bulk production. A lots of

work is done in the dyeing laboratory. In the dyeing lab, lab dip or sample is developed by thedyeing master. Lab dip plays an important role in shade matching & this is an important taskbefore bulk production.

Process Sequence of Dyeing Lab:

Sample/Swatch/Panton no. / TCX no. / TPX no. from the buyer↓

Determination of sample’s possible color combination by the help of Spectrophotometer ormanual

↓Dispersion by autodoser

↓Trial dyeing of first recipe

↓Unload

↓Normal wash

↓Hot wash with detergent


↓Oven drying

↓Ironing

↓Shade matching in light box ( If Ok then send to buyer for approval)

↓If not ok

↓First correction takes from Spectrophotometer or manually

↓Dispersion by autodoser


↓Unload

↓Normal wash


↓Oven drying

↓Ironing

↓Shade matching in light box ( If Ok then send to buyer for approval)

↓If not ok

↓Second correction takes from Spectrophotometer or manually

↓Dispersion by auto doser


↓Unload

↓Normal wash


↓Oven drying

↓Ironing

↓Shade matching in light box


↓If ok

↓Send for buyer’s approval

↓Bulk production by considering the buyer’s approved sample as standard

Note: This procedure is applicable for yarn or fabric dyeing.

Reactive Dyes - Shade Card 1Reactive Dyes are used for all cellulosic Fibres, Silk & Viscose Rayon. These colours react withcellulose in presence of alkali and also form chemical linkage resulting excellent fastness.Reactive HE' Dyes are reactive dyes containing Bismonochlorotriazinyl group as reactive redicaland high fixation on dyeing fabric blends or, Terycot.These colours are suitable for exhaustdyeing (801C) of medium and heavy depths.

Salt and Alkali Requirements:

Depth of Shade Salt gm per lit Soda Ash gm per

(O.W.F.) (Na2 .SO4) (Na2CO3)

0 - 0.5% 30 10

0.5 - 1.0% 45 15

1 - 2% 60 15

2 - 4% 70 20

Above 4% 90 20

Dyeing at 800C for 1 hour of the final alkali addition.

Reactive VS' Dyes are reactive dyes containing Vinyl Sulfone groups as reactive radical Suitablefor exhaust dyeing (60°C) , continuous dyeing and printing.

Dyeing at 60°C

Material to Liquor Ratio 1:2 to 1:3 1:4 to 1:6

Glauber's Salt gms/lit 50 50

30% NaOH Soln. ml/lit 3-6 2-3

Soda Ash gms/lit 5 5

Trisodium Phosphate gms/lit 30 20-25

Dyeing at 600C for 60 minutes final alkali addition.After-treatmentRinse in cold water, Hot rinse, soap at boil with 2 gm/l neutral detergent for 15 minutes, Hotrinse, Cold rinse & Dry.


NOTES: For T. Blue G. dyeing use 50 gms/lit Glauber's Salt for exhaustion and 15 to 20 gms/lit

Soda Ash alongwith 3-5 gms/ lit NaOH (72°Tw) in last twc ends at 800C 'or fixation For Reactive Yellow FG, Red C2G & Red 5B, 80 gms/lit Glaubers Salt gives better

colour yield In case or Reactive Brill. Blue R only 1 quarter of required Salt is added over first and

second turn. The remaining Salt is added only after the addition of Alkali.

REACTIVE DYES-TANACTIVE HE BRAND DYESDYEING PROCEDURE-DYEING METHODS -

Winch, jet, package & beam dyeing machines.These dyes are specially designed for exhaust dyeing methods. The dyeing method selectiondepends upon the type of substrate to be dyed and the machinery to be used for dyeing.

Depth of Shade Salt

Unmercerisedcotton(gm/l)

Mercerized cotton orViscose Rayon

Soda Ash(gms/l)

Fixation time(min.)

Upto 0.10% 10 5 10 30

0.11-0.30% 20 10 10 30

0.31-0.50% 30 20 10 45

0.51-1.00% 45 30 15 45

1.01-2.00% 60 40 15 45

2.01-4.00% 70 55 20 60

Above 4.00% 90 65 20 60

Method No. 1: Salt addition in portions (suitable for mercerized yarn)

This process is recommended for non-circulating liquor machinery and it is suitable for alldepths of shade.


Method No. 2: Salt addition at start (Suitable for unmercerised yarn)

This method is recommended for machines with liquor circulation and it is suitable for mediumto heavy depth of shades.

Method No. 3: Both salt & alkali addition at start

The method is recommended for machines with liquor circulation, primarily for the dyeing ofmedium - heavy binary combinations. It is suitable for unmercerised cotton.

Note 1: A mixture of soda ash and caustic soda is recommended alkali for this method.Depth of Shade Soda ash gms/l Caustic Soda 100% gms/lUpto 1.0% 5 0.21.01 to above 5 0.5

Method No. 4: (Dyeing Pale Shade) (Garment dyeing)The method is recommended for machines with microprocessor controlled addition system fordyeing pale shades (less than 0.5% depth) and for all shades on mercerized cotton & viscosepackages


Method No. 5: Isothermal Method (Dyeing heavy shades garment)

The method is recommended for machines with microprocessor controlled addition systems formedium to heavy depths (>than 0.5% depth) on unmercerised cotton.

Dyeing method for Jigger machines-

Due to high temperature dyeing the problems of off-shade selvedges of too pale selvedges areoften encountered in dyeing with these machines. The following precautions hence should betaken to avoid such problems.

1. To use closed type jiggers so that a uniform temperature is possible across the width offabric.

2. Batch the fabric evenly.3. Maintain the dye bath at minimum of 85-90oC during salt stage.

4. Adjust the dye bath temperature 85-90oC to ensure that fabric is maintained at minimum80oC during alkali addition stage.

Procedure -Set the dye bath at 90oC with resist salt 2 gms/l. Now add 1/2 amt. of dye and run one end. Thenadd remaining 1/2 amt. & run another one end. Add 1/2 amt. of salt & run one end. Addremaining 1/2 amt. Of salt and run another end. Maintain 80oC temperature continue to run for 2ends. Now add 1/2 amt. of soda ash & run for one end. Then add remaining 1/2 amt. Soda ash &run for another one end. Then add remaining 1/2 amt. soda ash & run for another one end. Thenrun for 4 ends or more if required & wash. (1 end =10 minutes)

Dyeing method for cotton / polyester blend-The one bath two stage dyeing method for polyester / cotton blend is applicable on jet, beam orpackage dyeing machines.

2 gm/l Buffer pH 5 (5.5) X% GAAYACTIVE 'HE' dye

1 gm/l Anionic dispersant 50 gms/l Salt

X% Disperse Dye 15 gms/l T.S.P. Soda ash


Salt and alkali requirements-

Depth of Shade % on total weight of goods Salt (gms/l) Soda Ash (gms/l)

Upto 0.2% 15 10

0.21-0.4% 20 15

0.41-0.80% 30 15

0.81-1.6% 50 20

Aabove 1.6% 70 20

Washing - off procedure-In order to obtain maximum wet-fastness properties, brightness and purity of shades withconsistent dyeing results, it is essential to give a through 'Soaping' to clear-off unreachedhydrolyzed dye form the dyed fabric.The dyed fabric is rinsed repeatedly in cold water to remove most of the alkali, salt and unfixeddye present and rinse again in warm water not higher than 60oC. then run in a bath containing:Anionic detergent - 1-2 gms/liter for 15 minutes at the boil. Then rinse in warm water (up to60oC) and finally in cold water. The most satisfactory results in washing-off, particularly forpiece goods, are obtained by employing an Open soaper or perforated beam-washing machine. Ifsuch equipments are not available, conventional ones like jig or winch may be used. For yarn inthe hank form open-vat is employed and for yarn in packaged form the package-dyeing machineitself used.

About Blend Dyeing:Blends are any textile material from fibre through yarn to fabric which are deliberatecombinations of chemically or physically different fibrous polymer.cotton and Polyester blend isan example of chemically different blend and Cotton and Viscose is physically different blendbecause both are cellulosic.Object of Blending:

1. Dilution of an expensive, lusterious fibre by blending with cheaper substitute.2. To incorporate of more durable component to extendthe useful life.e.g. Core spun yarn.3. A compromise to take advantage of disirable performance characteristics, contribute by

both fibre component.e.g. P/C blends to get comfort of cotton, strength and creaserecovery of polyester.

4. The development of novel fabric design for garments incorporating multicoloureffect.e.g. Polyester part is dyed and cotton part undyed.


5. The presence of attractive appearance using byy combination of yarn of different luster,crimp is possible by blending.

6. Colourant modification is possible by blending.7. Finishing process modification.8. Improved moisture absorption.9. Reduce anstistatic characteristics pilling.

Process Sequence of P/C Blend Dyeing:

Desizing↓

Scouring↓

Drying↓

Heat setting↓

Mercerization↓

Drying↓

PET dye↓

Reduction clearing↓

Drying↓

Singing↓

Cotton dye↓

Washing↓

Soaping↓

Washing↓

Drying


Dyeing P/C Blend with Disperse and Vat Dye:Recipe:Disperse dye ----------------------------------------X%Vat dye-------------------------------------------------Y%Dispersing agent------------------------------------o.5-1%Wetting agent-----------------------------------------0.5-1%PH-------------------------------------------------4-5 with acetic acid(30%)

Procedure:Prepar the bath with dispersing agent,wetting agent and acetic acid.Treatment for 10-15 minuteat 50-60 degree C.Then add disperse and vat dye in the bath.Dyeing for 10-15 minute.Raisetemp. up to 130 degree C in 60-90 minute.After PET part dyeing cool to 80 degree for properlevelling then add caustic and hydrose and dyeing 15 minute.Cooling to 60 degree c and dyeingfor 30 minute for better exhaustion.Rinse with cold water and oxidation with hydrogen per oxidefor 15 minute at 50 degree C.Then rinseing with cold water and soaping 95 degree c for 25minute using 2g/l lissapol.Hot and cold rinse and then final wash off.

Dyeing P/C blend with Disperse and Reactive Dye (Thermosol Process):Recipe:Disperse dye -----------------------------------X%Reactive dye ----------------------------------Y%Soda ash-----------------------------------------5-20g/lMigration inhibitor ----------------------------10-20g/lWetting agent----------------------------------1-2g/l

Dyeing Procedure:

Padding:Padding with disperse and reactive dye at 20-30 degree C. Liquor pick up 60-80%.Predrying:Partial drying is done to avoid migration of dyes.Here keep m.c 25%.Drying:Complete and even dyeing at 110-150 degree C.Thermofixation:It's done at 180-220 degree C about 30-45 sec. to fixation dye.Polyester dyeing complete hereAlkali Padding:Padding at 20-30 degree C.Pick up 50-60%.Caustic and salt used for Procion mx and Procion H.Steaming:Steaming is done 103-105 degree C about 30 sec. for procion mx and 45-75 sec.for procion H.Wash off:A typical 8 box wash off is given by Cold,hot water and detergent.Box-1:-------------------------------------water 60 degree C.Box -2&3:-------------------------------------Detergent 5 gm/l at boilBox-4&5:---------------------------------------water at the boilBox-7;-------------------------------------------water 60 degree C.Box-8:-------------------------------------------Cold water.


Classification of the methods for dyeing of P/C blend:Exhaust dyeing method or batch dyeing method-This is again classified in the following three groups-

1. Two bath dyeing2. One bath one step dyeing3. One bath two step dyeing method

Thermosol Dyeing method -It is again classified in to two groups-

1. Continuous dyeing-2. Pad batch process (semi-continuous)

Note-In continuous dyeing process may be single bath or double bath.

EXHAUST DYEING:Two bath dyeing1. This is the process in which we have to dyed first polyester part in the HTHP beam dyeingmachine or HTHP jet dyeing machine and the cotton part is dyed in the jigger machine.2. Batch process3. Machine used for dyeing of polyester part-

HTHP Beam dyeing machine( First commercialized HTHP machine) HTHP jet dyeing machine

4. Machine used for dyeing of cotton part-5. Jigger dyeing machine used


PROCESS ROUTE P/C BLEND DYEING:

MACHINE FOR POLYESTER DYEING:

HTHP beam dyeing machine-No need to explain the whole process of dyeing in beam dyeing machine. Only some importantpoints we will discuss about it-

Advantages & features:1. Loading and unloading of the fabric is easy and time of dyeing is short.2. Dyeing in open width form.3. Most suitable for those fabrics that might crease, extend or abrade when dyed in

machines where the fabric is in motion.4. Not appropriate for compact fabrics5. De-aeration is essential to avoid paler dyed spots.6. A wetting agent helps to eliminate air bubbles within the fabric roll.

Recipe used HTHP dyeing: Disperse dye- X%(depends upon the shade) Dispersing agent-1g/l Sequestering agent-1-2g/l(If required) Defoamers -.5 to 1g/l Levelling agent-.5 to 1 g/l Wetting agent- .5g/l Acetic acid-enough to get ph=5-6


Flow of the liquor usually in the in-to-out direction, but it can be reversed. Out-to-in flow cancompress the material causing flattening and glazing, particularly on the inner layers.

Material stationary and liquor is moving. Batching is very important; during batching tension should be uniform and optimum. M:Lratio is 1:10 Both cloth and yarn can be dyed on this machine.

Major Chemicals Used in Textile Wet Processing

Introduction:Chemical analysis always involves the use of different chemicals. In order to assure accurateanalysis results, the chemicals used need to be standardised, the procedures must be followedexactly and the data obtained have to be analysed statistically. If an instrument is used, it shouldbe maintained and calibrated properly.

In a chemical analysis, especially involving quantitative analysis, the amount of chemical used iscritical and can be determined by the measurement of concentration if it is a solution, or byweight, if it is a solid. Sometimes, the concentration of a solution can be easily determined byusing another known solution through titration. For acids and bases, if the concentration issufficiently low, the pH concept is generally used to represent the concentration of the acid orbase in the aqueous solution. For the analysis of common chemicals, such as caustic soda, aceticacid, soda ash, sodium dithionite, hydrogen peroxide, and so on, titrimetric analysis andgravimetric analysis are widely used. For the analysis of surfactants and other chemicals,qualitative spot tests and specialised instruments should be utilized.

Before the analysis of chemicals in textile wet processing we should to know aboutconcentration, titration, weighing, pH etc. Now a short identity of these is given below.

Concentration:The concentration of a solute is usually expressed as the amount of a solute in a unit volume of asolution. The amount of a solute can be in grams (g), kilograms (kg), moles (mol), or normals(n). The unit volume of a solution is always in litres (l).

Titration:Titration is a method by which the concentration of an unknown solution can be determinedusing a standardised solution with a known concentration through a stoichiometric reaction. Theend point of the chemical reaction is indicated by the colour change of an indicator or aninstrumental reading. The standard solution of a known reagent is the titrant and the unknownsolution is the titrand.

Weighing:Weighing is an important operation in gravimetric analysis. Usually it involves the use of an


electronic balance with a minimum readability of 0.1 mg. In order to ensure reproducible results,sample handling is very critical especially when hygroscopic materials are weighed.

pH:pH is a scale between 0 and 14 used to express the concentration of hydronium (H3O+, or H+)ions in a solution. It is defined by Equation.

pH = – log [H+]

Major Chemicals Used in Wet Processing:Acids, bases, salts, surfactants, oxidising agents and reducing agents are the major chemicalsthose are widely used in wet processing industry.

Acid:An acid (from the Latin acidus/acēre meaning sour) is a substance which reacts with a base.Commonly, acids can be identified as tasting sour, reacting with metals such as calcium, andreacting with bases such as sodium carbonate. Aqueous acids have a pH under 7, with acidityincreasing the lower the pH. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said tobe acidic.The following standard solutions are used in the acid analysis. They are usuallyprepared in advance and consumed within a certain period of time.

1. H2SO4, 0.1 N, 0.25N, 0.5 N and 1 N;2. HCl, 0.1N, 0.25 N, 0.5 N and 1 N;3. HNO3, 0.1 N;

There are two types of acid1. Inorganic acid2. Organic acid

Inorganic Acid:Inorganic acid are Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Nitric acid (HNO3),Phosphoric acid (H3PO4), etc.

Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4):The concentration of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) can be determined by using Baume’s (ºBé)hydrometer. The titration of sulphuric acid is carried out using sodium hydroxide in the presenceof phenolphthalein as an indicator. The end point is reached when a faint pink color is persistent.

HClThe concentration of hydrochloric acid (HCl) can be determined using a hydrometer, in a verysimilar manner to the determination of sulphuric acid concentration. Hydrochloric acid is avolatile acid at high concentration.


HNO3

The concentration of nitric acid (HNO3) can be determined using a hydrometer. If titration isused to determine the concentration, phenolphthalein is the indicator.

H3PO4The concentration of phosphoric acid (H3PO4) can be determined in a similar manner to thatdiscussed for H2SO4, HCl and HNO3.

Organic Acids:Organic acids are HCOOH (formic acid), Acetic acid etc.

HCOOHHCOOH (formic acid) is the simplest organic acid in terms of its organic structure. ConcentratedHCOOH is usually 88% in strength. Since formic acid is a volatile acid, precautions should betaken to prevent loss of strength in the sample preparation stage. The concentration of formicacid can be determined by acid– base titration as well as by redox titration owing to the reductionpower of formic acid.

CH3COOHAcetic acid is a weak acid. It is available at different concentrations. Highly concentrated aceticacid at 98% and above is called glacial acetic acid because its freezing point range is between13.3 ºC (98%) and 16.7 ºC (100%). Glacial acetic acid is flammable. The concentration of aceticacid can easily be determined using acid–base titration with phenolphthalein as an indicator. Thewater used should be free from CO2, prepared by boiling before use.

Base:A base in chemistry is a substance that can accept hydrogen cations (protons) or more generally,donate a pair of valence electrons. A soluble base is referred to as an alkali if it contains andreleases hydroxide ions (OH−) quantitatively.Bases are two types

1. Inorganic and2. Organic bases

Inorganic Bases:Inorganic bases are Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), Ammoniumhydroxide (NH4OH) etc.

NaOHSodium hydroxide (NaOH) is also called caustic soda. It is available in solution at differentconcentrations or in solid form. Commercial NaOH often contains a little sodium carbonate(Na2CO3) as a by-product of the manufacturing process. This small amount of Na2CO3 willusually not influence its use in textile wet processes.


Owing to its strong alkalinity, NaOH can react with CO2 in air easily. It can also absorb watervery quickly.

Na2CO3

Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is also called soda ash. In textile wet processes, it is often availablein anhydrous form. Its purity can be > 99% Na2CO3 (58% Na2O).

If the concentration of a Na2CO3 solution needs to be determined, a titrimetric method identicalto the ones listed for NaOH in this section can be used. If the existence of bicarbonate is aconcern (very rarely in textile wet processes) the following method can be used to determine thecontent of bicarbonate in sodium carbonate.

NH4OHAmmonium hydroxide (NH4OH) is a water solution of ammonia gas (NH3). It can also be calledaqua ammonia or ammonia water. The concentration determination can be done using either ahydrometer or an acid–base titration. Since ammonia is volatile, the concentration determinationshould be done with care to avoid any loss of strength. If a hydrometer is used, the sample andthe hydrometer should be cooled to 5–10 ºC. Table 4.75 lists the relationship between theconcentration (% w/w) and ºBé of NH4OH at 10 ºC. Acid–base titration can also be used todetermine the concentration of NH4OH.

Organic Bases:Organic bases are Triethanolamine, N (CH2CH2OH) 3, Ethylenediamine (H2NCH2)2 etc.

TriethanolamineTriethanolamine, N (CH2CH2OH) 3, is a strong organic base miscible with water, methanol andacetone. The pH of its 0.1N aqueous solution is 10.5. Analytical grade N(CH2CH2OH)3 is ahighly hygroscopic and viscous liquid with a pale yellow or no colour. Its melting point isbetween 18 and 21 ºC. Its density is about 1.12.

EthylenediamineEthylenediamine, (H2NCH2)2, is a strong organic base miscible with water and alcohol. It is acolourless and viscous liquid with a density of 0.898 and a melting point of 8 ºC. The pH of a25% aqueous solution is 11.5. Like triethanolamine, it is an aliphatic amine soluble in water and,therefore, can be determined by the acid–base titration with methyl orange as an indicator.

SaltsSalts are the products of the acid-base neutralisation reaction. The salts used most in textile wetprocesses are common salt (NaCl, sodium chloride) and Glauber’s salt (Na2SO4, sodium


sulphate). The content analysis of salts is usually conducted by using a precipitation titrationmethod which may be followed by filtering and weighing procedures to obtain the final results.

Sodium chlorideIndustrial grade NaCl has a content of 92–98%. The precipitation titration can be conductedusing 0.1 N AgNO3 as the titrant and 5% K2CrO4 as the indicator (the Mohr method). Thesample chloride solution should be buffered with calcium carbonate to a pH between 6.3 and 7.2in order to avoid any interference from other ions present in the solution.

Sodium sulphateNa2SO4 is available in two types, anhydrate and decahydrate. Its content analysis can beconducted based on the precipitation method using barium chloride (BaCl2).

An excess amount of barium chloride is added into the sample solution which has been filteredbeforehand to form BaSO4 precipitate as indicated by the following reaction:

Na2SO4 + BaCl2 →2NaCl + BaSO4↓

SurfactantsSurfactants are widely used in textile wet processes for the purpose of wetting, dispersing,emulsifying and cleaning. The molecular structures of surfactants have a distinctive hydrophilicmoiety and a distinctive hydrophobic moiety. When they are used at a sufficient concentration,the surface/interface tension of the solution is lowered and micelles are formed, which give thesolution extra properties.

According to their ionic properties in aqueous solution, traditional surfactants can be divided intofour categories: anionic, cationic, amphoteric and non-ionic.

Surfactants are four types1. Anionic surfactants ,2. Cationic surfactants,3. Non-ionic surfactants and4. Amphoteric surfactants

Amphoteric surfactants:Amphoteric surfactants contain both anions and cations. They should show positive results whentested using either the basic methylene blue test for anionic surfactants or the alternativebromophenol blue test for cationic surfactants.

A saturated bromine aqueous solution can also be used to determine the type of amphotericsurfactant. Add 5 ml of 1% sample solution to 1.5 ml saturated bromine aqueous solution.


Observe the colour of the precipitate. Heat the mixture and observe the change in the precipitate.If the precipitate is a yellow to yellow-orange colour and is dissolved to form a yellow solutionafter heating, the sample is an imidazoline or alanine type of amphoteric surfactant. If theprecipitate is a white to yellow colour and insoluble after heating, the sample is the other typeof amphoteric surfactant.

Oxidising agents and reducing agentsOxidising agents are mainly used for bleaching and reducing agents are mainly used for vatdyeing in textile wet processes. These agents are often strong chemicals and need to be handledwith care. The assay of these agents is almost always based on the redox titration. In a redoxreaction, an oxidising agent (oxidant) is reduced (it gains electrons) and a reducing agent(reductant) isoxidised (it loses electrons). The redox reaction can be written as two halfreactions shown below:

Oxidation reaction: reducing agent → oxidized form + n e–

Reduction reaction: oxidising agent + n e– → reduced form

The net reaction is: reducing agent + oxidising agent → oxidised form + reduced form

Oxidising Agents:Hydrogen peroxideHydrogen peroxide (H2O2) can be titrated with potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in an acidmedium. H2O2 is the reducing agent and KMnO4 is the oxidising agent.

Sodium HypochloriteIn hypochlorite bleaching of textiles, active chlorine is the species measured for the control ofthe bleaching process. Iodometry is the method used to determine the content of active chlorine.

Sodium perborateEither sodium permanganate or potassium iodide can be used to titrate the sodium perborate(NaBO3•4H2O). Dissolve 0.2 g of sample in 200 ml distilled water, add 40 ml 6 N H2SO4, andtitrate with 0.1 N sodium permanganate until a pink colour appears.

Reducing Agents:Sodium hydrosulphite (Na2S2O4)It is the Dilute of 10 ml 40% formaldehyde with 50 ml distilled water.

GlucoseGlucose (C6H12O6) can be used as a reducing agent in vat and sulphur dye applications. It can


be analysed by iodometry. Accurately prepare a 0.5% glucose solution.

Sodium thiosulphateSodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3•5H2O) can be titrated easily by iodometry. Accurately weigh a5 g sample and dissolve it in 500 ml distilled water to make a 1% sample solution.

Miscellaneous ChemicalsEthanolThe specific gravity of ethanol (C2H5OH) is directly related to its content. Table 4.7 lists therelationship between the volume% (weight %) and the specific gravity of ethanol at 15 ºC.

Ethylene glycol and glycerolASTM method D161518 may be used to estimate the concentration of ethylene glycol andglycerol in an aqueous medium.

OthersUreaUrea is tested for the content of nitrogen using H2SO4 and formaldehyde. The indicator used is amixed indicator containing 0.5 g phenolphthalein and 0.5 g thymol phthalein dissolved in 100 mlethanol. A 25% formaldehyde solution used should be neutralised before use. The procedures ofthe method are briefly described below.

1. Dissolve 1 g fully dried sample in a small amount of water; add 3 ml concentratedH2SO4; mix well and heat on a hot plate.

2. Heat until the release of CO2 (bubbling) has stopped and dense white smoke (SO3) isemitted; leave to cool down.

3. Add 50 ml distilled water and 2 drops of methyl red indicator.4. Neutralise the acidity of the solution with 6 N NaOH added dropwise until the red colour

changes to a pink colour; add 0.5 N NaOH slowly to change the solution colour to a faintpink.

5. Add 40 ml 25% neutralised formaldehyde solution and 5 drops of the mixed indicator;stand for a few minutes.

Fluorescent whitening agentsFluorescent whitening agents (FWA) are a special type of chemical that can significantlyincrease the apparent whiteness of treated fabrics. They absorb UV radiation and re-emit theabsorbed energy in the blue visible light range which makes the treated fabrics appear whiter.The easiest test for the effect of FWAs is simply a visual examination of the whiteness of treatedfabrics. Manufacturer’s recommendations should be followed in order to achieve the bestwhitening effect.Ethylenediamine tetraacetate (EDTA)Ethylenediamine tetraacetate (EDTA) can form a few different water soluble salts with calcium,potassium and sodium, for example, calcium disodium, trisodium and tetrasodium salts. EDTAtetrasodium salt is used most widely in many industrial applications as a powerful chelating


agent. Its 1% solution has a pH of 11.3. It can chelate with many divalent and trivalent metalions to form watersoluble metal complexes.

HTHP BEAM DYEING MACHINE:

Sectional diagram of a high-temperature beam dyeing machine

Disadvantages of beam dyeing machine: —Fabric of different width can not be dyed together on a single beam. —The dyed fabric may be display moiré effect if it is tightly due to shrinkage. —Uneven dyeing may occur if the beam is fully loaded, as the dye liquor has penetrate

several layers of fabric.

JET DYEING MACHINE:


HTHP jet dyeing machine:The jet dyeing machine is an extension of the HPHT winch dyeing machine. Jet dyeing machinedeveloped by BURLINGTON Industries and first machine developed in 1963 by Gaston countryMachine co. of U.S.A

Features: Both material and liquor is moving. Dyeing in rope form. Fabric speed usually 200-250mt/min The jet dyeing can usually operated up to 1400c under high pressure and having capacity

capable of dyeing 100 to 150 kg of fabric at a time

Chemicals added Acids Buffers Sequestering agent Anticrease agent Defoamers Levelling agent

DEVELOPMENT IN JET DYEING MACHINE: Soft flow jet- slow motion of fabric. Suitable for knitted fabric Super jet dyeing machine- M:L is 1:1 Aerodynamic jet dyeing machine Jet created by mixture of air + water M:L is 1:1 , drain out at a 130c Multi-nozzle sot flow jet dyeing machine

Advantages of jet dyeing machine:1. Fabric of two different width can be dyed at a time so that two lots can be combined

together for dyeing.2. No special batching device is required for winding the fabric as in beam dyeing.3. There is no flattening effect or uneven dyeing on the fabric as in beam dyeing


Disadvantages:1. There is possibility of entanglement of light-weight fabric during dyeing.2. Loose fibres removed from the fabric may get redeposited on the fabric surface as well as

on the interior of the jet dyeing vessel, this problem does not arise in beam dyeing.3. Yarn can not be dyed in a jet dyeing machine whereas it can be dyed in a beam dyeing

machine.

PROBLEMS-1. Foaming problem2. Oligomers problem3. Rope marks

Machine used for cotton dyeing:Jigger dyeing machine

Open jigger or closed jigger dyeing machine- Closed jigger specially for vat dyeing. Liquor is stationary and fabric is moving. 500 t0 1000 meter of fabric is processed in one time. M:L ratio in jigger dyeing machine is about 1:5. Usually take 10 min. for each passage

One bath two step dyeing-One-bath dyeing processes, using both the dyes such as following in the same dye bath.

1. Disperse and vat dyes.2. Disperse and reactive dyes.3. Disperse and direct dyes.

Dyeing machine:Name of the m/c: Dyeing machine

Brand Name: DilmenlarManufacturing Company: Turkey

Year of Manufacturing: 2004Machine capacity: 150 kgNo. of nozzle: 02Maximum Temperature: 135°c

Motor: 01Winch Motor: 01Pump Motor: 01Jigger dyeing machineJigger dyeing machine is the most commonly used for dyeing all kinds of cotton fabric. Thereare mainly two types of jigger dyeing machine. One is open jigger dyeing machine and other isclosed jigger dyeing machine.

The open jigger dyeing machine is shown in the figure. This machine consists of V shapedstainless steel vessel. Two rollers are fitted above the vessel called as cloth rollers. These rollersare rotated by power. Out of these two rollers one roller is driven by a motor which is called take


up roller and the other roller from which the cloth is delivered is called let off roller. When allthe cloth is passed from the let off roller to the take up roller, it is called as one end or one turn.The number of ends or turns depends upon the type of the fabric and also the percentage of theshade.

Jigger dyeing machineInitially, a large length of (50 kg) cloth is wound on the let off roller and take up roller is thendriven by the power. After one end is taken, the take up becomes let off roller. These backwardand forward movements of cloth through the dye liquor absorb more and more dye.

The capacity of the jigger is 100 to 150 gallons. In the modern jigger, automatic devices arefitted along with the timing switch by using reversing will take place automatically.

When dyeing all the dye liquor should not be added at one time. The dye liquor should be addedin batch wise, in order to get even shade on the cloth. In the present scenario, closed types ofjiggers are used. The main advantage is to prevent heat loss and chemical loses by evaporation.This type of jigger is very important for dyeing vat, Sulphur etc.Advantages of Jigger Dyeing Machine1. The cloth can be dyed in open width form of full width form.2. Chemical and heat loses are less when compared to winch dyeing machine3. The material to liquor ratio is 1:3 (or) 1:4 which saves considerable amount of chemical costand steam cost.Disadvantages of Jigger Dyeing MachineIt exerts lot of tension in the warp direction and because of this normally woolen, knitted fabric,silk etc are not dyed in jigger dyeing machine.

Modern Machinery Used in Dyeing Process:Modern dyeing machines are made from stainless steels. Steels containing up to 4%molybdenum are favored to withstand the acid conditions that are common. A dyeing machineconsists essentially of a vessel to contain the dye liquor, provided with equipment for heating,cooling and circulating the liquor into and around the goods to be dyed or moving the goodsthrough the dye liquor. The kind of machine employed depends on the nature of the goods to bedyed. Labor and energy costs are high in relation to total dyeing costs: the dyers aim is to shortendyeing times to save steam and electrical power and to avoid spoilage of goods.

Modern dyeing machine


The conical-pan loose-stock machine is a widely used machine. Fibers are held in an innertruncated conical vessel while the hot dye liquor is mechanically pumped through. The fibermass tends to become compressed in the upper narrow half of the cone, assisting efficientcirculation. Leveling problems are less important as uniformity may be achieved by blending thedyed fibers prior to spinning.The Hussong machine is the traditional apparatus. It has a long, square-ended tank as a dye bathinto which a framework of poles carrying hanks can be lowered. The dye liquor is circulated byan impeller and moves through a perforated false bottom that also houses the open steam pipe forheating. In modern machines, circulation is improved at the points of contact between hank andpole. This leads to better leveling and elimination of irregularities caused by uneven cooling. Inpackage-dyeing machines dye color may be pumped in rather two directions:

1. Through the perforated central spindle and outward through the package or2. By the reverse path into the outer layers of the package and out of the spindle. In either

case levelness is important.

Some package-dyeing machines are capable of working under pressure at temperatures up to130C.The winch is the oldest piece of dyeing machine and takes its name from the slated roller thatmoves an endless rope of cloth or endless belt of cloth at full width through the dye liquor.Pressurized-winch machines have been developed in the U.S.In an entirely new concept; the Gaston County jet machine circulates fabric in rope form througha pipe by means of a high-pressure jet of dye color. The jet machine is increasingly important inhigh-temperature dyeing of synthetic fibers, especially polyester fabrics. Another machine is thejig. It has a V-shaped trough holding the dye color and guide rollers to carry the cloth at fullwidth between two external, powered rollers, the cloth is wound onto each roller alternately, thatis, the cloth is first moved forward, then backward through the dye color until dyeing iscomplete. Modern machines, automatically controlled and programmed, can be built to workunder pressure.It was found that in using Winch machines, there were some inherent problems. So the Jetdyeing machines when they came up in the 1970’s were specifically designed to overcome thoseshortcomings.In the Jet dyeing machine the reel is completely eliminated. A closed tubular system exists wherethe fabric is placed. For transporting the fabric through the tube a jet of dye liquor is suppliedthrough a venturi. The Jet creates turbulence. This helps in dye penetration along with preventingthe fabric from touching the walls of the tube. As the fabric is often exposed to comparativelyhigher concentrations of liquor within the transport tube, so little dye bath is needed in thebottom of the vessel. This is just enough for the smooth movement from rear to front. Aqueousjet dyeing machines generally employs a driven winch reel along with a jet nozzle.

The following diagram explains the functioning of a Jet dyeing machine:


Types of Jet Dyeing Machine:In deciding the type of dyeing machine the following features are generally taken intoconsideration for differentiating. They are the following. Shape of the area where the fabric isstored i.e. long shaped machine or J-box compact machine. Type of the nozzle along with itsspecific positioning i.e. above or below the bath level. Depending more or less in these criteriafor differentiation following types of Jet Machines can be said to be as developments of theconventional jet dyeing machine.

1. Overflow Dyeing Machine2. Soft-flow Dyeing Machine3. Airflow Dyeing Machine

Advantages of Jet Dyeing Machine:The Jet Dyeing Machine offers the following striking advantages that make them suitable forfabrics like polyesters.

1. Low consumption of water2. Short dyeing time3. Can be easily operated at high temperatures and pressure4. Comparatively low liquor ratios, typically ranges between 1:4 and 1:205. Fabrics are handled carefully and gently

Soft Flow Dyeing Machine:In the soft flow dyeing machine water is used for keeping the fabric in circulation. Theconceptional difference of this equipment from a conventional jets that operates with a hydraulicsystem is that the fabric rope is kept circulating during the whole processing cycle (right fromloading to unloading). There is no stopping of liquor or fabric circulation for usual drain and fillsteps. The principle working behind the technique is very unique. There is a system for freshwater to enter the vessel via a heat exchanger to a special interchange zone. At the same time thecontaminated liquor is allowed channel out through a drain without any sort of contact with thefabric or for that matter the new bath in the machine.

Key Features of Soft flow Dyeing Machine: Significant savings in processing time. Savings in water that is around 50%. Excellent separation of different streams results in optimum heat recovery and a distinct

possibility of further use or a dedicated treatment.


Principle of Soft Flow Dyeing Machine:Textile material can be dyed using batch, continuous or semi continuous process.Batch processes are the most common method used to dye textile materials. There are threegeneral types of batch dyeing machines:

1. In which fabric is circulated2. In which dye bath is circulated3. In which both the bath and material is circulated.

Jet dyeing machine is the best example of a machine that circulated both the fabric and thedyebath. Jet dyeing is used for knitted fabrics. For Terry-towels soft flow dyeing is use.In jet dyeing machine the fabric is transported by a high speed jet of dye liquid.

As seen in the figure, this pressure is created by venturi. A powerful pump circulates the dyedbath through a heat exchanger and the cloth chamber. Cloth guide tube helps in circulation offabric.

Types of Soft Flow Dyeing Machine:A few of the commercially popular brands along with their particular technical specifications arediscussed here. The categories are not exhaustive as such.Multi Nozzle Soft Flow Dyeing Machine:Technical Features:

1. Very low Liquor ratio - around 1:1 (Wet Fabric)2. Can reach high temp. up to 140°C3. Easily dye 30 to 450 g/mt.sq. of fabrics (woven & knitted fabrics)4. Number of very soft-flow nozzles5. No pilling effect6. Wide capacity


Multi Nozzle Soft flow Dyeing MachineHigh Temperature High Pressure Soft Flow Dyeing Machine:Technical Features:

1. Compact body made of stainless steel.2. High efficiency heat exchanger for quick heating/cooling.3. Compact body made of stainless steel.4. Heating rate - around 4°C/Min upto 900°C - around 3°C/Min upto 135°C At steam

pressure of 6 Bar.5. Cooling Rate- around 4°C/ Min At water pressure of 4 Bar and 15°C.6. Maximum working temp is 135°C.7. Maximum working pressure of 3.2 Bar.8. Control manual as well as automatic.9. Heavy duty stainless steel pump.

Soft Flow Dyeing Machine

1. The vigorous agitation of fabric and dye formulation in the cloth increases the dyeing rate anduniformity. It minimizes creasing as the fabric is not held in any one configuration for very long.The lower liquor ration allows shorter dye cycles and saves chemicals and energy.2. In soft flow dyeing machines the fabric is transported by a stream of dye liquor. However, thetransport is assisted by a driven lifter reel.3. These machines use a jet having lower velocity that that used on conventional jet dyeingmachines.4. The soft flow machines are gentler on the fabric than conventional jet machines.


Winch dyeing machineA dyeing machine consisting essentially of a dye vessel fitted with a driven winch ( usuallyabove the liquor level) which rotates and draws a length of fabric, normally joined end to end,through the liquor.

Winch dyeing machineWinch dyeing machine is a rather old dyeing machine for fabrics in rope form with stationaryliquor and moving material. The machine operates at a maximum temperature of 95-98°C. Theliquor ratio is generally quite high (1:20-1:40). Winch dyeing machines are a low cost design thatis simple to operate and maintain, yet versatile in application proving invaluable for preparation,washing or after treatments as well as the dyeing stage itself. In all winch dyeing machines aseries of fabric ropes of equal length are immersed in the dye bath but part of each rope is takenover two reels or the winch itself. The rope of fabric is circulated through the dye bath beinghauled up and over the winch throughout the course of the dyeing operation. Dyestuff andauxiliaries may be dosed manually or automatically in accordance with the recipe method.

A winch dyeing machine

Description and Dyeing Method on Winch Dyeing MachineThe basic principle of all winch dyeing machines is to have a number of loops or ropes of thefabric in the dye bath, these ropes are of equal length , which are mostly immersed in the liquorin the bath. The upper part of each rope runs over two reels which are mounted over dyebath. Atthe front of the machine, above the top of the dye liquor , is a smaller reel, which is called jockeyor fly roller.The fly roller remains free wheeling along with fabric rope. At the back of winch tank is thewinch wheel, which pulls the fabric rope from the dye bath over the jockey reel for dropping inthe dye bath for immersion. From the dropped location, the fabric rope travels back. To be liftedand fed to winch wheel.


The dyeing process on winch dyeing machines is based on higher M:L as compared with otherdyeing machines. The process is conducted with very little tension. The total dyeing time islengthier as compared to other machines.Advantages of Winch Dyeing Machine1. Construction and operation of winch are very simple.2. The winch dyeing machines are suitable for types of wet processing operations from desizingto softening.3. The winch dyeing machine is suitable for practically all types of fabrics, which can withstandcreasing in rope form processing.4. Thr tension exerted on winch is less than jigger dyeing machine,the material thus dyed is withfuller hand.5. The appearance of the dyed goods is clean and smooth on winch dyeing machines.Limitations of Winch Dyeing Machine1. Batch dyeing operations needs trimming, sewing, opening out the rope , loading and unloadingfor individual lots separately.2. Since several lengths of fabric are run over the winch reel into the liquor and sewn end toend,Continuous length processing is not possible in a single batch.3. Fabric is processed in rope form which may lead to crease marks, particularly in heavy ,woven , thin and light synthetics.4. Most of the machine works under atmospheric conditions

Jet Dyeing Machine

This is the most modern machine used for the dyeing of polyester using disperse dyes. In thismachine the cloth is dyed in rope form which is the main disadvantage of the machine.In this machine, the dye tank contains disperse dye, dispersing agent, leveling agent and aceticacid. The solution is filled up in the dye tank and it reaches the heat exchanger where thesolution will be heated which then passed on to the centrifugal pump and then to the filterchamber.

Jet Dyeing MachineThe solution will be filtered and reaches the tubular chamber. Here the material to be dyed willbe loaded and the winch is rotated, so that the material is also rotated. Again the dye liquor


reaches the heat exchanger and the operation is repeated for 20 to 30 minutes at 135o C. Thenthe dye bath is cooled down, after the material is taken out.

Metering wheel is also fixed on winch by external electronic unit. Its purpose is to record thespeed of the fabric. The thermometer, pressure gauge is also fixed in the side of the machine tonote the temperature and pressure under working. A simple device is also fixed to note the shadeunder working.Advantages Jet Dyeing Machine

Dyeing time is short compared to beam dyeing. Material to liquor ratio is 1:5 (or) 1:6 Production is high compared to beam dyeing machine.

Disadvantages Jet Dyeing Machine Cloth is dyed in rope form Risk of entanglement Chance for crease formation.

Package dyeing machinesPackage dyeing machines are the most widely used now a days for dyeing of almost all type ofyarns ,due to economical ,automatic and accurate dyeing results. The term package dyeingusually denotes for dyeing of any type yarn wound on the compressible dye springs/perforatedsolid dyeing tubes or cones. Yarn dyeing in package form is done at high temperature and underhigh pressure ,with the packages mounted on hollow spindles .These spindles are fixed on thedyeing carriers ,which is inserted into the dyeing vessel after closing the lid of the machine ,thedyeing liquor is forced through the packages in two way pattern (inside to out and outside to in)and goes on circulating throughout the vessel and yarn. Heat is applied to the dye liquor toachieve the dyeing temperature, time –temperature and flow reversal are controlled through aprogrammer.

Package Dyeing Machine

A series of technical developments in the recent years has resulted into package dyeing beingdeveloped into a highly sophisticated as well as an economic process. Latest design PackageDyeing machines are amenable to accurate control and automation. These features would likely


to lead to increases in the application of package dyeing.The term package dyeing usually denotes for dyeing of yarn that has been wound on perforatedcores. This helps in forcing the dye liquor through the package. With the start of dyeing cycle,the dye liquor goes on circulating throughout the vessel and tank. This happens till all the dye isused up or fully exhausted. The dye flows through to the yarn package with the help of thedeliberate perforations in the tube package. Once full exhaustion is brought about, the carrier ofcoloured yarn is consequently removed from the vessel. A large centrifuge removes excess waterfrom the packages. Finally the yarn is dried using an infra red drying oven. The image shows theprocess working of a Package dyeing machine.Working Process of Package Dyeing MachinesThe material to be dyed is wound on the dye springs, perforated plastic cheeses or steel conesand loaded in the carrier spindles ,which are compressed and bolted at the top to make a uniformand homogeneous dyeing coloumn. The liquor containing dyes chemical and auxilliaries isforced through with the help of pump, and circulated through the material from inside –out and isreversed periodically so that each and every part of the material get the same and uniformtreatment. The dyeing cycle is controlled through a micro computer and different chemicals maybe added through the injector pump or color kitchen at any stage of dyeing.In case of fully flooded machines ,the liquor expands with the rise in temperature (approximately5% volume increases from 30-130 degree centigrade temperature) is taken back in the expansiontank through a back cooler. This extra water is then again injected to the dyeing vessel throughan injector pump. Expanded volume of the dye liquor is thus remains in continuous circulation inthe system.Any type of addition can be done to the machine through the injector pump, the quantity andtime of injection can be controlled through the programmer.In case of air pad machines ,the air above the liquor acts as a cushion ,which is compressed withthe increase in liquor volume, the pressure is controlled by pre set pressure control valve .In airpad machines have an advantage ,that entire dye liquor participate in dyeing and dye exhaustionis perfect. In case some addition has to be done in air pad machines , if the machine temperatureis less than 80 degrees ,the liquor is taken back by back transfer valve to addition tank ,andinjected back to machine vessel. If the machine temperature is above 80 Degree then cooling hasto be done to bring down the machine temperature.Air pad technology is possible in all types of machines such as vertical kier, horizontal kier andtubular dyeing machines. The material after dyeing is washed and finished properly in the samemachine and taken out hydro extracted or pressure extracted in the same machine and driedsubsequently.Advantages of Package Dyeing machinePackage dyeing methodologies have been subjected to intensive research and development. As aresult package dyeing machine has evolved into a very sophisticated apparatus. It offers anumber of advantages.


Package Dyeing Machine

Considerable reduction in yarn handling. Compatible to automatic control, in the process leading to reproducible dyeing‟s. Open to large batches. High temperature dyeing a possibility. Low liquor ratios, giving savings in water, effluent and energy. Uniform and High rates of liquor circulation, that leads to level application of

dyes. Machinery totally enclosed resulting in good working conditions at the dye-house.

Types of Package Dyeing MachinesDifferent type of Package Dyeing Machines are1.Vertical Kier Dyeing Machines2.Horizontal Kier Dyeing Machines3.Tubular Dyeing Machines

Vertical Kier Dyeing MachinesThese machines have a vertical cylindrical dyeing kier, in which material loaded into carrierswith vertical perforated spindles, is dyed .The machine could be fully flooded or air pad type.These are high pressure machines and suitable up to 1350C temperature dyeing.Horizontal HTHP Dyeing MachinesThese machines are similar to vertical type machines in which the cylindrical dyeing kier is inhorizontal position. The dyeing carriers with vertical spindles are used in these machines, whichare inserted into the machine via trolleys. These machines are erected at the ground level andhence do not needs an overhead hoist as well as platform, thus making the dye house design andlayout is simple.Tubular HTHP Dyeing MachinesThese machines may be of vertical or horizontal type, and have one or many tubes acting assmall dyeing vessels, each with a single individual spindle. The spindle is taken out of the tube,loaded and then inserted back into it. These machines can be operated either fully loaded tubes orto partial loads by using dummies. Since all individual tubes in a machine are connected andserviced by a main pump, therefore it is also possible to operate as many tubes as required anddisconnecting others.These machines can be erected at ground level and hence do not need a platform or hoist. Thesemachines are most flexible as for as the capacity variation is concerned ,without altering thematerial to liquor ratio.


Hydro Extractor:Hydro-Extractors are also called Centrifuges. Centrifuges are used for water extraction(dewatering, pre-drying) of textile materials. Values of approx. 15% for residual moisturecontent can be achieved depending on the type of textile fiber. Centrifuges with perforated drumsor baskets (Ø up to approx. 2000 mm) which oscillate vertically in ball-and-socket jointssuspended on three points are produced in various designs as pendulating, suspension, cage andvertical centrifuges, also with so called gliding support bearings as gliding support centrifuges orin horizontal resp. vertical arrangements as open-width, horizontal and warp-beam centrifuges,etc. Most centrifuges have electric drives for speeds of approx. 750–1200 rpm and are generallyprovided with automatic control over various ranges. For safety reasons, an interlocking lid isessential on a centrifuge so that the motor cannot be started until the lid is locked, nor the lidraised until the basket is stationary again after the machine has been stopped.

Hydro Extractor

When used for dewatering loose stock, the cake of loose fibers is transferred from the dyeingmachine to the centrifuge and hydro-extracted before it is run into the fiber opener as apreliminary stage of drying in a perforated drum drier. If an immersion centrifuge is used,impregnation of the loose fibers with a spinning lubricant is also possible. In this case, thematerial is loaded into the centrifuge, liquor is then pumped in (until it covers the material), andthe goods are finally hydro-extracted. The advantage of such a procedure lies in the fact that aseparate treatment of the textile material in an impregnation vat and the reloading of wet goodsinto the centrifuge are eliminated . Impregnation of textile material in the impregnation basket ofa centrifuge is generally quicker and more effective for all processes than in a vat. Thecentrifugal force which drives the liquor through the goods during centrifuging acceleratespenetration. It is possible to carry out several processes one after the other in an immersioncentrifuge. In this case, however, separate drain channels and liquor tanks must be provided. Thebasket of an immersion centrifuge has an outer casing without perforations which surrounds thecylindrical basket of a normal centrifuge (extended conically at the top). By this means, it ispossible to fill it with liquor to the level of the upper rim. Only when the basket is set in motion


does the liquor, which is driven outwards by centrifugal force, rise up the basket casing and runover the upper rim. Loose fiber material (loose stock) can also be centrifuged continuously. Forthe dewatering of yarn packages, other possible options besides the asymmetrical dewatering ofcolumns of yarn packages in suitably shaped compartments of the centrifuge includesymmetrical dewatering by the rotation of individual packages or columns of yarn packageswhich involves less risk of package deformation.

Technical Data:1. Working width 1300mm2. Machine speed 5~30M/min3. Machine for the hydro extractor, softener, air ballooning type of cotton knitted

tubular fabrics without tension, with fabrics entwisting, air balloon, control of thesqueezing pressure and control of the final width of the fabric.

4. Automatic control of the feeding without tension, no edge mark, final folding withoutstretching. Versions with simple or double squeezing and imbuing with softeners.

Advantages of Hydro Extractor: No deformation of the packages. Excellent rewinding properties. Rewinding can even be eliminated in a lot of cases. Low residual moisture. Even humidity distribution through the package. Low energy consumption. Dyeing tubes last longer. Processes many different size packages. Operator of centrifuge can also load dryer. Maintenance-free brakes. Closed system for effluent. Low compressed air consumption. Significant energy savings.

HTHP Beaker Dyeing MachineHTHP Beaker Dyeing Machine is ideally suitable for sample dyeing of fabric and yarn at hightemperature and pressure. This machine is a versatile, compact and maintenance free apparatussuitable for both Polyester and cotton sample dyeing. In fact it is suitable for dyeing of any fiberin form. The apparatus is of immense use for dyeing and processing units research/testinglabs, textile engineering institutes and dyes manufacturers.


Beaker Dyeing Machine

Features of HTHP Beaker Dyeing Machine:1. The machine comprises of tank, beaker and gear box2. The beakers are capable of withstanding pressure upto 6.0 Kg/cm square.3. The machine is complete in stainless steel4. Ensures a sound free and smooth working.5. Microprocessor based programmer is provided which ensures temperature control.6. Promises long life and leak proof service even after many years of use.

Specifications of HTHP Beaker Dyeing Machine: Standard Model : 12x250 ml., 12x100 ml., 6x500 ml., 12x500 ml. Electric Supply : Single phase 220 Volts, AC Supply Heater Supply : 3000 watt Single Phase Overall dimensions of the Unit : 700 ±05mm (L) x 470±05mm (H) x 370±05mm (W) Capacity of Beaker: 250 ml Beaker X 12 Pcs. Carriage Rotation: At 22 rpm. (±2 rpm) Maximum operating Temperature: 135°C. No. of Heater : 3 x 1500 W Maximum rate of heating: 1.50C Maximum rate of cooling 1.50C ( Water temperature max 250C ) Net Weight of the Unit: 35 Kg. Net Weight of the Beaker (250ml): 10.980 Kg. Motor : Reversible Synchronous Geared Motor Medium used for Heating : Glycerine Beakers : 12x250 ml., SS-316 grade

Working Principle of HTHP Beaker Dyeing Machine:1. First of prepare for dyeing piece by taking the sample fabric as per leakier ratio as

suggested by your quality consultant.2. Sample moves up & down with auto forward and reverse direction through process

controller.3. The machine must be cleaned at the regular intervals by changing water inside the

chamber.


4. All bearings should be lubricated every three months.5. Single phase motor contacts and Power contacts should be inspected every three months

Skein Dyeing MachineThis is the most suitable machine for dyeing delicate yarns (Silk, Bemberg, etc.) since itprevents the material being too tightly packed; in fact other skein dyeing systems frequentlyproduce an excessive packing of the dyed material. The machine is equipped with horizontalarms perforated in the upper part; skeins are stacked and suspended on this rack. The liquor,forced through the arm holes, penetrates the skeins and is then collected in an underlying vat.Standard machines are equipped with a rod which moves the skeins at preset times, changingthe bearing point to obtain a more uniform dyeing. During the skein motion, the flow of theliquor is stopped to avoid the formation of tangles in the yarn; since yarns are not fixed torigid supports, they can thoroughly shrink. This machine does not run under pressure. It ispossible to dye at steady temperatures since the liquor is contained in a separate tank.

Skein Dyeing Machine

Modular skein dyeing machine with pullout arms. Pullout arms also allow the loading andunloading of skeins far from the dyeing machine, without manually intervening in the


intermediate dyeing, squeezing and drying operations. It can be used for silk, cotton, viscose andCashmere yarns.

The operating costs of this machine are generally very high because it require a very high liquorratio (1:15. 1:25. 1:30). Standby times for loading and unloading operations are also very highand the arms must be often cleaned. This machine can be used also for scouring and finishingprocesses.Some machine manufacturers have designed machines with slant covers to avoid unwantedliquor dripping on the skeins; the skein rotation is determined by the perforated arms, and not bythe rotation of the skein-lifting device when the arm is stopped; it is therefore possible toeliminate the sliding contact with the skeins and preserve them perfectly.There are also package dyeing machines with triangle-shape arms, arranged radially on avariable-speed rotor. When the dyeing process has terminated, the material can be centrifugedand dried, by forcing a hot air flow into the arms and through the skeins.

Equipment used in wet processing lab:Wet Processing Lab:Wet processing lab plays a vital role in the quality control of wet processing department. Inevery wet processing lab mainly three types of tests are performed.1. Tests for determination of the acceptability of chemicals for their intended purposes.2. Tests for determination of several physical properties of the material.3. Tests for determination of the quality of he finished materials.4. Tests for determination of the quantity of dyes & chemicals required for a particular order.When a new order is found; then the formulation of quantity of dyes & chemicals are prepared inthe wet processing lab. According to the recipe at first lab dyeing is done. If the obtained shed isok then sample dyeing is done in the floor. During sample dyeing different options are preparedby slightly altering the quantity of dyes & chemicals. The sample is sent to the buyer forapproval. Buyer approves any one of the multiple options. Finally the recipe of the approvedsample is taken for bulk production.After production the bulk is tested in the wet processing lab in order to ascertain wheatear thefinished products are confirming the requisite quality or not.

The instruments used in the dyeing lab are enlisted bellow with their purposes:1. Oven:Used for drying samples. It dries any sample by using micro wave.2. Thermostatic Water Bath:Used for extraction test. The samples are kept in Weing Bottle & are heated at requiredtemperature by this instrument.3. Tear strength tester:Used for testing the tear strength of sample (towel). Two samples from warp & two samplesfrom weft are tested & the average tensile strength of sample in warp & weft direction is


reported separately.4. Crock Meter:Used for testing the rubbing fastness of sample. The sample is clipped in the sample stand & astaining fabric is clipped in the nose. Then the nose is rubbed against the sample for 10 times. Atfirst rubbing is done in wet condition, then again rubbing is done in dry condition with anotherpiece of staining fabric. Then the staining fabrics are assessed with standards & a grade isassigned to the sample.5. PH Meter:Used for testing the PH of any solution. The PH meter is calibrated at first by using standardsolution. Then the sensor is dripped in to the solution that’s PH should be tested & the reading ofPH is shown on the display.6. Hot Air oven:Used for drying sample by using hot air.7. Absorbency Tester:Used for testing the water absorbency of towel.8. Color Fastness Tester:This instrument is used for three distinct tests. These are:

a. Color Fastness to Wash.b. Color Fastness to Perspiration.c. Phenolic Yellowing Test. This test is done in order to find out the presence of hazardouscomponent in the poly bag.9. Oscillating Dyeing M/CUsed for lab dyeing in exhaust process.10. Geyser:Used for heating water at desired temperature that is used for various tests. It is provided withseparate pipes for feed & delivery of water. As it is mounted at a higher level so hot water caneasily be supplied due to gravity force.11. Horizontal Padding Mangle:It is a lab dyeing m/c of cold pad type. In this m/c the padding rollers remain horizontally;therefore it is called Horizontal Padding Mangle. This m/c is used for sample dyeing. For dyeingany sample at first the mangle is washed with water. Then dye liquor is taken to the bath. Thentowel sample passes through the liquor & then through the squeezing rollers. Then the sample iskept covered with polybag for 12 hrs. Then the liquor is drained out & the m/c is washed againwith water.12. Launder-O-Meter:Used for assessing color fastness to non chlorine bleach.13. AATCC Washer:Used for washing any sample.14. AATCC Dryer:Used for drying samples. It dries the given sample in tumbling process in association with hot


air.15. Tensile Strength Tester:It is used for testing the tensile strength of sample. The Grab Test Principle is used in this m/c.The m/c is provided with two jaws; one fixed (bottom jaw) & another movable (top jaw). Thesample is clumped between two jaws & then the m/c is started. As the distance between two jawsincreases; eventually the sample breaks. Tensile strength of the sample is shown on the digitaldisplay in kg unit. Two samples from warp & two samples from weft are tested & the averagetensile strength of sample in warp & weft direction is reported separately.16. Hardness Test Kit:It is used for testing the degree of hardness in water.17. Fume Hood:This m/c has just taken in to the wet processing lab & yet it has not been erected. It is used fortesting different properties of dyes & chemicals.17. Light Box Area:It is used for finding out deviation of shed between the batch & reference. Here a dyed sample ischecked in the specific light recommended by buyer. The dyed sample is placed on theobservation board that inclines at 45o angle. Then it is compared either with reference fabric orwith reference pantone no. in the recommended light source visually.The following light sources are usually recommended by the buyers:

D-65 TL-84 UL-35 UL-30 CWF

Except the enlisted instruments, many other simple instruments that are used in chemistry lab;are also used in wet processing lab. Those are enlisted bellow:1. Beaker2. Burette3. Pipette4. Glass Rod5. Test Tube6. Digital Balance etc7. Decicator8. Wine Bottle etc.

KNOWLEDGE IS POWER SAYED


DISPERSE/REACTIVE DYEING SYSTEM:

Disperse/vat dyeing system:Typical dyeing recipe

Disperse dye-X% Vat dye-Y% Dispersing agent-.5-1% wetting agent-.5-1% pH 4-5 with acetic acid (30%)

Procedure-Prepare the bath with dispersing agent, wetting agent and acetic acid + treatment for 10-15min at50-60°c then + disperse and vat + dye for 10-15min + raise temp up to 130°c in 60-90 min.

After PET part dyeing cool to 80c for proper levelling then add NaOH & Na2S2O 4 + dyeing15min + cooling to 60°c + dyeing for 30 min. for better exhaustion Rinse with cold water +oxidation with H2O2 for 15min at 50°c + Rinsing with cold water + Soap at 95° C for 25 minusing 2 g/l Lissapol D + Hot and cold rinse and then final wash off.

Only vat dyes which are stable up to 130°c can be used for this process.

One bath two step dyeing method-All vat dyes may be used for the one –bath high temperature process provided that the dyes arefinely divided enough. The IK vat dyes are not preferred because the dye liquor requires to becooled to about 300c in order to obtain full colour yield. Therefore when IK dyes are to be usedit is preferable to dye by the two-bath process.

Typical dyeing recipe- Disperse dye-X% Vat dye-Y%


Dispersing agent-0.5-1% Wetting agent-0.5-1% Ph-4-5(attained with 1-2 ml/l of 30% acetic acid)

Oxidation and soaping:Oxidation and soaping can be be achieved simultaneously using the following recipe:

Hydrogen peroxide(35%) 1-2 ml Anionic detergent -.5-1g/l Ph-9-10

First treat the material for 10-15 min. at 500c with hydrogen peroxide. Then the anionicdetergent and raise the temperature to 950c. Soap for 10-15 min.

Method is used when selected vat dyes severely. It stain PET component during hightemp dyeing.

Vat dye is added at 80°c after PET part dyeing rather than adding at the start withdisperse dye.

Except it the whole process is same as the dyeing in one bath one step.

DISPERSE/REACTIVE SYSTEMSame as one step dyeing except the addition of reactive dye at 80°c.This process is used for the reactive dyes which are not stable up to 130°c, due to which they cannot be used in one step process

Thermosol Dyeing method: Continuous dyeing. Pad batch process.

Advantages of Thermosol dyeing- Continuous process so it gives higher production. Dye utilization is excellent. Dye can be used afterward. No carrier is required. Fabric is processed in open width form so natural feel of fabric do not get disturbed. No crease formation. Lower energy is required than batch. No extra heat setting is required


Disperse/vat dye system- PDPS method (Continious method)

ONE BATH ONE STEP THERMOSOL DYEING WITH DISPERSE AND REACTIVEDYES:


CHEMICAL RECIPE & PROCEDURE:Chemical recipe-

Disperse dye-x g/l Reactive dye-y g/l Sodium bicarbonate or soda ash-5-20g/l Urea-100-200g/l Migration inhibitor-10-20 g/l Wetting agent- 1-2g/l

PROCESS-pad-dry-thermosol-cool-wash:

1. PADDING Padding Temp-20-300 c Liquor pick up-60-80%

2. DRYING First partial drying in infrared pre dryer and then fully drying. Partial drying is done to avoid migration of dyes. Drying is done at 120°c.

3. THERMOFIXATION It is done at 180-220°c, 30-45sec It is the fixation step.

4. PADDING Padding bath contain NaOH + Na2S2O4

5. STEAMING During this vat dye penetrated inside the cotton part. Then oxidation, soaping and finally

washing.

One bath one step dyeing process-Disperse/Reactive dyes: Padding in the second step is done using NaCl + NaOH H- Brand reactive dye is used. Fixation is done during steaming with saturated steam (102°c) for 30-60 sec. Then washing, soaping and again washing.

Recipe- Disperse dye-x g/l Reactive dye-yg/l Sodium bicarbonate or soda ash-5-20g/l Urea-100-200g/l Migration inhibitor-10-20 g/l Wetting agent- 1-2g/l.


NEW APPROACHES OF DYEING OF P/C BLEND FABRIC- Dyeing with Reactive Disperse Dyes in Supercritical carbon oxide. Dyeing of 80/20 PET/COTTON blend by using azeotropic solvent. Polyester/cotton blend fabric with sulphatoethyl sulphone disperse /reactive dye

treatment. One-bath dyeing PET/COTTON blend with azohydroxypyridone disperse dye containing

a fuluorosulfonyl.

Dyeing with Reactive Disperse Dyes in Supercritical carbon oxide:What is supercritical CO2?

It is a naturally occurring that is chemically inert, physiologically compatible, andrelatively inexpensive.

It is nonflammable, it is supplied either from combustion process or volcanic processwithout the need of producing new gas & it is recycled in a closed system.

No disposal problem. Easy to handle.


Hydrophobicity of CO2is useful in dyeing of polyester fibre or fabrics with disperse dyes asdisperse dyes are also hydrophobic in nature and can dissolve in super critical CO2 and caneasily penetrate in polyester fibre or fabrics.

SC- CO2 act as a solvent in the range of 353-393°k temp, and 10-20 M Pa pressure For dyeing hydrophilic fibres like nylon, cotton- disperse dyes are not suitable for SC-

CO2 dyeing. Cotton can be dyed with fluoro triaziynyl disperse reactive dyes at 120°c in SC-. CO2 For efficient dyeing in SC- CO2P/C blend fabric is immersed in the aqueous solution

including 10% NMP (N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone) which act as a solvent for pretreatment.

Pre-treatment-1. 1% Na2CO3 + 10% NMP at room temperature for one hour + squeeze and dry at 373°K.2. When dyeing with this dye small amount of hydrogen fluoride may be formed In the

reaction but Na2CO3 present in the bath does not allow hydrogen fluoride corrosion.3. This HF from dyeing solution is passed to the calcium hydroxide and recovered as

calcium fluoride which is stable and harmless and present in the nature in fluorite form.4. If the same dye is uses in thermosol dyeing than-5. Homogenious dyeing is achieved in the SC-CO2 method compare to thermosol dyeing.6. L/F was better in SC-CO27. In thermosol dye is sublime or dissolved by heating and penetrated in the fibres so the

fibre is selectively dyed while in SC-CO2 dye is dissolved in the CO2 which is dissolvein the swollen fibre.


ADVANTAGE OF SC CO2 DYEING:

CONVENTIONAL DYEING DYEING IN SUPERCRITICAL CO2

High volumes of waste water withthe residual dye chemicals, etc.

No waste water at all. Dye remains as powder. Noneed for dispersing, leveling agents

High-energy requirements Only 20% energy requirement

Dyeing/washing, drying times is 3-4 hrs per batch.

Only 2 hours.

DYEING OF 80/20 PET/ COTTON BLEND BY USING AZEOTROPIC SOLVENT:The blended fabric is pre-treated with the azeotropic solvent. This solvent is directly apply withpad-squeeze-dry technique.

DYEING RECIPE: Disperse dye-2% Reactive dye-2% Glauber’s salt-5 gpl Soda ash-3 gpl Borax-5gpl Ph-10 to 11 MLR-1:50 Temp-80,95,1100c Time-30,45,60 min.


SULPHONYL DISPERSE/REACTIVE DYES TREATMENT BY CHITIN –BIOPOLYMERS:

Pre-treated the fabric NAOH solution. The washing & rubbing fastness properties improved. The dyed sample show good rubbing within the range of colour. The colour strength of the dyed sample of the dyed sample increased with increase

deposition of chitin on fabric.

DYEING:


Dyeing with Azohydroxypyridone Disperse dyes containing fluorosulfonyl group-Advantages:

It is a one-bath dyeing of PET/ cotton blends. Alkali-clearable azohydroxypyridone disperse dyes. Alkali-clearable azohydroxypyridone disperse dyes .containing the fluorosulfonyl group

under high-temperature dyeing conditions is feasible. Better fastnesss properties. These dyes save a lot of chemical energy. Excellent levelness properties.

DYEING:

Conculsions:1. One bath dyeing of Polyester/cotton blend fabrics with reactive disperse dyes in

successful with SC-CO2 .The optimum dyeing temperature and pressure are about 393 Kand 20 Mpa respectively. The dyeing behavior of Polyester/cotton blends is stronglyaffected by the dyeing characteristics of the cotton side.The colour fastness of dyed fabricis almost satisfactory ,but colour fastness become weak with a decrease in the dyeingtemperature. In addition, the colour fastness of fabric dyed in SC-CO2 is better than thatwith that the thermosol dyeing.

2. Treatment with chitin pretreatment gives the good dry rubbing and washing fastness. Thealkaline pretreatment affects the greater adhesion of chitin to the surface of polyesterfibres, which is manifested by the greater colour strength .Pretreatment in an alkalinesolution containing 10 g/l NAOH is permitted .The greater amount of chitin used,theworse affects are observed .

3. The same effect is observed in case of azeeotropic mixture on the dyeing behaviour of80/20 cotton blends .As the pretreatment time increased dye uptake was found increase.The slight improvement in fastness properties was also found.


4. Dyeing of PET/COTTON blend with disperse dye containing the fluorosulfonyl groupunder high temp. dyeing conditions are feasible .Its decrease our labour cost, chemicals,energy.

Dying of Polyester/Cotton Blends Goods(One bath one stage dyeing with disperse/ direct dyes at atmospheric pressure).In this method the PC or CVC goods can be dyed at one single bath with disperse andselected direct dyes (stable in high temperature and compatible with polyester dyeing)- dispersefor polyester and direct for cotton. Some direct dyes , for example , C.I. Direct Black 22 – the pHmay be adjusted to 8-9 with soda ash.

Typical Recipe for Dying of Polyester/Cotton BlendsDispersing agent................................... = 0.5 – 1.0 g/lSequestering agent................................ = 1.0 – 2.0 g/lLevelling agent...................................... = 1.0-2.0 g/lCarrier .................................................= 1.0-3.0Disperse dyes........................................= X%Selected direct dyes.............................. =Y%Acetic acid (50%) .................................= 0.5-2 g/lGlauber salt ...........................................= 5.0 – 20.0 g/lTemperature.......................................... = 90- 100Time .....................................................= 60- 120 minsM:L ......................................................= 1:10

Dyeing Procedure:1. Ser the dyebath with substrate at 50 temperature and add dispersing agent, leveler, acetic acid ,carrier and other auxiliaries , then urn the dyebath for 5-10 minutes.2. Add both dyes and raise the temperatur4e to 90- 100 @ 1-2 C/min3. Add glauber salt and run the bath for one to two bours at the same temperature.4. Lower down the bath temperature to 70 – 80 over 10-15 minutes.5. Drip the dyebath and carry on the aftertreatment process.

After Treatment Process:1. Rinse twice with hot and cold water.2. Treat the fabric with suitable fixing agent for improving the wet fastness properties of dyedgoods.3. Soap wash according to vender recommendation.4. Rinse twice with hot and cold water and then5. Neutralize with acetic acid.


Introduction:Dyes are coloured, unsaturated organic chemical compounds capable of giving colour to asubstrate (a textile), i.e. colouring or dyeing it.The term “disperse dye” have been applied to the organic colouring substances which are freefrom ionizing groups, are of low water solubility and are suitable for dyeing hydrophobic fibres.Disperse dyes have substantivity for one or more hydrophobic fibres e.g. cellulose acetate, nylon,polyester, acrylic and other synthetic fibres.The negative charge on the surface of hydrophobic fibres like polyester can not be reduced byany means, so non-ionic dyes like disperse dyes are used which are not influenced by thatsurface charge.

History of Disperse dyes:In 1922, Green and Saunders made one type of coloured azo compound, in which a solubilizinggroup (for example- methyl sulphate, -CH2-SO3H) is attached to amino group. In dye bath, theyare slowly hydrolyzed and produce azo compound and formaldehyde bi sulphate. This free azocompound was capable of dyeing cellulose acetate fibres. This dye was named “ionamine”. Butthis ion amine did not give satisfactory result in dyeing.Later in 1924, Baddiley and Ellis produced sulpho ricinoleic acid (SRA) for dyeing acetatefibres. This SRA was used as dispersing agent. Later it was seen that SRA was capable of dyeingNylon, polyester, acrylic etc. In 1953 this dye was named as “Disperse Dye”.

Properties of Disperse Dyes: Disperse dyes are nonionic dyes. So they are free from ionizing group. They are ready made dyes and are insoluble in water or have very low water solubility. They are organic coloring substances which are suitable for dyeing hydrophobic fibres. Disperse dyes are used for dyeing man made cellulose ester and synthetic fibres specially

acetate and polyester fibres and sometimes nylon and acrylic fibres. Carrier or dispersing agents are required for dyeing with disperse dyes. Disperse dyes have fair to good light fastness with rating about 4-5.

Classification of Disperse Dyes:According to Chemical Structure:

1. Nitro Dyes2. Amino Ketone dyes3. Anthraquinonoid dyes4. Mono azo dyes5. Di- azo dyes

Dyeing Mechanism of Disperse Dye:The dyeing of hydrophobic fibres like polyester fibres with disperse dyes may be considered as aprocess of dye transfer from liquid solvent (water) to a solid organic solvent (fibre).Dispersedyes are added to water with a surface active agent to form an aqueous dispersion. Theinsolubility of disperse dyes enables them to leave the dye liquor as they are more substantive tothe organic fibre than to the inorganic dye liquor. The application of heat to the dye liquorincreases the energy of dye molecules and accelerates the dyeing of textile fibres.Heating of dye liquor swells the fibre to some extent and assists the dye to penetrate the fibre


polymer system. Thus the dye molecule takes its place in the amorphous regions of the fibre.Once taking place within the fibre polymer system, the dye molecules are held by hydrogenbonds and Van Der Waals’ force.The dyeing is considered to take place in the following simultaneous steps:Diffusion of dye in solid phase into water by breaking up into individual molecules. Thisdiffusion depends on dispersibility and solubility of dyestuff and is aided by the presence ofdispersing agents and increasing temperature.Adsorption of the dissolved dye from the solution onto the fibre surface. This dyestuff adsorptionby fibre surface is influenced by the solubility of the dye in the dye bath and that in the fibre.Diffusion of the adsorbed dye from the fibre surface into the interior of the fibre substancetowards the centre. In normal condition, the adsorption rate is always higher than the diffusionrate. And this is the governing step of dyeing.When equilibrium dyeing is reached, the following equilibria are also established:

1. Dye dispersed in the bath2. Dye dissolved in the bath3. Dye dissolved in the bath4. Dye adsorbed on the fibre5. Dye adsorbed on the fibre6. Dye diffused in the fibre

Effect of Various Conditions on Disperse Dyeing:Effect of Temperature:In case of dyeing with disperse dye, temperature plays an important role. For the swelling offibre, temperature above 100°C is required if high temperature dyeing method is applied. Againin case of carrier dyeing method, this swelling occurs at 85-90°C. If it is kept for more time, thendye sublimation and loss of fabric strength may occur.Effect of pH:For disperse dyeing the dye bath should be acidic and pH should be in between 4.5-5.5. Formaintaining this pH, generally acetic acid is usedAt this pH dye exhaustion is satisfactory.During colour development, correct pH should be maintained otherwise fastness will be inferiorand colour will be unstable.

Application Methods of Disperse Dyes:1. Method N: Normal dyeing method. Dyeing temperature is 80-100°C.2. Normal NC method: Method of dyeing at normal temperature with carriers. Dyeing

temperature 80-100°C.3. Method HT: High temperature dyeing method. Dyeing temperature 105-140°C.4. Method T: Thermasol dyeing method. Dyeing temperature 180-220°C, continuous

method of dyeing.5. Pad roll method: Semi continuous dyeing method.6. Pad steam method: Continuous dyeing method.


Polyester fabric dyeing by Disperse dyes

Sample weight = 5 gm.M: L = 1: 15Recipe:Disperse dyes = 1.0 %Disperse dyes = 0.4%Disperse dyes = 0.8 %Dispersing agent = 1 g/lLeveling agent = 1 g/lAcid (CH3COOH) = 0.4 g /lCalculations:We know, Dyes = Fabric weight in gm x shade %

Stock solution %Water = 75ml.Suppose, Dyes Stock solution = 1 % & chemical = 20 g/lDisperse dyes = 5 gm x 1.0 % = 5 ml.

1 %Disperse dyes = 5 gm x 0.4 % = 2 ml.

1 %Disperse dyes = 5 gm x 0.8 % = 4 ml.

1 %Dispersing agent = 1 g/l = 5 x 1 x 15 / 20 = 3.75 ml.Leveling agent = 1 g/l = 5 x 1 x 15 / 20 = 3.75 ml.Acid (CH3COOH) = 0.4 g /l = 5 x 0.4 x 15 / 20 = 1.5 ml. ( pH: 4.5).Total volume = 75 mlRequired water = 75 – (5+2 + 4 +3.75 + 3.75 + 1.5) ml = 55 ml.In dye pot, 5 gm sample + 5 ml +2 ml + 4ml + 3.75 ml + 3.75 ml + 1.5 ml + 55 ml.Time & Temperature = 60 min x 130oC.

Sample dyeing process for polyester Sequence of polyester fabric dyeingFabric weight Required amount of water was taken into the

M/CFabric cold wash Fabric loadingRecipe calculation Hot wash [MI, Soda 90°c x 20 ]́Dye + water + blm + rtm are taken theUp to 6 by pipette

Cold wash

Wash fabric keep in the potSet temp. And time (130°c x 30 )́

Acetic Acid /Benlon

Fabrics unload Leveling [blm, RTM 60°c x 10 ]́Cold wash 2 times Color dosing [130°c x 40 ́]Reduction cleaning[Hydrose, Caustic, Detergent 70°c x 20 ́]

Shade check

Dyer Hot wash [MI 60 ́]Shade matching Shade check

Unloading


Redaction cleaningCaustic dosing (60°c x 10 ́)Raising temp at 130°cHydrous (80°c x 10 ́)Normal wash

Process sequence of strippingRequired amount of water was taken into themachineThe fabric was loaded and run for 5-10 minutesin normal temperatureCK-2 and C were added at a time for 5 minutesCaustic was dosing at normal temperature for 5minutesRun for 10 minTemperature increased at 1100C and continuesfor 40 minCooling at 800C

Hydrose inject for 5 min.Temperature increased at 1100C for 10 minCooling at 800C

Sample checkRinsing for 15 minHot washCold WashUnload the Fabric

Disperse Dyes - Shade Card 1Disperse Dyestuffs are characterized with high degree of dispersion and are specially suitable fordyeing in various forms either alone or as a mixture with other fibers.DYEING METHODS:Disperse Dyes are applied to polyester fibres / fabrics by the following methods:1. Carrier Dyeing at boil.2. High temperature dyeing at 130°C.3. Thermosol dyeing at 180-210°C. For 30-60 seconds.1. Carrier Dyeing Method:The following general recipe is recommended:

X% Disperse Dyestuff 1 g/l Dispersing Agent Y g/l Carrier M:L:R 1:10 pH adjusted to 5 with acetic acid.


Set the dyebath at 60°C. With dispersing agent and acetic acid to pH 5 and work the materialfor 10 minutes. Add emulsified carrier and treat the material for 10 minutes. Add dispersedDisperse Dyestuff and treat the material for 10 minutes at 60°C. and raise to boil within 45-60 minutes and dye at this temperature for 60-120 minutes depending on the depth of shade.The material is rinsed and reduction cleared.2. High Temperature Dyeing Method.The following general recipe is recommended: X% Disperse Dyestuff 1 g/l DispersingAgent M: L: R: 1:10 pH adjusted to 5 with acetic acid. Set the dye bath at 60°C withdispersing agent and acetic acid to pH 5 and treat the material for 10 minutes. Add dispersedDisperse Dyestuff and treat for 10 minutes. Raise the temperature to 125-130°C. With 60minutes and dye at this temperature for 60-90 minutes depending on the depth of shade. Thebath is cooled to 90°C and drained at this tern

REDUCTION CLEARING-In order to achieve maximum brilliancy of shade and fastness properties especially inmedium and deep shades, the dyeings are given a reduction clear treatment as follow :

The dyed goods are first given a hot rinse at 80"C and then treated as follow : 4-5 g/l Caustic Soda 3-4 g/l Sodium Hydrosuphite 1 g/l non-ionic detergent at 70°C Rinse-acidify with acetic acid, rinse and dry.

Carrier Dyeing Method:Procedure:

At first, a paste of dye and dispersing agent is prepared and then water is added to it. Dye bath is kept at 60°C temperature and all the chemicals along with the material are

added to it. Then the bath is kept for 15 min without raising the temperature. pH of bath is controlled by acetic acid at 4-5.5. Now temperature of dye bath is raised to 90°C and at that temperature the bath is kept for

60 min. Then temperature is lowered to 60°C and resist and reduction cleaning is done if

required. Reduction cleaning is done only to improve the wash fastness. Material is again rinsed well after reduction cleaning and then dried.

Dyeing Curve


High Temperature Dyeing Method:Procedure:

At first a paste of dye and dispersing agent is prepared and water is added to it. PH is controlled by adding acetic acid. This condition is kept for 15 minutes at temperature 60°C. Then the dye bath temperature is raised to 130°C and this temperature is maintained for 1

hour. Within this time, dye is diffused in dye bath, adsorbed by the fibre and thusrequired shade is obtained.

The dye bath is cooled as early as possible after dyeing at 60°C. The fabric is hot rinsed and reduction cleaning is done if required. Then the fabric is finally rinsed and dried.

Dyeing Curve

Dyeing of Polyester Fabric in Thermasol Dyeing Method:Thermasol dyeing method is a continuous method of dyeing with disperse dye. Here dyeing isperformed at high temperature like 180-220°C in a close vessel. Here time of dyeing should bemaintained very carefully to get required shade and to retain required fabric strength.Sequence:Pading-Drying-Thermofixing-AftertreatmentProcedure:

1. At first the fabric is padded with dye solution using above recipe in a three bowl paddingmangle.

2. Then the fabric is dried at 100°C temperature in dryer. For dyeing, infra red dryingmethod is an ideal method by which water is evaporated from fabric in vapor form. Thiseliminates the migration of dye particles.

3. Then the fabric is passed through thermasol unit where thermo fixing is done at about205°C temp for 60-90 seconds depending on type of fibre, dye and depth of shade. Inthermasol process about 75-90% dye is fixed on fabric.

4. After thermo fixing the unfixed dyes are washed off along with thickener and otherchemicals by warm water.

Then soap wash or reduction cleaning is done if required. And finally the fabric is washed.


Dyeing of Polyester Fabric in Thermasol Dyeing MethodThermasol method is continuous methods of dyeing with disperse dye. Here dyeing is performedat high temperature like 180-220°C in a close vessel. Here time of dyeing should be maintainedvery carefully to get required shade and to retain required fabric strength.Sequence of Dyeing:This dyeing process is developed by Du Pont Corporation in 1949. here at sufficient temperaturethe fibres are soften and their internal structure is opened, polymer macromolecules vibratesvigorously and dye molecules diffuse in in fibre. It requires only a few seconds to 1 min andtemperature about 200-230°C. The sequence of operation is:

Pading - Drying - Thermofixing - After Treatment

Dyeing Procedure:1. At first the fabric is padded with dye solution using above recipe in a three bowl padding

mangle.2. Then the fabric is dried at 100°C temperature in dryer. For dyeing, infra red drying

method is an ideal method by which water is evaporated from fabric in vapor form. Thiseliminates the migration of dye particles.

3. Then the fabric is passed through thermasol unit where thermo fixing is done at about205°C temp for 60-90 seconds depending on type of fibre, dye and depth of shade. Inthermasol process about 75-90% dye is fixed on fabric.

4. After thermo fixing the unfixed dyes are washed off along with thickener and otherchemicals by warm water. Then soap wash or reduction cleaning is done if required.


Nylon:Nylon was the first synthetic fibre to go into full-scale production and the only one to do so priorto World War II. Nylon fibres are made up of linear macromolecules whose structural units arelinked by the –NH–CO– group. Nylon is one of the most commonly used polymers.

Nylon fiberNylon polymers can be formed in many ways. The four most important for industrial polymersare:

1. The condensation of diamines with diacids;2. The self-condensation of amino acids;3. The hydrolytic polymerisation of lactams, which involves partial hydrolysis of the lactam

to an amino acid; and4. The anhydrous addition polymerisation of lactams.

Characteristics of Nylon Fiber:1. Expetionally strong2. Elastic.3. Abration resistance4. Luster5. Easy to wash6. Dyed in wide range of colour7. Low in moisture absorbancy8. Filamert yarn provides smooth, soft, long fabric9. Spun yarn fabric give light weight and warmth10. Resilient11. Resistance to damage oil and many ressitance ( acid & alkali)

Physical Properties of Nylon 6 & Nylon 6, 6:

1. Melting point: Nylon6 : 215-218c Nylon 6,6: 250c

2. Sticking point: Nylon 6: 217c Nylon 6,6 : 229c


3. Heat setting: Nylon6: 205c Nylon 6,6: 150c

4. Safe ironing temp. : Nylon 6 : 149c Nylon 6,6 :190c

5. Action of water:In standerd condiation Nylon 65% RH in 25c+2 temarature.

6. Action of light:Light wave length is 300-700mm of the nylon fibre.

7. Action of Acid:In conc. H2SO4 nylon6 & nylon66 is unstable and dilute is unstable.

8. Action of alkali:In alkali highly resistance 10% NaOH in 85% at 10 hr treatment.

Comparison between Nylon 6 & Nylon 6, 6:Topics Nylon 6 Nylon 6,6

1. Chemical composition2. Crystallinity less crystalline than

nylon66More crystalline than nylon 6

3. Melting point 215c 250c4. Tg 40 47-575. Molecular mobility high low6. Colour fastness high low7. Stain cleanability low high8. Temprature resistance lower higher9. Regilience low high10. Moisture regain 4.5 4-4.5

Different between Nylon 6 & Nylon 6,6:Nylon 6 is made from one component namely Caprolactum, which has six carbon atom , whileNylon 66 is made from two component s namely adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine eachmonomer has six carbon atoms.


Nylon fabric dyeing by Acid dyes-

Sample weight = 5 gm.M: L = 1: 20Recipe:Acid dyes = 1.2 %Acid dyes = 2.0 %Leveling agent = 1 g/l(NH4)2SO4 = 2 g/lAcid (CH3COOH) = 0.5 g /lCalculations:We know, Dyes = Fabric weight in gm x shade %

Stock solution %Water = 100ml.Suppose, Dyes Stock solution = 1 % & chemical = 20 g/lAcid dyes = 5 gm x 1.2 % = 6ml.

1 %Acid dyes = 5 gm x 0.4 % = 10 ml.Leveling agent = 1 g/l = 1 x 5 x 20 / 20 = 5 ml.(NH4)2SO4 = 2 g/l = 2x 5 x 20 / 20 = 10 ml.Acid (CH3COOH) = 0.5 g /l = 0.5 x 5 x 20 / 20 = 2.5 ml.Total volume = 100 ml.Required water = 100 – (6+10 + 5 +10 + 2.5) ml = 66.5 ml.In dye pot, 5 gm sample + 6 ml +10 ml + 5ml + 10ml + 2.5 ml + 66.5 ml.Time & Temperature = 45 min x 1000C.


Computer Color Matching System (CCMS):Computer Color Matching (CCM) is the instrumental color formulation based on recipecalculation using the spectrophotometric properties of dyestuff and fibers.

Computer color matching

The basic three things are important in CCMS:1. Color measurement Instrument (Spectrophotometers).2. Reflectance (R %) from a mixture of Dyes or Pigments applied in a specific way.3. Optical model of color vision to closeness of the color matching (CIE L*A*B).

Functions of Computer Color Matching System:The following works can be done by using CCMS -

1. Color match prediction.2. Color difference calculation.3. Determine metamerism.4. Pass/Fail option.5. Color fastness rating.6. Cost Comparison.7. Strength evaluation of dyes.8. Whiteness indices.9. Reflectance curve and K/S curve.10. Production of Shade library.11. Color strength

1. Color Match Prediction:The main function of CCMS is to predict the color of a sample. In lab dip section it is necessaryto match the shade of the sample. CCMS makes it easy to match the shade quickly. It also makeseasy the work of a textile engineer who is responsible for it.

2. Color Difference Calculation:We know that; when a sample is put in sample holder of a spectophotometer it analyzes the colorof the sample. It also calculates the color difference of the sample and dyed sample which is


dyed according to the recipe of the CCMS.3. Determine Metamerism:CCMS also show the metamarism of the sample color.

4. Pass / Fail option:The sample which is dyed according to the recipe of the CCMS is it matches with the buyerssample that could be calculate by this system. If the dyed sample fulfill the requirements thenCCMS gives pass decision and if can’t then it gives fail decision. So, pass-fail can be decided byCCMS.

5. Color Fastness Rating:Color fastness can be calculates by CCMS. There is different color fastness rating (1-5/1-8).CCMS analyze the color fastness and gives result.

6. Cost Comparison:Cost of the produced sample can be compare with others. It also helps to choose the right dyesfor dyeing.

7. Strength Evaluation of Dyes:It is important to evaluate the strength of the dyes which will be used for production. All of thedyes have not same strength. Dyes strength effects the concentration of dyes which will be usedfor dyeing.

8. Whiteness Indices:Whiteness Indices also maintained in CCMS.

9. Reflectance Curve and K/S Curve:Reflectance curve also formed for specific shade by which we can determine the reflectioncapability of that shade.

10. Production of Shade Library:Computer color matching system also store the recipe of the dyeing for specific shade. Thisshade library helps to find out the different documents against that shade. It is done both for theshade of sample and bulk dyed sample.

11. Color Strength:Computer color matching system also determines the color strength of the sample.


Working Procedure of Computer Color Matching Systems (CCMS):

The working procedure of CCMS which is used for dyeing lab to match the shade of theproducts. Generally buyer gives a fabric sample swatch or Panton number of a specific shade tothe producer. Producer gives the fabric sample to lab dip development department to match theshade of the fabric. After getting the sample they analyze the color of the sample manually. Inthe other hand they can take help from the computer color matching system.At first it needs to fit the sample to the spectrophotometer which analyzes the depth of the shadeand it shows the results of the color depth. At the same time it needs to determine the colorcombination by which you want to dye the fabric. Then it will generate some dyeing recipewhich is nearly same. Here it needs to determine the amount of chemicals which you want to useduring dyeing.After formation of dyeing recipe it needs to dye the sample with stock solution. I think you arealso familiar with stock solution. Then sample should dye according to the dyeing procedure.After finishing the sample dyeing it needs to compare the dyed sample with the buyer sample.For this reason dyed sample are entered to the spectrophotometer to compare the sample with thebuyer sample.Then CCMS gives the pass fail results. If the dyed sample match with the buyer sample thanCCMS gives pass results. After that, dyed samples send to the customer or buyer. After gettingthe approval from the buyer producer goes for the bulk production.If the dyed sample does not match with the buyer sample than the CCMS analyses the colordifference and correct the recipe. Then another sample dyeing is carried out for matching theshade of the sample.

Advantages of Computer Color Matching System (CCMS):Computer Color Matching System (CCMS) has lots of great advantages in Textile Industry. Seesome examples below –

1. Customers get the exact shade wanted with his knowledge of degree of metamerism.2. Customers often have a choice of 10-20 formulation that will match color. By taking

costing, availability of dyes, and auxiliaries into account, one can choose a best swatch.3. 3 to 300 times faster than manual color matching.4. Limited range of stock color needed.


BULK DYEING CALCULATION & COST ANALYSIS:

Idea of profit or loss of a knit dyeing project of 12 tons/day capacity.Let 12 tons knit fabrics will be dyed with recipe.M: L = 1: 10, Liquor = 120000 L.Sales / kg of dyeing (dyeing charge) = 130 tk.

A. Dyeing recipe & reagents cost:

Reagents Recipeamount

Reagent amount for 12 ton inkg

Unit cost inreagent tk/kg

Cost of reagentin taka

Wetting agent 0.5 g/l 0.5 x 120000 / 1000 = 60 200 12,000Sequestering agent 2 g/l 2 x 120000 / 1000 = 240 300 72,000Stabilizer 1 g/l 1 x 120000 / 1000 = 120 300 36,000NaOH 3g/l 3 x 120000 / 1000 = 360 100 36,000H2O2 4 g/l 4 x 120000 / 1000 = 480 50 24,000Dyes 0.25% 0.25 x 12000 / 100 = 30 1400 42,000Dyes 2.80% 2.85 x 12000 / 100 = 336 500 16,800Dyes 0.85% 0.85 x 12000 / 100 = 102 400 40,800salt 70g/l 70 x 120000 / 1000 = 8400 10 84000Soda ash 20g/l 20 x 120000 / 1000 = 2400 150 360,000Soaping agent 2 g/l 2 x 120000 / 1000 = 240 300 72,000Softener 1% 1 x 12000 / 100 = 120 250 30,000

Total 97,6800

B. Miscellaneous costs:

purpose Cost per kg dyeing Total cost for 12tonssalary 24 12000 x 24 = 288000Utilities 10 12000 x 10 = 120000Bank interest 0.2 12000 x 0.2 = 2400Others 3 12000 x 3 = 36000

Total 37.2 446400 tk

Profit or loss calculations:Sales / kg of dyeing = 130 tk.Total income from sale = 130 x 12000 = 1560000 tk.Total production cost = 976800 + 446400 = 1423200 tk.

So, profit per day = 1560000 - 142300 = 136800 tk.


Different parameters in dyeing

pH:During peroxide bleaching & scouring: 9-11.During enzyme treatment: 4.5-5.Before addition of leveling agent: 6-6.5.Before addition of color softener (Perrustol IMA-500): 6-6.5.Before addition of white softener (Perrustol VNO-500): 4.5-5.Softener at stenter & de-watering - 5.5-6.Silicon softener - 5.5-6.Reactive dyeing - 10.5-12.Disperse dyeing - 4.5-5.5.

Temperature:For cotton scouring - 95-110°C.For cotton cold wash - 40-50°C.For cotton hot wash - 70-80°C.For cotton acid wash - 60-70°C.For cotton dyeing - 80°C (For hot brand)/60°C (For cold brand)

Time:For scouring and bleaching - 60-90 mins.For reactive dyeing - 60-90 mins.For disperse dyeing - 60-90 mins.

PROCESS CONTROL PARAMETERControl points Standard-

1. Joining polyester fabric in left most nozzle : must.2. Cycle time (by watch) : not above 2.5min3. Reel speed : 200-3004. Pump pressure : 0.6 for S/j, rib & 0.7 for fleece.5. Nozzle position : as per table6. Scouring liquor ratio : 1: 8 – 1:107. Scouring white ness (For light color) : as compare to lab sample8. Absorbency (by drop test) : excellence9. Residual peroxide (By peroxide strip) : 010. Glauber salt pH (Before addition) : 6.7-711. Enzyme bath-

PH : 4.5-5.5Temperature : 50-550c

Time : 50′12. Dye bath PH : 6.5- 7.013. Spot check before addition of soda (for torques color)14. Fixation pH-Light color : 10.3-10.5


Dark color : 10.8-11.0Black color : 11.2-11.415. Sample check after 20′.16. Drop time and temperature.17. Soaping PH : 6.5-7.018. Fixing bath PH : 6.019. Softener PH : 6.0-6.5

Common Faults and Their Remedies in Knit Dyeing:

1. Crack, rope & crease marks:Causes:

Poor opening of the fabric ropeShock cooling of synthetic materialIncorrect process procedureHigher fabric speed

Remedies:Pre-Heat settingLower rate rising and cooling the temperatureReducing the m/c loadHigher liquor ratioRunning at a slightly higher nozzle pressure

2. Fabric distortion and increase in width:Causes:

Too high material speedLow liquor ratio

Remedies:By decreasing both nozzle pressure & winch speed

3. Pilling:Causes:

Too high mechanical stress on the surface of the fabricExcess speed during processingExcess foam formation in the dye bath

Remedies:By using of a suitable chemical lubricantBy using antifoaming agentBy turn reversing the Fabric before dyeing

4. Running problem:A. Ballooning:Causes:

Seam joining with too densely sewnRemedies:

By cutting a vertical slit of 10-15 cm in length for escaping the air.B. Intensive foaming:Causes:

Pumping a mixture of air and water


Remedies:By using antifoaming agent

5. Uneven dyeing:Causes:

Uneven pretreatment (uneven scouring, bleaching & mercerizing)Uneven heat-setting in case of synthetic fibersQuick addition of dyes and chemicalsLack of control of dyeing m/c

Remedies:By ensuring even pretreatmentBy ensuring even heat-setting in case of synthetic fibersBy slow addition of dyes and chemicalsProper controlling of dyeing m/c

6. Shade variation (Batch to batch):Batch to batch shade variation is common in exhaust dyeing which is not completely avoidable.Even though, to ensure a consistent batch to batch production of shade the following mattersshould be controlled carefully-

Use standard dyes and chemicalsMaintain the same liquor ratioFollow the standard pretreatment procedureMaintain the same dyeing cycleIdentical dyeing procedure should be followed for the same depth of the shadeMake sure that the operators add the right bulk chemicals at the same time andtemperature in the process.The Ph, hardness and sodium carbonate content of supply water should check daily.

7. Dye spot:Causes:

Improper mixing of dyestuff in the solution, in right amount of water, at the temperature.Remedies:

We should pass the dissolved dyestuff through a fine stainless steel mesh strainer whenadding it to the chemical tank, so that the large un-dissolved particles are removed.

8. Patchy dyeing:Causes:

Uneven heat in the machine.Improper impregnation of dye liquor due to the low wetting property of the fabric.Dye migration during intermediate dyeing.

Remedies:By proper pretreatment.By adding extra wetting agent.Heat should be same throughout the dye liquor.

9. Specky dyeing:Causes:

Excessive foam in the dye bath.Fall of water droplets on fabric surface before or after dyeing.

Remedies:By using antifoaming agent.


Sufficient after treatment.By using a good wetting agent in the dye bath.

10. Roll to roll variation or Meter to Meter variation:Causes:

Poor migration property of dyes.Improper dyes solubility.Hardness of water.

Remedies:Use standard dyes and chemicals.Proper m/c speed.Use of soft water

11. Crease mark:Causes:

Poor opening of the fabric ropeShock cooling of synthetic materialIf pump pressure & reel speed is not equalDue to high speed m/c running

Remedies:Maintaining proper reel sped & pump speed.Lower rate rising and cooling the temperatureReducing the m/c loadHigher liquor ratio

12. Dye spot:Causes:

Improper Dissolving of dye particle in bath.Improper Dissolving of caustic soda particle in bath.

Remedies:By proper dissolving of dyes & chemicalsBy passing the dissolved dyestuff through a fine stainless steel mesh strainer, so that thelarge un-dissolved particles are removed

13. Softener Mark:Causes:

Improper mixing of the Softener.Improper running time of the fabric during application of softener.Entanglement of the fabric during application of softener

Remedies:Maintaining proper reel sped & pump speed.Proper Mixing of the softener before addition.Prevent the entanglement of the fabric during application of softener.


Common dyeing faults with their remedies-

1. Uneven dyeing:Causes-- Uneven pretreatment (uneven scouring & bleaching).- Improper color dosing.- Using dyes of high fixation property.- Uneven heat-setting in case of synthetic fibers.- Lack of control on dyeing m/c.Remedies:- By ensuring even pretreatment.- By ensuring even heat-setting in case of synthetic fibers.- Proper dosing of dyes and chemicals.- Proper controlling of dyeing m/c

2. Crease mark:Causes:- Poor opening of the fabric rope- Shock cooling of synthetic material- If pump pressure & reel speed is not equal- Due to high speed m/c running.Remedies:- maintaining proper reel sped & pump speed.- Lower rate rising and cooling the temperature- Reducing the m/c load- Higher liquor ratio.

3. Dye spot:Causes:- Improper Dissolving of dye particle in bath.- Improper Dissolving of caustic soda particle in bath.Remedies:- By proper dissolving of dyes & chemicals- By passing the dissolved dyestuff through a fine stainless steel mesh strainer, so that the largeun-dissolved particles are removed.

4. Softener Mark:Causes:- Improper mixing of the Softener.- Improper running time of the fabric during application of softener.- Entanglement of the fabric during application of softener.Remedies:- Maintaining proper reel sped & pump speed.- Proper Mixing of the softener before addition.- Prevent the entanglement of the fabric during application of softener.


5. Batch to Batch Shade variation:Causes:- Fluctuation of Temperature.- Improper dosing time of dyes & chemicals.- Batch to batch weight variation of dyes and chemicals.- Dyes lot variation.- Improper reel speed, pump speed, liquor ratio.- Improper pretreatment.Remedies:- Use standard dyes and chemicals.- Maintain the same liquor ratio.- Follow the standard pretreatment procedure.- Maintain the same dyeing cycle.- Identical dyeing procedure should be followed for the same depth of the Shade.- Make sure that the operators add the right bulk chemicals at the same time and temperature inthe process.The pH, hardness and sodium carbonate content of supply water should check daily.

6. Roll to roll variation or Meter to Meter variation:Causes:- Poor migration property of dyes.- Improper dyes solubility.- Hardness of water.- Faulty m/c speed, etc.Remedies:- Use standard dyes and chemicals.- Proper m/c speed.- Use of soft water.

7. Patchy dyeing effect:Causes:- Entanglement of fabric.- Faulty injection of alkali.- Improper addition of color.- Due to hardness of water.- Due to improper salt addition.- Dye migration during intermediate dyeing.- Uneven heat in the machine, etcRemedies:- By ensuring proper pretreatment.- Proper dosing of dyes and chemicals.- Heat should be same throughout the dye liquor.- Proper salt addition.


8. Wrinkle mark:Causes:- Poor opening of the fabric rope.- Shock cooling of synthetic material.- High temperature entanglement of the fabric.Remedies:- Maintaining proper reel speed & pump speed.- Lower rate rising and cooling the temperature.- Higher liquor ratio.


REACTIVE DYES FOR COTTON FABRICS/YARNS

COLOR PRODUCT NAME

Reactive Black KN-B 100%

Reactive Black K-BR 100%

Reactive Brilliant Blue X-BR 140%

Reactive Brilliant Blue K-GRS 100%

Reactive Dark Blue K-R 100%

Reactive Turquoise Blue K-GL 100%

Reactive Brilliant Blue KN-R 100%

Reactive Brilliant Blue KN-RS 100%

Reactive Turquoise Blue KN-G 100%

Reactive Brilliant Blue K-3R 100%

Reactive Blue X-R 100%

Reactive Blue KE-GR 100%

Reactive Blue KE-R 100%

Reactive Yellow Brown K-GR 100%

Reactive Red Brown K-B3R 100%

Reactive Green KE-4BD 100%

Reactive Brilliant Orange X-GN 100%

Reactive Brilliant Orange K-GN 100%

Reactive Brilliant Orange KN-5R 100%

Reactive Brilliant Red X-B 100%

Reactive Brilliant Red X-3B 130%

Reactive Brilliant Red K-2BP 100%

Reactive Brilliant Red KN-BS 100%



Reactive Brilliant Red K-2G 100%

Reactive Red KN-5B 100%


Reactive Brilliant Red KN-8BS 100%

Reactive Brilliant Red KE-3B 100%

Reactive Brilliant Red KE-7B 100%

Reactive Violet K-3R 100%

Reactive Brilliant Yellow X-6G 100%

Reactive Brilliant Yellow K-6G 100%

Reactive Yellow K-RN 100%

Reactive Yellow X-R 100%

Reactive Golden Yellow KN-G 100%

Reactive Brilliant Yellow K-4G 100%

Reactive Brilliant Yellow KE-3G 100%

Reactive Brilliant Yellow X-7G 100%

Reactive Brilliant Yellow KE-5G 100%


REACTIVE 'M' DYES(COLD BRAND)

Yellow M4G *Yellow 22

Yellow M8G *Yellow 86

Yellow MGR *Yellow 7

Golden Yellow MR *Yellow 44

Yellow M4R *Orange 14

Orange M2R *Orange 4

Red M5B *Red 2

Red M8B *Red 11

Magenta MB * Violet 13

Blue MR *Blue 4

Blue M2R *Blue 81

Blue M4GD *Blue 168

Navy Blue M3R *Blue 91% shade 4%shade

REACTIVE 'H' DYES(HOT BRAND)

Yellow H4G *Yellow 18

Yellow H7GL *Yellow 57A

Golden Yellow HR *Yellow 12

Orange H2R *Orange 13

Red 6BX *Red 76

Red H8B *Red 31

Magenta HB *Red 12

Purple H3R *Violet 1

Turq.Blue H5G *Blue 25

Blue HGR *Blue 5

Blue H5R *Blue 13

Nevy Blue RX *Blue 59

Red Brown H4R *Brown 9

Black HN *Black 8

1% Shade 4% Shade


REACTIVE 'HE' DYES(HIGH EXHAUST DYES)

Yellow HE4G *Yellow 105

Yellow HE6G *Yellow 135

Golden Yellow HER *Yellow 84

Orange HE2R *Orange 84

Red HE3B *Red 120

Red HE7B *Red 141

Red HE8B *Red 152

Blue HERD *Blue 160

Navy Blue HER *Blue 171

Navy Blue HE2R *Blue 172

Green HE4BD *Green 19

1% Shade 4% Shade

REACTIVE 'ME' DYES(BIFUNCTIONAL DYES)

Yellow ME4GL *Yellow 160

Golden Yellow MERL *Yellow 145

Orange ME2RL *Orange 122

Red MERBL *Red 198A

Red ME3BL *Red 194

Red ME4BL *Red 195

Red ME6BL *Red 196

Blue BRF *Blue 221

Blue BF *Blue 222

Navy Blue ME2GL *Blue 194

Navy Blue ME2RL *Blue 248

1% Shade 4% Shade


REACTIVE DYES(VINYL SULPHONE BASED DYES)

Yellow FG *Yellow 42

Yellow GR *Yellow 15

Yellow R *Yellow 44

Yellow RTN *Yellow 24

Golden Yellow G * Yellow 17

G. Yellow RNL 150% Orange 107

Orange 2R *Orange 7

Orange 3R *Orange 16

Red 5B *Red 35

Red BSID *Red 111

Red RB *Red 198 A

Violet 5R *Violet 5

Blue 3R *Blue 28

Blue BB *Blue 220

Turquoise Blue G * Blue 21

Turquoise Blue H2GP * Blue 77

Navy Blue GG * Blue 203

Brown GR * Brown 18

Black B * Black 5

Black RL * Black 31

Black HFGR * B/F

Black N150 * B/F

1% Shade 4% Shade

Levafix® Procion® Remazol®Levafix® Amber CA-N Procion® Blue H-EGN 125% Remazol® Black B 133%Levafix® Blue CA Procion® Blue H-ERD Remazol® Black B liq 50%Levafix® Brilliant Blue E-B Procion® Brilliant OrangeH-EXL Remazol® Black NF liq 50%Levafix® Brilliant Blue E-BRA Procion® Brilliant Red H-EGXL Remazol® Black RL 133%Levafix® Brilliant Blue E-FFN 150% Procion® Crimson H-EXL Remazol® Black RL liq 33%Levafix® Brilliant Red CA Procion® Dark Blue H-EXL Remazol® Blue RGBLevafix® Brilliant Red E-4BA Procion® Deep Red H-EXL Remazol® Blue RRLevafix® Brilliant Red E-6BA Procion® Flavine H-EXL Remazol® Brilliant Blue BB 133%Levafix® Brilliant Yellow CA Procion® Navy H-ER 150% Remazol® Brilliant Blue BB liq 50%Levafix® Brown E-2R Procion® Navy H-EXL Remazol® Brilliant Blue R specLevafix® Dark Blue CA Procion® Orange H-ER Remazol® Brilliant Blue R spec 160%Levafix® Fast Red CA Procion® Red H-E3B Remazol® Brilliant Blue RNLevafix® Golden Yellow E-G 150% Procion® Red H-E7B Remazol® Brilliant Orange 3R liq 25%


Levafix® Navy Blue E-BNA Procion® Sapphire H-EXL Remazol® Brilliant Orange 3R specLevafix® Navy CA Procion® Turquoise H-A Remazol® Brilliant Red 3BS 150%Levafix® Olive CA 100 Procion® Turquoise H-EXL Remazol® Brilliant Red BB 150%Levafix® Orange CA Procion® Yellow H-E4R Remazol® Brilliant Red F3BLevafix® Orange E-3GA Procion® Yellow H-E6G Remazol® Brilliant Red F3B liq 25%Levafix® Red CA-N Procion® Yellow H-EXL Remazol® Brilliant Violet 5RLevafix® Royal Blue E-FR Remazol® Brilliant Yellow 3GLLevafix® Rubine CA Remazol® Remazol® Brilliant Yellow 4GLLevafix® Scarlet CA-N Remazol® Onyx RGB Remazol® Brilliant Yellow GL 150%Levafix® Scarlet E-2GA Remazol® Orange BN Remazol® Brilliant Yellow GL liq 25%Levafix® Yellow CA Remazol® Orange RGB Remazol® Carbon RGBLevafix® Yellow E-3RL Remazol® Orange RR Remazol® Dark Blue SLT

Remazol® Red 3B Remazol® Deep Black GWFLava® Remazol® Red FLM Remazol® Deep Black GWF liq 33%

Lava® Dye Black GLF Remazol® Red RB 133% Remazol® Deep Black N 150%Lava® Dye Blue GLF Remazol® Red RB liq 50% Remazol® Deep Black N liq 75%Lava® Dye Forest Green GL Remazol® Red RGB Remazol® Deep Black RGBLava® Dye Indigo Blue GLF Remazol® Red RR Remazol® Deep Red RGBLava® Dye Olive GLF Remazol® Scarlet RGB Remazol® Golden Yellow RGBLava® Dye Orange GL Remazol® Turquoise Blue G

133%Remazol® Golden Yellow RGB conc

Lava® Dye Red GLF Remazol® Ultra Carmine RGB Remazol® Golden Yellow RNL 150%Lava® Dye Sky Blue GLF Remazol® Ultra Orange RGBN Remazol® Golden Yellow RNL liq 50%Lava® Dye Turquoise GLF Remazol® Ultra Red RGB Remazol® Luminous Yellow FLLava® Dye Violet GLF Remazol® Ultra Rubine RGB Remazol® Midnight Black RGBLava® Dye Yellow GLF Remazol® Ultra Yellow RGBN Remazol® Navy Blue GG 133%

Remazol® Yellow 3RS 150% Remazol® Navy Blue GG liq 33%Remazol® Yellow GR 133% Remazol® Navy RGB 150%Remazol® Yellow P-FG 150% Remazol® Night Black RGBRemazol® Yellow R Remazol® Yellow RR

Reactive ED Series Reactive SUPRA Series (SP) Reactive VS Series

Reactive Yellow EDReactive Orange EDReactive Red EDReactive Red ED-3BReactive Red ED-4BReactive Blue EDReactive Navy Blue EDReactive Black ED

Reactive Yellow SP-3RF 150%

Reactive Yellow SP-4G 200%

Reactive Red SP-3B

Reactive Red SP-3G

Reactive Red SP-3B 150%

Reactive Red SP-6B 150%

Reactive Orange SP-2R

Reactive N. Blue SP-2G 150%

Reactive Blue SP-BRF

Reactive Navy Blue SP-BF

Reactive Blue SP-2RL

Reactive Yellow VS-FGReactive Blue VS-2G 165%Reactive Brill. Green VS-6BReactive Blue VS-BBReactive Blue VS-3RReactive Blue VS-RGBLReactive Navy Blue VS-2GReactive Navy Blue VA-BRReactive Brilliant Blue VS-RReactive Black VS-B 150%Reactive Brown VS-GRReactive Black VS-RLReactive Black VS-N 150%Reactive Black VS-HFGRReactive Black VS-WNNReactive Black VS-RReactive Black VS-G


Reactive H Series Reactive C Series

Reactive Yellow H-5GReactive Yellow H-4GReactive G. Yellow H-RReactive Orange H-2RReactive Red H-8BReactive Red H-6BXReactive Blue H-5RReactive Purple H-P3BReactive Red H-PBReactive Blue H-GRReactive Red Brown H-4RReactive Blue H-P3RReactive Black H-PGRReactive Navy Blue H-RXReactive Turq. Blue H-5GReactive Black HNReactive Navy Blue H-P2R

Reactive Yellow C-8GReactive Yellow C-4GReactive Yellow C-4RReactive Yellow C-3RReactive Yellow C-RReactive Orange C-2RReactive Red C-5BReactive Red C-8BReactive Magenta C-BReactive Violet C-4RReactive Blue C-RReactive Blue C-2R

DISPERSE DYES FOR POLYESTER FABRICS/YARNS

COLOR PRODUCT NAME

Disperse Blue L-2BLN 100% Podwer/Granule

Disperse Blue L-2BLN 150%

Disperse Turquoise Blue H-GL 200%

Disperse Blue H-BGL 200%

Disperse Navy Blue H-GLN 200%

Disperse Blue M-2R 100%

Disperse Blue H-3G 100%

Disperse Orange M-B 200%

Disperse Yellow Brown M-3GL 100%

Disperse Yellow Brown H-2RL 100%

Disperse Yellow M-5R 200%

Disperse Scarlet H-FL 100%

Disperse Scarlet H-3GFL 100%


Disperse Red L-FB 200%

Disperse Rubine M-GFL 100% / 200%

Disperse Scarlet H-BGL 100% / 150%

Disperse Rubine H-2GL 100%

Disperse Violet H-RB 100%

Disperse Yellow M-FL 100%

Disperse Yellow L-2G 200%

Disperse Yellow M-3G 100%

Dianix® Amber CW-SF Dianix® Brown 3R liq Dianix® Red AC-E 01Dianix® Black CC-3R 01 Dianix® Brown S-3R Dianix® Red BEL liqDianix® Black CC-G Dianix® Chilli Red SF Dianix® Red BLS 200%Dianix® Black CC-R Dianix® Crimson SF Dianix® Red C-4G 150%Dianix® Black E-G 02 Dianix® Cyanine B Dianix® Red CBN-SFDianix® Black ETD 300% 01 Dianix® Dark Blue 3RT liq Dianix® Red CCDianix® Black G liq Dianix® Dark Blue K-R Dianix® Red E-FBDianix® Black HG-FS conc Dianix® Dark Blue SE-3RT Dianix® Red E-RDianix® Black HSL liq 90% Dianix® Deep Black PLUS Dianix® Red F2B 400%Dianix® Black K-B Dianix® Deep Blue PLUS Dianix® Red K-2BDianix® Black S-2B 200% Dianix® Deep Red SF Dianix® Red K-3GDianix® Black S-R 200% Dianix® ECO Black HF Dianix® Red PLUSDianix® Black XF Dianix® Flavine XF Dianix® Red S-2BDianix® Black YKD Dianix® Golden Yellow SF Dianix® Red S-BELDianix® Blue 3RLS Dianix® Green CC Dianix® Red SE-CBDianix® Blue AC-E Dianix® Luminous Pink 5B Dianix® Red S-GDianix® Blue BG liq Dianix® Luminous Red 4B-C Dianix® Red UN-SEDianix® Blue CC Dianix® Luminous Red 4B-E Dianix® Red Violet XF liqDianix® Blue E-R 150% Dianix® Luminous Red B Dianix® Royal Blue CCDianix® Blue FBL 150% Dianix® Luminous Red G Dianix® Scarlet CCDianix® Blue K-2G Dianix® Luminous Yellow 10G Dianix® Scarlet XFDianix® Blue K-FBL Dianix® Luminous Yellow GN Dianix® Sport Red SFNDianix® Blue PLUS Dianix® Navy 2G liq Dianix® Turquoise BG liqDianix® Blue S-2G Dianix® Navy C-2G 150% Dianix® Violet S-4RDianix® Blue S-2R Dianix® Navy CC Dianix® Turquoise S-BGDianix® Blue S-BB Dianix® Navy CW-SF Dianix® Turquoise XFDianix® Blue S-BG Dianix® Navy S-2G 200% Dianix® Scarlet UN-SEDianix® Blue UN-SE Dianix® Navy S-G 200% Dianix® Scarlet AD-RG


Dianix® Blue XF Dianix® Navy UN-SE 200% 01 Dianix® Rubine XFSDianix® Brilliant Blue BG Dianix® Navy XF Dianix® Rubine UN-SEDianix® Brilliant Blue BGFN Dianix® Orange C-RN 150% Dianix® Rubine SE-BDianix® Brilliant Blue RN Dianix® Orange G liq Dianix® Rubine S-3BDianix® Brilliant Orange 4R Dianix® Orange K-3G Dianix® Rubine S-2G 150%Dianix® Brilliant Orange G Dianix® Orange PLUS Dianix® Rubine PLUSDianix® Brilliant Red SF Dianix® Orange S-G 200% Dianix® Rubine ETD 300%Dianix® Brilliant Scarlet SF Dianix® Orange UN-SE 01 Dianix® Rubine CW-SFDianix® Brilliant Violet B Dianix® Pink REL liq Dianix® Rubine CCDianix® Brilliant Violet R Dianix® Red 4G liq 150% Dianix® Rubine 2G liqDianix® Yellow 6G liq Dianix® Yellow 3G liq Dianix® Royal CW-SF

Dianix® Yellow AC-E new Dianix® Yellow Brown 2R liq Dianix® Yellow Brown CCDianix® Yellow Brown SE-R liq Dianix® Yellow Brown SE-R Dianix® Yellow Brown S-4R 150%Dianix® Yellow Brown XF Dianix® Yellow E-3GE Dianix® Yellow S-3GDianix® Yellow CC Dianix® Yellow K-4G Dianix® Yellow S-4GDianix® Yellow E-3G Dianix® Yellow PLUS Dianix® Yellow S-6GDianix® Yellow SE-G Dianix® Yellow S-G Dianix® Yellow UN-SE 200% new

ACID DYES FOR POLYAMIDE

COLOR PRODUCT NAME

Acid Blue Black 10B 100% / 120%

Nigrosine (Crystals) NBL (Redish / Bluish)

Acid Black BR 160%

Acid Black M-B

Acid Black N-T

Acid Blue V 100%

Acid Blue A 100%

Acid Brilliant Blue PB 100%

Acid Brilliant Blue 2GB 100%

Acid Brilliant Blue P-2R 200%

Acid Brilliant Blue RAW 150%

Acid Brilliant Blue 6B 350%


Acid Brilliant Blue G 360%

Acid Navy Blue R 100%

Acid Ink Blue G 100%

Acid Navy Blue 5R 110% / 120%

Acid Navy Blue GR 140%

Acid Brilliant Blue N-GL

Acid Brilliant Blue P-R 200%

Acid Brilliant Blue 5GM 200%

Acid Green VS 100%

Acid Green GS 160%

Acid Green BS 150%

Acid Orange II

Acid Orange 2R 150%

Acid Red G 100%

Acid Red B 100%

Acid Scarlet 3R

Acid Red 3B 100%

Acid Rhodamine B 400%

Acid Scarlet GR 100%

Acid Red MOO

Acid Red A 150%

Acid Red A 100%

Acid Scarlet F-3GL 130%

Acid Pink B

Acid Brilliant Red B 125%

Acid Red FG 150%


Acid Violet 2R 150%

Acid Red 6B 100%

Acid Violet 4BNS 180%

Acid Violet 5B 150%

Acid Brilliant Red 10B 140%

Acid Brilliant Yellow G 100%

Acid Brilliant Yellow 2G 120%

Acid Golden Yellow G 120%

Acid Metanil Yellow MT 100%



Acid Brilliant Yellow G 150%

Telon® Black AMF Telon® Orange AGT 01 Telon® Rubine A5B 01Telon® Blue A2R Telon® Orange M-GSN 03 Telon® Turquoise M-5G 85%Telon® Blue A3GL Telon® Pink BRLF Telon® Violet M-RWN 01Telon® Blue AFN Telon® Red 2B 03 Telon® Yellow 4R micro 01Telon® Blue AGLF Telon® Red 2BL micro 01 Telon® Yellow A2RTelon® Blue BRL micro Telon® Red 2BN 01 Telon® Yellow A3GL 01Telon® Blue CD-RP Telon® Red A2FR Telon® Yellow A3R 01Telon® Blue GGL 03 Telon® Red A2R Telon® Yellow ARBTelon® Blue M-2R Telon® Red AFG Telon® Yellow CD-RGTelon® Blue M-BLW Telon® Red BRL conc Telon® Yellow FG 01Telon® Blue M-CP Telon® Red BRL micro Telon® Yellow FRL micro 01Telon® Blue M-GLW Telon® Red CD-RB Telon® Yellow M-4GLTelon® Blue M-RLW Telon® Red FRL micro Telon® Yellow M-5GL 01Telon® Blue RR 02 Telon® Red M-3B 80% Telon® Yellow M-CPTelon® Brown 3G 200% Telon® Red M-BL Telon® Yellow RLN microTelon® Flavine M-7G Telon® Red M-CATelon® Green M-6GW Telon® Red M-GWNTelon® Green M-BG Telon® Red M-RTelon® Green M-BW Telon® Rhodamine M-BN


EFFLUENT TREATMENT PLANT

The effluent generated from different sections of a textile industry must be treated before theyare discharged to the environment. Various chemicals and physical means are introduced for thispurpose. Some chemicals are used to treatment those wastage polluted water. Here chemicalsname are given which are used in effluent treatment plant.

Introduction:The effluent treatment plant is designed to treat the effluent coming from different areas of theplant. The treatment of different effluents varies with the type of effluent.Water is recycled from effluent coming from textile & chemical industries using series ofoperations i.e. coagulation, flocculation, aeration, and filtration techniques mainly reverseosmosis. The effluent produce has high BOD, COD, pH, TSS, TDS and Color material. Thisstudy includes characterization of effluent and making of process flow sheet of EffluentTreatment Plant after visit to various locations in industrial areas. Points of optimization wereidentified in various unit operations involved considering the total cost incurred during the wholeprocess. It was identified that automation and use of highly substantive dyes during colorationstages (dyeing & printing) in a textile mill considerably reduces the amount of effluent produced.Effect of different mesh sizes of coagulating agents was (also) studied in conjugation mixingspeed. It was noted that use of polyphosphazene membranes instead of polyamides for reverseosmosis plants, as they posses better resistance at high pH and temperature.

Nature of Effluent:Waste generated in textile industry is essentially based on water- based effluent generated in thevarious processes. Textile industry originates a complex huge volume of waste water containingvarious chemical used in dyeing, printing and finishing processes. Many dyes which causesintensive color in the waste water. The effluent generated in different step or processes is wellbeyond the standard and thus it is highly polluted and dangerous.

Need of ETPWater is basic necessity of life used for many purposes one of which is industrial use. Industriesgenerally take water from rivers or lakes but they have to pay heavy taxes for that. So itsnecessary for them to recycle that to reduce cost and also conserve it. Main function of this ETPis to clean GCP effluent and recycle it for further use.The basic thrust of the technology is to convert entire quantity of effluent to zero level byseparating water and salt using evaporation and separation technology. The concept and thetreatment is based on the removal of the entire COD/BOD and the condensate coming out tomeet the fresh water quality requirement in the process.

Water Consumption in Textile Processing:The production of textile goods involves spinning (fiber to yarn), weaving / knitting (yarn tofabric), chemical (wet) processing, and garment manufacturing. The majority of the waterconsumption (72%) takes place in the chemical (wet) processing of textiles. The water isrequired for preparing the fabric for dyeing, printing and finishing operations, Intermediate


washing / rinsing operations and machine cleaning.Other major uses of water in the textile industry

Steam generation (boiler feed water) Water treatment plant (reject stream, periodic cleaning of reverse osmosis

plant,regeneration and washing of demineralization, softener plant, back wash of mediafilters);

Cooling (processing machines, cooling tower); Humidification (spinning process); and

Domestic purposes (irrigation of lawn and garden, sanitation, cleaning, drinking andmiscellaneous uses).

Required Chemicals and Their Functions in Biological ETP:H2SO4:Function: Neutralize the waste water controlling the PH. It is auto dispensed in theneutralization tank.Polyelectrolyte:Function: Used for sedimentation / sludge coagulation and also killing bacteria.Antifoaming Agent:Function: Used for reduction / controlling foam. It is used auto / manually in the distributiontank.De-colorent:Function: Used for removing color. It is used auto / manually in the sedimentation feeding tank.Sodium Hypochlorite:Function: It is used to kill the harmful bacteria. It is used in the biological oxidation tank.Product Quality Checked:

1. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)2. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)3. Total suspended solids4. Total dissolved solids5. Color6. pH etc.

Waste Water Treatment Plant Standard:

No Parameter Unit ConcentrationPresent

Dept. of environmentGovernment of BD

Inlet Outlet1 BOD PPM 281 23 502 COD PPM 730 56 2003 TDS PPM 3220 1580 21004 TSS PPM 204 36 1505 EC µδ/cm 6430 3160 12006 DO PPM 0.1 4.6 4.5-87 Chloride PPM - >200 600


8 Phosphate PPM 2.6 2.2 89 Nitrate PPM 0.9 0.06 10

10 Ammonium PPM 0.09 0.07 511 Sulphate PPM - 27 -12 Arsenic PPM - - 0.213 Cyanide PPM - - -14 Nitrate PPM 0.08 0.05 5015 Cobalt PPM - - -16 P

H - 10.3 8.1 6-9

17 Temperature ºC 40 38 40 Summer or 45 Winter18 Cadmium PPM - - 0.0519 Chromium PPM - - 0.05

ETP System for Dyeing IndustriesTextile dyeing industries need huge quantity of water for textile dyeing, which they normallypump out repeatedly from the ground or natural water sources resulting in depletion of groundwater level.

In the dyeing process textile industries generate huge quantity of toxic effluent containingcolours, sodium sulphate, sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide and traces of other salts. These aregenerated after dyeing and after washing of garments / fabrics. After dyeing the waste waterproduced is called Dye Bath water and after washing the waste water generated is called washwater. Dye Bath contains higher solids in the range 4-5% whereas wash water contains only 0.5-1% solids.Based on the above mentioned fact “SSP” has developed a technology which can process suchharmful toxic effluent water and transform it into reusable water. Thus the textile industries willhave the advantage of using the same water in the dying process repeatedly; also the salt used fordyeing can be reused or sold in the market. The technology offered by SSP can overcome allproblems pertaining to environmental pollution in respect to textile dying industries.Effluent Generation and CharacteristicsWet processing of textiles involves, in addition to extensive amounts of water and dyes, a


number of inorganic and organic chemicals, detergents, soaps and finishing chemicals to aid inthe dyeing process to impart the desired properties to dyed textile products. Residual chemicalsoften remain in the effluent from these processes. In addition, natural impurities such as waxes,proteins and pigment, and other impurities used in processing such as spinning oils, sizingchemicals and oil stains present in cotton textiles, are removed during desizing, scouring andbleaching operations. This results in an effluent of poor quality, which is high in BOD and CODload. Table 4.1 lists typical values of various water quality parameters in untreated effluent fromthe processing of fabric using reactive, sulfur and vat dyes and compares these to the DOEeffluent standards for discharge into an inland surface water body (e.g. river, lake, etc.). Asdemonstrated, the effluent from textile industries is heavily polluted.

Effluent Treatment Plant DesignTextile industries (fabric dyeing and chemical treatment industries) are classified according tothe Environmental Conservation Rules 1997 as Red category industries, and therefore an ETPmust be designed and constructed to treat plant effluent. The effluent from the plant must meetthe national effluent discharge quality standards, including the “Quality Standards for ClassifiedIndustries”, before discharge to the environment. These quality standards must be ensured at themoment of beginning trial production. The waste discharge standards differ according to the finaldisposal place of the effluent. The effluent standards are presented in Tables 4.3 and 4.4 (also


included in Part 1). It is the DOE’s mandate to enforce this legislation, and this guide providesthe tools required to assess the ETPs proposed by textile industries in the EMP/EIA.

Discharge Quality Standard for Classified Industries

There are various types of ETPs and their design will vary depending on the quantity and qualityof the effluent, amount of money available for construction, operation and maintenance, and theamount of land available. There are three mechanisms for treatment which are: Physical,Chemical and Biological. These mechanisms will often be used together in a single ETP.

There are generally four levels of treatment, as described below: Preliminary: Removal of large solids such as rags, sticks, grit and grease that may result

in damage to equipment or operational problems (Physical); Primary: Removal of floating and setteable materials, i.e. suspended solids and organic

matter (Physical and Chemical); Secondary: Removal of biodegradable organic matter and suspended solids (Biological

and Chemical);


Tertiary: Removal of residual suspended solids / dissolved solids (Physical, Chemicaland Biological).

There are many ways of combining the operations and processes in an ETP: A properly designed biological treatment plant, which typically includes screening,

equalization, pH control, aeration, and settling, can efficiently satisfy BOD, pH, TSS, oiland grease requirements. However the compounds in industrial effluent may be toxic tothe microorganisms so pretreatment may be necessary. Most dyes are complex chemicalsand are difficult for microbes to degrade so there is usually very little colour removal.

Another option is a physico-chemical treatment plant, which typically includes screening,equalization, pH control, chemical storage tanks, mixing unit, flocculation unit, settlingunit and sludge dewatering. This type of treatment will remove much of the colourdepending on the processes used. It can be difficult to reduce BOD and COD to meeteffluent standards and it is not possible to remove TDS.

Most often, physico-chemical treatment will be combined with biological treatment. Thetypical components of such a plant are screening, equalization, and pH control, chemicalstorage, mixing, flocculation, primary settling, aeration, and secondary settling. Thephysico-chemical treatment always comes before the biological treatment units. Using acombination of treatments will generally reduce pollutant levels to below the dischargestandards. 4-8

Another form of biological treatment is the reed bed, which can be used with a settlingtank, or in combination with other treatment processes It presents a natural method oftreating effluent which is often lower in capital, operation and maintenance costs. Reedbeds can contribute to a reduction in colour, a decrease in COD, an increase dissolvedoxygen and a reduction in heavy metals, but function best with some form ofpretreatment.

As discussed, there are many options for the design of an ETP. The type of plant and the variouscomponents of the plant will depend on the characteristics of the effluent. In evaluating an ETPdesign in an application for an ECC, it is necessary to determine whether the components of theETP are sized correctly for the flow and to assess whether the effluent is likely to meet therequirements of the discharge standards.

Overview of Stages in ETP Assessment Procedure:Shows the ETP assessment procedure. There are 3 stages for reviewing an ETP design andchecklists are provided for each. As indicated, in any stage if the information provided for theproposed ETP is found to be inadequate, incorrect or outsidethe guideline values, the industrymust be consulted to provide or correct theinformation.


Effluent Treatment plant of a Garments washing unit:

Description of Effluent Treatment Plant Process Sequence in Textile IndustryCooling & mixingAfter primary filtration, the liquor passes to cooling and mixing tank in which uniform mixing ofeffluents from various process takes place. A paddle mixer is provided for mixing. Cooling ofthe effluent may be done with the help of cooling tower.NeutralizationThe effluent is pumped to a tank in which it is neutralized by acid or alkali dozing. The tank hasan automatic dosing controller which at automatically control the dose of acid or alkali tomaintain the required PH.Co-AgulationThen the effluent is pumped to the co-agulation tank. Chemical co-agulation very effective forremoval of color and suspended materials, aluminum, ferrous sulphates, ferric chloride,chlorinate dcopper etc. to increase the efficiency of co-agualtion, co – agulation gain may beadded for example polyacrylate.Setting & Separation of SludgeSome of the soluble organic matter and light suspended solids will form a blanket of flocculentmatter with the co-agulants. The blanket is skimmed of to another tank and the remainingsolution is moved to pressure filter.Pressure FilterFor pressure filtration vacuum pumps may be used to force through the filter and suspendedflocks are collected in the pressure fine filter.


Discharging to drainAfter filtration the purified water sent to drain which eventually reach to the river or anywhereelse.Process Diagram o ETP

Process Description1. Inlet LaunderThe purpose of launder is to flow the effluent of gas scrubber to distribution chamber Inletchannel is designed for a surge flow of 1950m3/hr @ slope of 2% so water flows at 1.5m/s(selfcleaning velocity).Self cleaning velocity is that velocity at which if the sludge flows it will notget accumulated in the launder.2. Distribution on chamberPurpose of distribution chamber is to divide the flow (design flow of 1140m3/hr) into two equalflows. In case if one of the thickener is closed then there would be no distribution so selection ofpipes is done on this criteria. The size of gates is designed such that there is equal distributionalways.3. Flash MixerThere are two flash mixers designed for a flow of 1140m3/hr with a retention time of 60 sec. Soits volume must lie around 19m3. In flash mixer alum (coagulant) acts upon sludge so thatsuspended solids settle down. In addition pH of sludge is also raised by lime as it is required tohave a pH of 7-9. Polyelectrolyte (flocculants) also acts upon to fasten the process ofcoagulation.


Pic-Flash mixer4. Chemical action of alum & limeAl2 (SO4)3.12H 2 O 2Al3+ + 3SO42- + 12H2OSO42-+H2O HSO4-+ OH- (Cause pH change)Ca (OH) 2 Ca2+ + 2OH- (Cause pH change)

The basic water causes Al(OH) 3 to precipitate bringing small particles with them and thenmaking water clear. Fe2O3 is removed mainly by coagulation. The polyelectrolyte makes biglumps of the coagulated particles so they settle down.5. ClarifierThe clarifier separates the treated slurry from clean water. The sludge settles down and cleanswater at the top flows down to the cooling tower from where it is cooled and recycled. Accordingto PG the SS content in this water must not be greater than 100 ppm. The clarifier has a rackerarm which extracts the sludge out of clarifier. In case if sludge height goes higher than the rackerarm then it will automatically lift up and then settle down taking sludge with it. From here sludgeis pumped to sludge tank.

A GENERAL STRUCTURE OF CLARIFIERSuspended Carrier TankIn the first tank, organisms are grown on the inside of special plastic rings. This tank performsmost of the treatment. The organisms appear as a thin brown film on the rings.Sludge tankIn the sludge tank the sludge is continuously agitated in order to prevent settlement of sludge.Each tank has capacity of 224m3 and can hold for 8 hrs. Main purpose of the tank is to holdsludge for transfer to filter press. From sludge tank the sludge is pumped to filter press by filterpress feed pump. In the second tank organisms which are suspended in the tank perform the restof the treatment. The organisms are very small and appear as a fine brown sludge (calledActivated Sludge) in the tank.


Sludge tankSecondary ClarifierThe third tank is a clarifier in which the suspended organisms are separated from the treatedeffluent by settling. The settled organisms are pumped back to the second tank to keep them inthe system.

Pic- Secondary Clarifier

Filter pressSludge from the sludge tank will be pumped to the Filter Press equipments for dewateringpurpose. According to performance guarantee the cake moisture should not be more than 20%.For this purpose different types of filters are used namely- gravity setters, gravity belt filters,centrifuges, vacuum or pressure belt filters and filter press. But among these filter press is mostefficient and economical. Other filtration systems offer high pressure filtration, but only the filterpress has both high pressure capability and efficient filter cake removal. The filter elements areconstructed of lightweight polypropylene. They are extremely corrosion resistant and virtuallyeliminate plate breakage.

Pic- Filter Press


Filter process

PolishingThe treated effluent from the clarifier is further treated by flocculation with chemicals followedby Dissolved Air Flotation. This step polishes the effluent before discharge to the river.

DewateringDewatering is accomplished by pumping a slurry or sludge into chambers surrounded by filtermembranes. As pumping pressure is increased the filtrate is forced through the accumulated filtercake and membrane until the chamber is full of solid filter cake. The chambers are formed bytwo recessed plates held together under hydraulic pressure. The hydraulic ram moves thefollower against the stack of filter plates closing the press. The ram continues to apply sealingpressure of sufficient force to counteract the high internal compaction pressures.The head stock and tail stock are held in place by specially engineered side rail support bars. Thefiltrate passes through the membrane and is directed by channels in the plates and drain ports tothe head stock for discharge. The filtrate typically contains less than 15 PPM suspended solids.The filter cake is easily removed by simply reversing the hydraulic ram, thus opening the press.The lightweight plates may then be moved apart, permitting the compacted cake to fall from thechambers. Higher the internal pressure, the greater the solids compaction. The standard press isconstructed to withstand 100 PSI compaction pressure producing a hard dry cake. The specialhigh pressure press can withstand 225 PSI for sludge more difficult to dewater.

Ozone Treatment for Textile Effluent Treatment Plant COD, Color Removal OzoneWastewaterThe use of ozone in textile effluent treatment appears to be a very attractive alternative withconsiderable application potential. Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent when compared withother well knows oxidizing agents. Ozone is capable of causing the degradation of dyes.

Advantages of Ozone Generator in Textile Industry Effluent Treatment Plants Ozone reduces COD. Ozone reduces BOD.


Ozone removes Colour. Ozone eliminates Odour. Ozonation increases the biodegradation effectiveness. Decomposes rapidly, leaving no harmful byproducts. Increase efficiency of Filter.

Benefits of Ozone Generator in Textile Industry Effluent Treatment Plants Due to its unstable physical property, it should be generated at the point of application for

use in treatment purposes. After chemical oxidation residual ozone reverts to oxygen. Environment friendly gas. Can be retrofitted to existing and new treatment plant. Low operating cost. Easy to operate & handle.

Some Important Parameters of WaterColor:Color normally indicates the presence of soluble and suspended matter, which affects the textilewet processing. The color of water is measured in terms of Hazen units, by comparing it with acolor of a standard solution. A Hazen unit is the color produced by dissolving 1 ppm platinum inthe form of chloroplatinic acid, in the presence of 2 ppm cobalt chloride.

Turbidity:Turbidity is caused by the scattering of light by suspended matter which may be organic orinorganic in nature. The turbidity of water is measured against a standard solution having astandard turbidity value 1000 units.

pH:pH is the measure of H+ ions concentration , its value indicates the nature of water ,such asneutral , acidic or alkaline. .pH of less than 7 indicates acidic , neutral at 7 and alkaline whenabove 7. The pH scale is having value from 0 to 14.

Total Dissolved solids (TDS):TDS comprise of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that is dissolve in water.The TDS is measured in ppm (mg/ltr).

Total Suspended Solids (TSS):The suspended solids are discrete particles which are insoluble in water .These can be removedby filtration and are also measured in ppm.

Alkalinity:The alkalinity is due to the presence of bicarbonates, carbonates or hydroxides. Alkalinity isdivided into caustic alkalinity (above pH 8.2) and total alkalinity above pH 4.5. (Bicarbonate andcaustic alkalinity).


Acidity:Most natural waters are buffered by a CO2 / HCO3 system. Corbonic acid is not fully neutralizeduntil a pH of 8.2 and will not depress pH below 4.5. CO2 acidity is in the pH range of 8.2 to 4.5 ,mineral acidity due to industrial waste is below pH 4.5.

Disadvantages of Hard or Unsuitable water usage in textile processing

1. Formation of hard soaps with calcium and magnesium ions , which results into shadechange.

2. Carbonates of calcium and magnesium precipitate iron and aluminum mordant andsubstantive cotton dyestuffs.

3. Some dyes got duller and even scum formation happens in the hard water.4. The metal ion impurities such as iron and copper, is a problem in the peroxide bleaching

baths, iron is responsible for reducing the brightness of many dyes and is alsoobjectionable in the washing off operations.

5. Hard water is responsible for scale formation in the boilers.6. If temporary hardness is high , the soft scales are formed which causes corrosion.

Desirable Water Quality Parameters for Textile Wet Processing

1. pH→6.5-7.52.TDS→ 300 ppm3.Color→ 5 Hazen No.4.Residue on ignition→ 250 ppm5.Total Hardness→ 30 ppm6. COD →nil7. Turbidity→ nil8.Suspended Solids→ nil9.Copper →0.01 ppm10. Iron →0.01 ppm11.Chromium→ 0.01 ppm12.Manganese→ 0.05 ppm13.Aluminium→ 0.2 ppm14.Chloride →150 ppm15.Sulphate →150 ppm16. Nitrite→ nil

Problems caused by hard water in textile industry

Hard water can create so many problems during wet processing from desizing to finishing intextile mills. Since every process is related to the next process, so all processes should be doneprecisely to get best result. To do it first we have to know what problems hard water can create indifferent stage of wet processing.In Boiler: If hard water is used in boiler, then a layer is formed on the inner surface of thevessel or in the inner side of tube. This layer is very hard just like as stone which is not removed


without hammer or chesser or tessel. This is called scale. In boiler, temporary hard water produceCaCO3 & Mg (OH) 2, the combination of CaCO3 & Mg (OH)2 is called scale.

Ca (HCO3)2 --> CaCO3 + CO2 + H2OMg (HCO3)2 --> Mg CO3 + CO2 + H2OMgCO3 + H2O --> Mg (OH)2 + CO2[CaCO3 + Mg (OH)2 ] --> Scale.

As a result, in boiler more heat will be needed & for that, more fuel will be required. For scaleformation, equally heat transformation in boiler tube is not possible very often. As a result, forexcess heat of a particular part of the tube, the tube may burst.Heat loss of tube up to 40% according to the diameter of the tube. Heat loss by pipe scaling up to40% for 20 mm scale.

SCALE THICKNESS HEAT LOSS1 mm approximately 10%3 mm „ 17%5 mm „ 22%

10 mm „ 30%20 mm „ 43%

Corrosion can be a serious problem in boiler, if hard water is used in it. Dissolved O2 in thepresence of CO2 is the common cause of corrosion. Fe present in hard water reacts with CO2 toform Fe CO3, which is the main process of corrosion. This Fe CO3 is hydrolyzed & produceFe(OH)2, this agent / component damage the boiler.Fe + H2O + CO2 --> Fe CO3 + H2OFe CO3 + H2O --> Fe(OH)2 + CO2

Desizing: Hard water de-active enzymes & insolubilize size materials such as starch, PVA etc.

Scouring: Hard react with soap during scouring. Soap is the Na & K salt of higher fatty acid(C17H35COONa). The Hard water does not easily form lather by reacting with soap. The Ca &Mg salt of hard water reacts with soap and produce insoluble organic salts which becomes thewastage of soap.CaSO4 + 2 C17H35COONa --> (C17H35COO)2Ca + Na2SO4

Insoluble organic saltIf we use hard water in wet processing, then they produce insoluble salt which is deposited withthe fabric. As a result, the surface of scoured fabric become harsh, hard & non-flexible whichcreates problem in the next process like produced uneven dyeing.Bleaching: Hard water decompose bleach bath.H2O2 --> H2O + [O]Mercerizing: It forms insoluble metal acid, reduce absorbency and luster.Dyeing: Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions of hard water react with dye molecules and precipitated the dye.As a result dyestuffs are spoilt. Hence, uneven shade (depth of dyeing) of color is produced.Printing: It breaks the emulsion, change it’s thickness and efficiency and it is also harmful forthickener. Hard water causes problems inprinting process like dyeing.Finishing: Hard water interfere with catalysts, cause resins and other additives to become nonreactive, break emulsion and deactives soap.


From above, we saw that hard water causes problems in every process of wet processing. So, wehave to use such water that is suitable for wet processing and don’t create any problem. Idealquality of feed water for textile industry is :

pH should be in the range of 7 – 8.

Water should be odorless & colorless.

Water hardness: maximum 5° dH.

Solid content: < 50 mg/L.

Dissolved solids : < 1 mg/L.

Inorganic salts: < 500 mg/L.

Organic salts: < 20 mg/L.

Iron (Fe): < 0.1 mg/L.

Mn : < 0.02 mg/L.

Cu: < 0.005 mg/L.

Nitrate: < 50 mg/L.

Nitrite: < 5 mg/L.


ISO 9000:2000 - Quality Management SystemISO 9000: Introduction:In order to harmonize quality standards throughout the whole, world a number of nation agreedin 1987 to recognize an international quality standard system. This led to formulation &acceptance of ISO-9000 to be widely recognized and followed universally.

ISO 9000

ISO 9000 was revised in 1994 & then republished & revised in 2000. This portion with deal withthe original ISO -9000 in brief. Later ISO 9000: 2000 will be discussed.

What is ISO 9000:This standard is a guideline for companies to mark their organizations capable of designing andsupplying products &services of quality acceptable to buyers. ISO -9000 standards are guideline,which compel the manufacturers to put into effect quality assurance system to work at all stagesof manufacture and service so that only goods and services are produced.

Why is ISO 9000 Important:ISO 9000 is important because of many reasons. The first is its international orientation.Currently, ISO 9000 is accepted & supported by national standard bodies from more than 120countries. Thus it becomes a choice for companies that serve customer demanding internationalstandard of quality. ISO is also important because it compels organization to institutionalize theright policies, procedures, record, techniques, technologies, resources, and structures, whichenable to achieve the desired standards of quality. Unless companies establish a quality policy,right system, processes & procedures, a world –class standard of quality can never be achieved.This is why ISO 9000 is important.

1. General requirements:The organization shall establish, document, implement and maintain a QMS and continuouslyimprove it as per international standard.

The organization: Identify processes needed for the QMS and their application throughout the organization Determine the sequence and interaction of these processes,


Determine criteria, and methods required to ensure that both the operation and control ofthese processes are effective,

Ensure the availability of resources and information necessary to support the operationand monitoring of these processes.

Monitor, measure and analyze these processes and Implement action necessary to achieve projected results and continuous improvement of

these processes.

2. Documentation requirement:General:The QMS documentation shall include

Documented statements of a quality objective A quality manual Documented procedures required by this international standard Documents needed by the organization to ensure the effective planning operation and

control of its process and Records required by this international standard

3. Quality manual:The organization shall establish and maintain a quality manual that includes

The scope of the QMS, including derail of and justification for any exclusion. The documented procedures establish for the QMS. A description of the interaction between the processes of the QMS

4. Control of document:Document required by the QMS shall be controlled. Records are a special type of documents andshall be controlled according to the requirements.

A documented procedure shall be established to define the controls needed To approve documents for adequacy prior to issue, To review and update as necessary and re-approve documents To ensure that change and the current revision status of documents and are identified To ensure that relevant version of applicable documents are available at points of use To ensure that documents remain legible and readily identifiable, To ensure that documents of external origin are identified and their distribution

controlled, and To prevent the unintended use of obsolete documents and to apply suitable identification

to them if they are retained for any purpose.

5. Control of records:Records shall be established and maintain to provide evidence of conformity to requirement andof the effective of the QMS. Records shall remain legible, readily identifiable and retrievable. Adocumented procedure shall be established to define the controls for the identification, storage,protection, retrieval, retention time and disposition of records.


Total Quality Management (TQM)Introduction:In the 1950s, the Japanese asked W. Edwards Deming, an American statistician and managementtheorist, to help them improve their war torn economy. By implementing Deming's principles oftotal quality management (TQM), Japan experienced dramatic economic growth. In the 1980s,when the United States began to see a reduction in its own world market share in relation toJapan, American business rediscovered Deming. Quality management experts, Joseph Juran andPhilip Crosby, also contributed to the development of TQM theories, models, and tools. TQM isnow practiced in business as well as in government, the military, education, and in non-profitorganizations including libraries (Jurow & Barnard, 1993).TOTAL quality Management strives towards the achievement of quality in everything one does.Quality means conformance to customer requirements. In to-days highly competitive economy,business must face the challenge of continually improving the quality of the goods orservices.TQM involves everyone in the organization. It aims at standardizing and improving allprocess in the organization. The function of quality has evolved from more product inspection toan all-encompassing TQM. It is no longer just a Technical function; it has become a managementdiscipline.In a manufacturing organization, TQM generally starts by sampling a random selection of theproduct. The sample is then tested for things that matter to the real customers. The causes of anyfailures are isolated, secondary measures of the production process are designed, and then thecauses of the failure are corrected. The statistical distributions of important measurements aretracked. When parts' measures drift out of the error band, the process is fixed. The error band isusually tighter than the failure band. The production process is thereby fixed before failing partscan be produced.It's important to record not just the measurement ranges, but what failures caused them to bechosen. In that way, cheaper fixes can be substituted later, (say, when the produce is redesigned),with no loss of quality. After TQM has been in use, it's very common for parts to be redesignedso that critical measurements either cease to exist, or become much wider. The concept ofcontrolling quality of output product has been accepted in most of the progressive units. Over theyears the movement of Quality control; Statistical Quality Control; Total Quality Control;Quality Assurance and now Total Quality Management, the latest phase in the field,encompassing earlier phases and adding few more dimensions.Evolution:The philosophy of Total Quality Management is evolved, with the change in market conditionsand customer requirements time to time.

Quality --- Quality Control --- Static Quality Control --- Total Quality Control --- QualityAssurance --- Total Quality Management.


Definition:Quality:Good Quality does not necessarily mean high quality. It means a predictable degree ofuniformity and dependability at low cost, which suits to the market.Total Quality Management:A cost effective system for integrating the continuous quality improvements of people at alllevels in an organization to deliver product services, which ensure customer satisfaction.The concept of bringing a quality focus to every aspect of an operation from raw materialsreceived to accounting invoice accuracy.Company wide quality management system involving all employees in activities aimed atimprovement of product quality, production process and services.

Dimensions of Quality:

Objectives of TQM:Total Quality requires management practices to shift towards a new form. It includes thesecomponents:1. Customer needs, not production, is focus.2. The system becomes more horizontal with everyone working towards a single goal, to servethe customer better.3. Everyone is considered in decision-making.4. Employee empowerment and responsibility replace rigid policies and procedures.5. Cooperation across function is frequent.6. Team takes on some of the roles of departments.7. Workers are cross-trained and their jobs are more flexible.

The most common pit-falls in Total Quality Management:

1. The TQM approach is not focusedThe company fails to identify the key factors that represent quality strategic objectives are not


considered.2. The efforts are stifled by bur accuracy and paper workQuality becomes an added burden rather than an integrated aspect of operations. The principlesof TQM such as simplification and cycle time improvement are not applied to the quality processitself.3. Using TQM as a “Quick – fix”The company is in trouble and TQM viewed as a way to quickly solve a variety if problem.Managers look for short – term results and are frustrated when they aren’t quickly achieved. Theprogram is abandoned and the efforts wasted.4. Data is hard to obtain and useTQM is not based on facts because people within the company don’t have the right data withwhich to make decisions. Too much data can often be as detrimental as too little.5. Intra company conflicts slow down TQMStaff departments in particulars are reluctant to give up their “territories”. As a result the cross-functional approach required by TQM becomes impossible.6. Poor planning derails TQMSometimes a company uses an “off the shelf” approach to TQM, often sold by a consultant.Managers don’t realize the extent to which TQM must be customized for each company.7. Measuring the wrong thingThe Company fails to focus on characteristics that actually drive quality. It ignores the fact thatthese blemishes are irrelevant to customers, who are much more interested in on-time delivery.8. Management can be an obstacle to TQM successRather than leading the quality effort, managers simply talk about it. Not wanting to make acommitment, pass responsibility to lower levels, or establish fact-oriented measures, they impedethe implementation of TQM. Their subordinates go frustrated and abandon quality efforts.

Total Quality Management Model:In order to develop a systematic approach to TQM planning and implementation, a good strategyis to take a book at companies which are recognized quality leaders in the field. Especially firmsthat have been awarded the prestigious Malcolm Baldrige Quality Award, generally recognizedas a superior achievement in the field of Total Quality.

1. LeadershipQuality values and customer orientation flow from senior managers. It’s important that theycommit themselves to quality and that they devise the systems and strategies for achieving it. It’sespecially important that senior managers be visible in their quality activities. They should beactive in quality planning, and should take the lead in communication quality goals to theorganization.2. Information and AnalysisThis is the brain center of the quality improvement process TQM emphasizes management by


fact. Reliable and timely data are the key ingredients in tracking quality and makingimprovements in process.To achieve total quality, your company must consider a wide range of information: customer,product and service performance operation, market dynamics competition, costs and supplierdata.3. Strategic Quality PlanningThe idea of TQM is not for quality to become your company’s sole focus. Rather, you mustformulate your business plans in such a way that quality contributes to productivity andultimately to financial improvement.Total quality cannot be added after you have determined long term or short term plans. The ideaonly makes sense when it is in corporate into evaluation of projection market conditions,competitive climate and financial situation.4. Human Resources development and ManagementThe success of you TQM effort will ultimately depend on the utilization of Human resource.Your employees are the ones who will implement quality process, who will make sure qualitylevels are maintained, and who will contribute ideas for continuous improvement.5. Management of Process QualityTQM continually return to the idea of “process”. This is because of the emphasis on designing iton. The answer to all quality problems ultimately lies in improving a process or system.6. Quality and Operational ResultsThe analysis and improvement of process is an important emphasis of TQM, but only as a meansto achieving results. You should never become so caught up in the planning or implementation ofTQM that you lose sight of fact that it is a result-oriented approach.7. Customer Focus and SatisfactionThis is the single most important factor in the Baldrige Award criteria. The reason is thatcustomer focus is what drives all the other aspects of TQM. No company can achieve quality in avacuum. It is the market place that should determine quality at every level.

Implementation of Total Quality Management:

1. Top management commitmentsometimes senior manager become enthusiastic about the ideas and benefits of TQM. May bethey are being pressed by the customer to adopt a quality program. May be they thinking TQMwill add the company prestige. TQM fails in the companies where enthusiastic but nocommitment.2. Learn about TQMSenior manager should spend time learning about TQ concepts before moving ahead being byreading book and articles about various factors of TQM. Then send related managers toworkshop or presentation onto. They may be available through local business organization.Finally talks to companies, which have already had experience of TQM learn what’s worked for


them and what aren’t.Some companies use consultant to learn as much as they can about TQM.3. Decide on a quality visionIt is important that you consider your quality vision very carefully. This is much more than asimple slogan. It’s a statement that links manager, employees, customers and suppliers.The quality vision is a simple statement that organizer your companies approach to quality. Itshould be generally bring to apply to every aspect to your company operation, but specificenough to pinpoint the aspects of quality that you want to emphasis.Considerations while formulating vision statement

Consult with representative from all parts of the company. Everyone should feel theyhave had some input.

Keep it short. It should summarize, not explain. Make it customer oriented: the customer determine quality. Some companies include reference to the market and competitors, emphasizing that

quality mean leadership. Don’t make it too general. ”Excellence” was a popular term a few years ago. But what

does it mean? · Focus on priorities.

4. Establish a TQM teamThis is the group that will oversee the actual implementation of TQM in your form. It shouldinclude the chief executive, representatives from line and staff departments, employeerepresentation and union officials if a union involved.The team then conducts in department research and discussion about two topics.

How TQ conspectus apply to individual departments and functions. What needs to be done to implement TQM across function lines. Specific plans for

corresponding cooperation will need to be made.

5. Establish quality policies and proceduresThe team will next examine how to apply the quality vision to the actual way the compotationbusiness in run. You will not alter all your company polices overnight. This should be a processcarried out by the TQM this overtime and on a priority basis.6. Set quality objectivesNever implement TQM is a vacuum, excepting that the ideas eill automatically yield results.Always keep an eye on the objectives that you went to achieve.

1. It provides a measuring stick; managers and employees can measure TQM results againsta realistic set of guidelines.

2. It reduces unrealities expectation. By forming on long-range goals, objective gets readyof the “quick-fix” mentality that lead to frustration.

3. It motivates. If the entire company in working towards reducing defects or achievingsome bench marking, there is a spirit of accomplishment that boost motivation.

Some times that may include in TQM objections.


Increasing productivity. Lowering specific cost, such as warranty or scrap costs. Implementing specific quality control. Penetrating new markets. Stepping up the rate of innovation inside the company. Cutting specific cycle times.

7. Set action planThen step applies to both the policy and quality project aspects of TQM. Essentially it refers tothe question of who, what, when and how. The QTM team should plan to then over part of itsduties to quality team or individuals who will address specific areas.

TQM in the Textile Industry:Outline The involvement of the textile industry within the four principles varies widely, not onlyamong the different sections of the industry, but also within each of these principles. Theperceived level of involvement within each section of the industry, Provide brief descriptions ofsome of the activities in each process area of the industry that help develop the four principles ofTQM.

Fiber FormingStatistical process control and process improvement efforts are strong in the man-made fiberindustry. This industry conducts much metrics-based analysis. Leading companies are starting toform extensive partnerships with customers who employ team concepts. Such tools as QFD areused to enhance these partnerships. The leading companies also are becoming flatterorganizations that emphasize a team concept of managing, instead of a hierarchical one.Decision-making in these organizations is given to an empowered operational level ofemployees.

SpinningIn yarn facilities that have more advanced TQM systems, the development of the associatesthrough education and training for such things as technical certification, statistical process andquality control, and team development, occur on a frequent basis. This training and education isprovided both within the company and by outside sources such as a community college. In thesefacilities, elaborate process improvement programs based on employee involvement have beenestablished. Natural work teams and process improvement teams are used to conduct the processimprovements. Customer partnerships and satisfaction surveys are also employed.

KnittingIn some plants in the knitting industry, employees are empowered through training in statisticalprocess control and just -in-time manufacturing, to improve the manufacturing process. Processsimplification is conducted through quality audits that identify problems and critical path


decisions. Other plants have developed process improvement teams to conduct work in theprocess area. As in yarn, customer partnerships are also a trend.

Weavingln the weaving industry, there are companies that employ statistical process control and value-added analysis. Teams are used in these companies to aid in customer service and quality. Aspecific example of customer focus is one company's development of a 48-hour customer serviceprogram to help eliminate, in person, any problems that arise within their products. Thiscompany also employs teams to build partnerships with customers.

Dyeing and finishingThe use of statistical process control and value-added analysis is also employed in this industryof the textile value-added chain. Work-flow and cycle- time analysis is employed in companiesmore advanced in their TQM system. Cross- functional teams in areas of customer service andquality improvement are also used.

Introduction:Quality means customer needs is to be satisfied. Failure to maintain an adequate quality standardcan therefore be unsuccessful. But maintaining an adequate standard of quality also costs effort.From the first investigation to find out what the potential customer for a new product reallywants, through the processes of design, specification, controlled manufacture and sale.There are a number of factors on which quality fitness of garment industry is based such as -performance, reliability, durability, visual and perceived quality of the garment. Quality needs tobe defined in terms of a particular framework of cost.

Quality Control:Quality is of prime importance in any aspect of business. Customers demand and expect valuefor money. As producers of apparel there must be a constant endeavor to produce work of goodquality."The systems required for programming and coordinating the efforts of the various groups in anorganization to maintain the requisite quality". As such Quality Control is seen as the agent ofQuality Assurance or Total Quality Control.In the garment industry quality control is practiced right from the initial stage of sourcing rawmaterials to the stage of final finished garment. For textile and apparel industry product quality iscalculated in terms of quality and standard of fibres, yarns, fabric construction, colour fastness,surface designs and the final finished garment products. However quality expectations for exportare related to the type of customer segments and the retail outlets.Quality control and standards are one of the most important aspects of the content of any job andtherefore a major factor in training.


Total Quality Control:"To ensure that the requisite quality of product is achieved". This ensures customer satisfaction,but it leaves quality control as a necessary but expensive evil.To ensure, at minimum practicable cost, that the requisite quality of product is being achieved atevery stage of manufacture from raw materials to boxed stock.

Objectives: To maximize the production of goods within the specified tolerances correctly the first

time. To achieve a satisfactory design of the fabric or garment in relation to the level of choice

in design, styles, colors, suitability of components and fitness of product for the market.

Textile Quality Control Experts:Quality Control: AQM performs quality control and inspection services for different customersfrom all over the world. Using international standards such as ISO 2859, our Quality Controllers(QC) method consists to check different control points:

Conformity: The QC checks the conformity of the product (design, colors, raw material…) withthe Pre-Production Sample (PPS) and other technical files.Quality: Our QC checks for defects (fabric defects, colors defects, accessories and label defects,manufacturing defects) and classifies them accordingly.Measurement: Following the measurement chart, our QC checks the measures for each size ofthe product.Packaging: Our QC checks the quantity of cartons, size of cartons, their weight, shipping marks,etc.Concept of Quality:Simply, quality refers to one or more desirable characteristics that a product shouldpossess. Quality is inversely proportional to (unwanted) variability.

Quality curve


Quality Characteristics:Every product possesses a number of properties that jointly describe what the user or consumerthinks of as quality. These properties are known as quality characteristics. For example, fiberlength is known to be one of the important quality characteristics of a fiber.Quality Cost:Preventing, detecting and dealing with defects cause costs that are called quality costs or costs ofquality. Quality costs can be broken down into four broad groups.(1). Prevention Costs:

Product/process design. Process control. Burn-in. Training. Quality data acquisition and analysis

(2). Appraisal Costs: Inspection and test of incoming material. Product inspection and test. Material and services consumed. Maintaining accuracy of test equipment.

(3). Internal failure Costs: Scrap Rework Retest Failure analysis Downtime Yield losses Downgrading/ off-spacing

(4). External failure costs: Complaint adjustment Returned product/material Liability costs External costs

Testing: Testing is the process or procedure to determine the quality of a product.

Quality: The term quality refers the excellence of a product. When we say the quality of aproduct is good. We mean that the product is good for the purpose for which it has been made.

Control: To check or verify and hence to regulate.

Quality Control: Quality control is the synthetic and regular control of the variable whichaffects the quality of a product.The operational techniques and activities that sustain the quality of a product or service in orderto satisfy given requirements. It consists of quality planning, data collection, data analysis and


implementation and is applicable to all phases of product life cycle; design, manufacturing,delivery and installation, operation and maintenance.

Objects of Quality Control: To produce required quality product. To fulfill the customer's demand. To reduce the production cost. To reduce wastage. To earn maximum profit at minimum cost.

QUALITYIntroduction:Quality means customer needs is to be satisfied. Failure to maintain an adequate quality standardcan therefore be unsuccessful. But maintaining an adequate standard of quality also costs effort.From the first investigation to find out what the potential customer for a new product reallywants, through the processes of design, specification, controlled manufacture and sale.

There are a number of factors on which quality fitness of garment industry is based such as -performance, reliability, durability, visual and perceived quality of the garment. Quality needs tobe defined in terms of a particular framework of cost.

In the garment industry quality control is practiced right from the initial stage of sourcing rawmaterials to the stage of final finished garment. For textile and apparel industry product quality iscalculated in terms of quality and standard of fibres, yarns, fabric construction, colour fastness,surface designs and the final finished garment products. However quality expectations for exportare related to the type of customer segments and the retail outlets.

Objectives:1. To maximize the production of goods within the specified tolerances correctly the first

time.2. To achieve a satisfactory design of the fabric or garment in relation to the level of choice


Requirements:The Quality System Requirements are based on the principle of PDCA Cycle.

Process Cycle











Process Cycle











Process Cycle


1. Understanding the customers' quality requirements.2. Organizing & training quality control department.3. Ensuring proper flow of quality requirements to the QC department.4. Ensuring proper flow of quality requirements to the Production Department.5. Establishing quality plans, parameters, inspection systems, frequency, sampling

techniques, etc..6. Inspection, testing, measurements as per plan.7. Record deviations8. Feed back to Production Department.9. Plan for further improvement.

Establishing the Quality Requirements:The first step for quality control is to understand, establish & accept the customers' qualityrequirements. This involves the following steps.

1. Getting customers specifications regarding the quality2. Referring our past performance3. Discussing with the Quality Control Department4. Discussing with the Production Department5. Giving the Feed Back to the customers6. Receiving the revised quality requirements from the customers7. Accepting the quality parameters

Various Steps of Inspection & Quality Control:The following levels are discussed at the Garment Making Department assuming that thisdepartment is receiving the ready to cut dyed & finished fabrics from the Dyeing & FinishingDepartment.

Before or Pre-production InspectionThe following parameters & defects are checked prior to cutting.

1. Shade Matching2. Fabric Construction3. GSM (grams per square meter)4. Whales & courses if required)5. Diameter6. Dyeing Levelness7. Ecological parameters if required8. Softness9. Shrinkage10. Matching of Rib, Collars & Cuffs11. Fabric Holes12. Vertical & Horizontal Stripes13. Knitting defects such as missing loops, sinker lines, etc.14. Bowing15. Skewing16. Yarn defects such as thick & thin places17. Dirt’s & Stains


During Production Inspection1. Verify cutting patterns2. Cut components measurements3. Cutting shapes4. Fabric defects5. Other specific parameters as required by the customers Rib, Collars & Cuffs matching6. Stitching defects7. Sewing threads matching8. Dirt’s & Stains9. Measurements10. Labels11. Trims & Accessories

Before Production InspectionMany of the important parameters of Pre-productions, during productions & Final inspectionparameters. This is to ensure that wrong or major defective garments are not packed.Final Inspection

A. PACKING & ASSORTMENT1. Wrong Model2. Wrong Quantity3. Missing labels & tags4. Wrong Size & Color assortment5. Wrong Folding

B. FABRIC DEFECTS1. Wrong Shade2. Uneven dyeing3. Holes4. Knitting stripes5. Thick & Thin places6. Dirt & Stains7. Oil stains8. Sinker line9. Poor softness10. Higher Shrinkage11. Crease Marks

C. WORKMANSHIP DEFECTS1. Open seam2. Puckering3. Needle holes & marks4. Unbalanced sleeve edge5. Unbalanced placket6. Insecure shoulder stitch7. Incorrect side shape


8. Bottom hem bowing9. Uneven neck shape10. Cross labels11. Broken & Missing stitch12. In secured buttons13. Untrimmed threads & fabrics14. Poor Ironing15. Double stitch

D. GENERAL DEFECTS1. Shade variation within the garment parts2. Shade variation between the garments3. Defective printing4. Defective embroidery5. Defective buttons

E. MEASUREMENT DEVIATIONSCompare the garment measurements against the Customers' Measurement Charts.Following are the some of the important garments' measurement aspects to be considered.

1. Garment length2. Body width3. Shoulder length4. Arm hole5. Arm Opening6. Sleeve length7. Placket length8. Placket width9. Neck width10. Neck opening11. Hemming width12. IRib or Collar width

AQL (Acceptable Quality Level)A certain proportion of defective will always occur in any manufacturing process. If thepercentage does not exceed a certain limit, it will be economical to allow the defective to gothrough instead of screening the entire lot. This limit is called the "Acceptable Quality Level"(AQL).

Considering the practical & economic aspects, Sampling Techniques are adopted to Accept orReject a Lot on the basis of the Samples drawn at Random from the lot. It has been found andaccepted that a scientifically designed sampling & inspection plan protects a Manufacturer aswell as the Buyer economically.

American Military Standards known as MIL-STD-105A to 105E is accepted world-wide forsampling sizes. It has the following sample size levels. Normally for Garment Industry 105D or105E are followed.


1. Special Inspection Levels ( S1, S2, S3 & S4 )2. General Inspection Levels ( I, II & III )3. It has various AQL levels from 0.040 to 25 for Accepting or rejecting the lots. Normally

for Garment industry, the AQL levels of 2.5, 4.0 and 6.5 are followed.

Ecological Parameters:Now all the Customers are asking for Ecological Parameters. Now European Buyers are stressingthis. Following are main Ecological Parameters to be considered.

1. pH range2. Formaldehyde levels3. Extractable heavy metals4. Chlorinated phenols ( PCP, TeCP)5. Forbidden Amines of MAK III A1& A2 categories6. Pesticides7. Chlorinated Organic carriers8. Biocide finishes9. Flame retardant finishes10. Colour fastness to Water11. Colour fastness to acid & alkali perspiration12. Colour fastness to wet & dry rubbing13. Colour fastness to saliva14. Emission of volatile chemicals15. Other specific parameters as required by the customers.

Checking List of Garments Industry is Point out below:

A. Cutting Quality Check List:1. Pattern to Cutting Garments Measurement Check.2. Fabric diameter Measurement Check.3. Cutting Lay Check.4. Fabric Roll to Roll Shade Check.5. Fabric G.S.M Check.6. Bundle Mistake Check.7. Size Mistake Check.8. Fabric Color Mistake Check.9. Yarn contaminated Check.10. Any Fabric Problem Check.

B. Sewing Line quality Check List:1. Buyer Approved Sample & Measurement Sheet Check.2. Sample Wise Input Check.3. Buyer Approved Trims Card Check.4. Buyer Approved Sample Wise Style Check.5. All Machine Thread Tension Check.6. Style Wise Print & Embroidery Placement Check.7. All Process Measurement Check.


8. All Machine Oil Spot Check.9. All Process S.P.I Check as Per Buyer Requirement.10. Input Time Shading, Bundle Mistake & Size Mistake Check.11. Buyer Approved Wise Contrast Color Check.12. As per Buyer Requirement Wise Styling Check.13. All Machine Stitch Tension Balance Properly.

C. Sewing Table Quality Check List:1. Style Wise Garments Check.2. All Process Measurement Check..3. Front Part, Back Part, Sleeve & Thread Shading Check.4. S.P.I Check for All Process.5. Print/Embroidery Placement Check.6. Main Label, Care Label, Size Label &Care Symbol Check.7. Size Mistake Check.8. All Process Alter Check.9. Any Fabric Fault /Rejection Check.

D. Finishing Quality Check List:1. As Per Buyer Requirement Wise Iron Check.2. Buyer Approved Sample Wise Style Check.3. Front Part, Back part, Sleeve, Rib Thread & Contrast Color check.4. Print/Embroidery Quality & Placement Check.5. All process S.P.I check.6. Oil Spot/Dirty Spot Check.7. Main Label Care label & Care Symbol Check.8. Any Fabric Fault & Fabric Reject Check.9. All process Measurement Check.10. Blister Poly & After Poly Getup Check.11. Hang tag & Price Sticker Check.12. Assortment Every Carton Pcs Quantity Check.13. Buyer Requirement Wise Ctn Size, Poly Size, & garments Size Check.

E. Out Side Print & Embroidery Quality Check List:1. Buyer Approved Sample or Artwork Wise Bulk Sample Print & Embroidery Design

Check.2. Size Wise Approved Pattern Placement Check.3. As per Sample Wise Print Design, Color & Quality Check.4. Bundle & Size Wise Print/Embroidery Check.5. Fabric Top Side in Side Check.6. Print / Embroidery Pattern Placement Check.7. As Per Sample Wise Print/Embroidery Design, Thread Color Quality Check.8. Print/Embroidery Color Wise Wash Test Check.

F. Store Quality Check List:1. Buyer Approved Trims Card Check.


2. Buyer Approved Sample Wise Main, Size & Care Label Check.3. Buyer Approved Sample Wise Care Symbol Check.4. Thread Color Shading & Quality Check.5. Buyer Wise Hang tag & Price Sticker Check.

Quality of Fabric:Quality is very important for all types of fabric and textiles. There are some important topicsgiven blow about quality of fabric.

Quality Parameters of Woven, Knitted and Non-woven Fabrics:Generally to test the quality parameters of woven, knitted and non-woven fabric, the fabric mustbe conditioning at 24 hours in the standard testing atmosphere. It is very important for all typesof fabric.

Quality Parameters of Woven Fabrics:There are some quality parameters of woven fabric.1. Dimensional characteristics:

Length Width Thickness.

2. Weight of fabric: Weight per unit area. Weight per unit length.

3. Fabric strength and extensibility: Tensile strength. Tearing strength.

4. Threads per inch of fabric: Ends per inch. Picks per inch.

5. Yarn count: Warp count Weft count.

6. Crimp: Warp crimp Weft crimp.

7. Handle: Stiffness Drape.


8. Crease resistance and crease recovery.9. Air permeability.10. Abrasion resistance.11. Water resistance.12. Shrinkages.13. Different fastness properties:

Fastness to light. Fastness to wash. Fastness to perspiration. Fastness to Rubbing.

Quality Parameters of Knitted Fabrics:There are some quality parameters of knitted fabric.

1. Strength and extensibility.2. Course density.3. Wales density.4. Lop length.5. Elasticity.6. Deformation.7. Grams per square meter (G.S.M)8. Yarn count.9. Design.

Quality Parameters of Non-woven Fabrics:There are some quality parameters of non-woven fabric.

1. Strength and extensibility of fabric.2. Weight.3. Thickness.4. Air permeability.5. Crease resistance.6. Stability of washing.7. Stability of dry cleaning.8. Dimensional stability.9. Elasticity.

Conclusion:There are many quality parameters in different types of fabric. And there are also many differentfaults in different types of fabric, which are effect in quality of fabric. If we control those faultsand effects, we can get the good quality of fabric. So quality control is very important for alltypes of fabric and textiles.


Garment InspectionThe inspections are done to control the quality is means by examining the products without theproducts any instruments. To examine the fabric, sewing, button, thread, zipper, garmentsmeasurements and so on according to specification or desired standard is called inspection. Thereare so many facilities for inspection in every section of garments industries. The aim ofinspection is to reduce the time and cost by identifying the faults or defects in every step ofgarments making.

Flow Chart of Garment Inspection

Confirmation of Quantity↓

Confirmation of accessories↓

Size spec inspection↓

In side Inspection↓

Out side Inspection↓

Final Inspection↓

Packing

Inspection Procedure of Garments are Described Below:

1. Confirmation of Quantity:First step of garment inspection start with confirmation of Quantity with the vendors packing listby counting all Pecs. Of each box. If Qty is not matching to the packing list and written in thebox then this discrepancy is informed to the vendor.

2. Confirmation of Accessories:Next step is the confirmation of accessories, here we confirm brand tags, demerit tags, Price tags,or other tags, wash care labels, woven labels, or other labels and accessories as required by thebuyer.

3. Size Spec inspection:After confirmation of accessories all pcs are checked as per size spec based on the instructionsheet which is given by the buyer side. If any measurement problem is noticed then we check theoriginal sample and inform the buyer same time.

4. In Side Inspection:At this stage garment is checked from reverse side to ensure that there is no fabric defect,poor stitching, and stains etc in the garment.


5. Out Side Inspection:At this stage garment is checked from outside to ensure that there is no color variation, weavingdefect, fabric defect, printing defect, holes, poor stitching, bad smell , dying defect and stains etcin the garment.

6. Final Inspection:Final Inspection stage is the most important part of inspection process, here garment is

rechecked to confirm that inspection is done properly without missing any checking step if anydefect is noticed we put it into rejection bin or send it for repay.

7. Packing:All “Grade-A” goods are put back into poly bags as per the original packaging and then they aresend for needle inspection.So, depending on the quality of defect some garments are send for repair and some are rejected.

Quality control in Garment Manufacturing Process:Quality is a relative term. It means customer needs is to be satisfied. Quality is of primeimportance in any aspect of business. Customers demand and expect value for money. Asproducers of apparel there must be a constant endeavor to produce work of good quality. Inprevious article, I discuss about quality control system in garment industry. Now I will give ashort description of Quality Control in Garment Manufacturing Process.

Quality inspection

Quality inspection and control in RMG industry:The various Steps of Garments manufacturing where in-process inspection and quality controlare done are mentioned below-

1. In Sample making section2. In- Marker making section3. Inspection in fabric spreading section4. Inspection in fabric cutting section5. Inspection in fabric sewn section6. Inspection in pressing & Finishing section


Quality Control in Sample Section: Maintaining buyer Specification standard Checking the sample and its different issues Measurements checking Fabric color, gsm, Fastness etc properties required checking Spi and other parameter checking

Quality Control in Marker Making: To check notch or drill mark Fabric width must be higher than marker width Fabric length must be higher than marker length Matching of green line Check pattern size and dimension Matching of check and stripe taking into consideration Considering garments production plan Cutting table length consideration Pattern direction consideration

Quality Control in Fabric Spreading: Fabric spreading according to correct alignment with marker length and width Maintain requirements of spreading Matching of check and stripe Lay contains correct number of fabric ply Correct Ply direction To control the fabric splicing Tension control

Quality Control in Fabric Cutting: The dimension of the pattern and the cut piece should be same and accurate Cut edge should be smooth and clean Notch should be cut finely Drill hole should made at proper place No yarn fraying should occur at cut edge Avoid blade deflection Maintain cutting angle More skilled operator using

Quality Control in Sewing Section: Input material checking Cut panel and accessories checking Machine is in well condition Thread count check Special work like embroidery, printing panel check Needle size checking Stitching fault should be checked Garments measurement check


Seam fault check Size mistake check Mismatching matching of trimming Shade variation within the cloth Wrong placement of interlining Creased or wrinkle appearance control

Quality Control in Finishing Section: Proper inspection of the garments including measurement, spot, dirt, impurities Water spot Shading variation check Smooth and unfold in pocket In secured or broken chain or button Wrong fold Proper shape in garments Properly dried in after pressing Wanted wrinkle or fold in lining Get up checking Collar closing Side seam Sleeve placket attach Cuff attach Bottom hem Back yoke Every parts of a body

Quality Control of Sewing Thread:A slender, strong strand or cord, especially one designed for sewing or other needlework. Mostthreads are made by plying and twisting yarns. A wide variety of thread types are in use today,e.g., spun cotton and spun polyester, core-spun cotton with a polyester filament core, polyester ornylon filaments (often bonded), and mono filament threads.

Sewing thread


Following Features of Sewing Thread are Considered:

1. Thread Construction/Ticket number Thread count Thread Ply Number of twist Thread balance Thread Tenacity Thread Elongation

2. Sew ability3. Imperfection4. Thread finish5. Thread color6. Package Density7. Winding8. Yardage

Quality Control in Zipper:A zipper, zip, or zip fastener is a commonly used device for temporarily joining two edges offabric. It is used in clothing (e.g., jackets and jeans), luggage and other bags, sporting goods,camping gear (e.g. tents and sleeping bags), and other items.

Zipper

Following Factors are considered in Zipper:1. Proper dimension of zipper2. The top and bottom end should correctly sewn3. The tape and color of zipper should be uniform4. Slider has to be locked properly5. The slider should move properly

Quality Control System:1. On- line quality control system2. Off line quality control system


On Line Quality Control System:This type of quality control is carried out without stopping the production process. During therunning of production process a set up is automatically performs and detect the fault and alsotakes corrective action. Online quality control comprises with the raw material quality controland the process control.

Raw Material Control:As the quality product depends on the raw material quality so we must be provided with the bestquality raw material with an economical consideration. The fabric must be without fault, withproper absorbency, whiteness as per requirement of the subsequent process. The Grey inspectionreport gives the condition of the raw fabric.

Process Control:The method chosen for the process must be provided with the necessary accurate parameters.Here the specific gravity, water level, residual hydrogen per oxide etc. at each stage is checked.

Laboratory:Lab is the head of the textile industries. Higher precision lab can aid easily to achieve the goal ofthe organization. Before bulk production a sample for the approval from industry is sent to thebuyer. As per the requirement of the buyer the shade is prepared in a lab considering theeconomical aspects.

Lab Line:1. Standard sample: The buyer to the industry gives the standard sample. The sample is

measured by the CCM to get the recipe.2. Lab trial: Getting the recipe the lab officer produce lab trial and match with standard

according to buyer requirement. Lab trial is made by the AHIBA dyeing machine.Thereare some programs for dyeing.

Off Line Quality Control System:Performed in the laboratory and other production area by stopping the production processconsisting of fabric inspection and laboratory and other test. Correction steps are taken accordingto the test result.

Off-Line Tests: All the Off-Line tests for finished fabrics can be grouped as follows:

A. Physical testsB. Chemical tests

A. Physical Tests:1. GSM test2. Shrinkage test3. Spirality test


4. Tensile strength5. Abrasion resistance6. Pilling resistance7. Button Strength Testing8. Crease resistance9. Dimentional stability10. Brusting strength test

B. Chemical Tests:1. Color Fastness to washing.2. Color Fastness to lighting.3. Color Fastness to heat.4. Color Fastness to Chlorinated water.5. Color Fastness to water spotting.6. Color Fastness to perspiration.7. Color Fastness to Seawater.8. Fibre analysis.9. PH test.10. Repellency.

Quality of Fabric:Quality is very important for all types of fabric and textiles. There are some important topicsgiven blow about quality of fabric.

Quality Parameters of Woven, Knitted and Non-woven Fabrics:Generally to test the quality parameters of woven, knitted and non-woven fabric, the fabric mustbe conditioning at 24 hours in the standard testing atmosphere. It is very important for all typesof fabric.

Quality Parameters of Woven Fabrics:There are some quality parameters of woven fabric.

1. Dimensional characteristics: Length Width Thickness.

2. Weight of fabric: Weight per unit area. Weight per unit length.

3. Fabric strength and extensibility: Tensile strength. Tearing strength.


4. Threads per inch of fabric: Ends per inch. Picks per inch.

5. Yarn count: Warp count Weft count.

6. Crimp: Warp crimp Weft crimp.

7. Handle: Stiffness Drape.

8. Crease resistance and crease recovery.9. Air permeability.10. Abrasion resistance.11. Water resistance.12. Shrinkages.13. Different fastness properties:

Fastness to light. Fastness to wash. Fastness to perspiration. Fastness to Rubbing.

Quality Parameters of Knitted Fabrics:There are some quality parameters of knitted fabric...............

1. Strength and extensibility.2. Course density.3. Wales’s density.4. Lop length.5. Elasticity.6. Deformation.7. Grams per square meter (G.S.M)8. Yarn count.9. Design.

Quality Parameters of Non-woven Fabrics:There are some quality parameters of non-woven fabric..................

1. Strength and extensibility of fabric.2. Weight.3. Thickness.


4. Air permeability.5. Crease resistance.6. Stability of washing.7. Stability of dry cleaning.8. Dimensional stability.9. Elasticity.

Apparel Quality Control System:Some main quality aspects for export basis:Below are some of the main quality aspects that are taken into consideration for garmentmanufacturing for export basis:

1. Overall look of the garment2. Right formation of the garment3. Feel and fall of the garment4. Physical properties5. Color fastness of the garment

Quality is a multi-dimensional aspect:There are many aspects of quality based on which the garment exporters are supposed to work.

1. Quality of production2. Quality of design of the garment3. Purchasing functions – quality should be maintained4. Quality of final inspection should be superior5. Quality of the sales also has to be maintained6. Quality of marketing of the final product is also important as the7. Quality of the garment itself

To ensure quality: To insure quality some factors are considered: Recognize who the customer is Build processes that anticipate and prevent defects Make a plan to achieve the desired quality level Set up ways to measure progress Work as a team to achieve goal

In this context, customer is the entity receiving a service or product from our work. For example,we can take a short production line.

Receiving → Cutting → Sewing → Inspecting → FinishingQuality problem in cutting may lead to problems in sewing, inspecting and finishing. It’s like“garbage in garbage out”. In other words, one needs to have good quality materials to producegood quality goods. So this has to be applied to every process in the system to have a totalquality control.


A good plan requires: A clearly defined objective Goals or expected results The activities needed to achieve the desired results Defined roles and responsibilities for the activities Dates for beginning and completion of each activity An analysis of potential problems

Measurements are a vital part of any quality improvement program. Anything that is notmeasured does not improve. We need to establish these standard measures and measure theprogress periodically.Team work is also an essential element for the success of the program. Remember “ONE of us isNOT better than an All of US”. The whole effort needs to have a direction that a team leader willprovide.

Way of control quality:1. Have the proper approach toward operators.2. Train the operator to sew with good quality from the beginning.3. Know quality specifications and tolerance. Be sure you understand what constitutes good

and poor quality. Be consistent in your decisions toward quality.4. Comment on both good and bad quality. We all have a tendency to be silent during good

times and vocal during the bad.5. Be sure to check each operators work daily.6. Use a check list. Do not rely on memory of specifications.7. Do not rely on inspectors to tell you the quality level of your operators, instead find out

yourself.8. Do not have a compromising attitude towards problem related to quality.

Basic quality inspection procedure in cutting area:1. Marker is checked for all parts and for any variation against pattern.2. Spreading has to be inspected3. During cutting:4. The marker line had to be followed5. All notches should be located correctly with even depth say 1/8 in. (± 1/16). When

cutting, care should be taken not to shift the stack of parts to a side or cut with the bladeat an angle.

6. In bundling and shade marking, care should be taken to ensure that the numbering iscorrect. For the final audit process, the quality inspector will determine how manybundles to check from every size depending on the sample size.


Basic quality control procedure in sewing line:(a) 100% inline parts checkingThe operations which are difficult to re-process after assembling is checked 100% to avoiddamages and waste of time.

(b) Inline inspectionDuring the production of garments the operator’s finished work is audited in an inline inspection.A quality inspector moves from one operator to another at random inspecting a pre-determinednumber of parts from a finished bundle. This helps to control quality at needle point.

(c) 100% end-line inspectionAt the end of a line or section there should be a checker to inspect all the parts before they leavethe section. The inspections should be effective in identifying all defects in a garment. Thecheckers should have their forms filled correctly. A good source of information to determine thequality performance of the section is the point of 100% inspection. The section supervisor shouldcheck the quality level at the point of 100% inspection periodically. With this information, thesupervisor should address the problems, correct the possible causes and make plans to preventthem.

(d) Pre-final auditA pre-final audit should be performed on packed items on a daily basis to ensure that the goodpacked items are meeting the quality standards. Any problem seen can be arrested at the earlystage. If pre-final audits are done properly, the final audit of the buyer should also be carried outwithout any issues.

Quality Training:The purpose of the training program is to train operators to attain high speed and productiontogether with good quality work. Good quality comes from the consistent use of correct methods

The steps to be taken to achieve good quality are as follows:

1. Initial instructionPoint out the key points of method and quality to the trainee and be sure that she understandsthem.

2. Trainee practiceWhen the trainee first practices an exercise, the instructor should watch her methods very closelyand correct any incorrect methods immediately. The trainee should not be timed or be permittedto start timing until she is doing the exercise correctly. Even after starting her timing, theinstructor should keep a close watch on her methods and quality.


3. Quality checkingWhenever the instructor finds any faulty work, or whenever defects are found by other inspectorsor operators, the instructor should:Look at the faulty work or record to determine what mistakes the trainee is making.Tell the trainee not just what she is doing wrong, but what she must do to perform the workcorrectly.

4. Methods checkingThe best way for an instructor to ensure good quality is by watching the trainee while he isworking, by inspecting some of his work and by correcting any faults immediately. It is mucheasier and more effective to correct a fault when it happens, than to try to change the methodafter he has turned out a quantity of bad work. In order to become skilled at this part of training,the instructor should take every opportunity to stand and watch each trainee at work, in order todetect and stop any defects in method, immediately.

Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C):It is the application of statistical tools in the manufacturing process for the purpose of qualitycontrol. In SQC technique attempt is made to seek out systematic causes of variation as soon asthey occur so that the actual variation may be supposed to be due to the guranted random causes.

Statistical quality control refers to the use of statistical methods in the monitoring andmaintaining of the quality of products and services.

Basic Categories of Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C):All the tools of SQC are helpful in evaluating the quality of services. SQC uses different tools toanalyze quality problem.

1. Descriptive Statistics2. Statistical Process Control (SPC)3. Acceptance Sampling

1. Descriptive Statistics:Descriptive Statistics involves describing quality characteristics and relationships.

2. Statistical process control (SPC):The application of statistical techniques to determine whether a process is functioning as desired

3. Acceptance Sampling:The application of statistical techniques to determine whether a population of items should beaccepted or rejected based on inspection of a sample of those items.


Variations of Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C):1. Allowable or cause variation2. Assignable or preventable variation

Function of Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C):1. Evaluation of quality standards of incomeing material, product process and finished

goods.2. Judging the conformity of the process to establish standards taking suitable action , when

deviation are noted.3. Evaluation of optimum quality, obtainable under given condition.4. Improvement of quality and productivity by process control and experimentation.

Main Purpose of Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C):The main purpose of Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C) is to divide statistical method forseparating allowable variation from preventable variation.

The Significance of Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C) in the Textile Industry:1. The expected quality of product can be produced and hence customers satisfaction can be

achieved which brings higher profit.2. It is very easy to separate allowable variation from the preventable variation by this.3. It ensures an early detection of faults in process and hence minimum wastage.4. With its help one can easily defect the impact of chance in production process in the

change in quality.5. It ensures overall co-ordination.6. It can be use in the interpretation control chart.

Some test for quality control textile finishing:1. Shrinkage Test2. GSM Test3. Tensile Test4. Tearing Test5. Color Fastness Test6. Rubbing fastness Test7. PH Test8. Shade Matching Test9. Fabric Width Test

Conclusion:There are many quality parameters in different types of fabric. And there are also many differentfaults in different types of fabric, which are effect in quality of fabric. If we control those faultsand effects, we can get the good quality of fabric. So quality control is very important for alltypes of fabric and textiles.


Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C)It is the application of statistical tools in the manufacturing process for the purpose of qualitycontrol. In SQC technique attempt is made to seek out systematic causes of variation as soon asthey occur so that the actual variation may be supposed to be due to the guaranteed randomcauses.Statistical quality control refers to the use of statistical methods in the monitoring andmaintaining of the quality of products and services.

Basic Categories of Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C):All the tools of SQC are helpful in evaluating the quality of services. SQC uses different tools toanalyze quality problem.1) Descriptive Statistics2) Statistical Process Control (SPC)3) Acceptance Sampling

1. Descriptive Statistics:

Descriptive Statistics involves describing quality characteristics and relationships.2. Statistical process control (SPC):The application of statistical techniques to determine whether a process is functioning as desired

3. Acceptance Sampling:

The application of statistical techniques to determine whether a population of items should beaccepted or rejected based on inspection of a sample of those items.

Variations of Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C):1. Allowable or cause variation2. Assignable or preventable variation

Function of Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C):

1. Evaluation of quality standards of incoming material, product process and finished goods.2. Judging the conformity of the process to establish standards taking suitable action, whendeviation is noted.3. Evaluation of optimum quality, obtainable under given condition.4. Improvement of quality and productivity by process control and experimentation.

Main purpose of Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C):The main purpose of Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C) is to divide statistical method forseparating allowable variation from preventable variation.


The Significance of Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C) in the Textile Industry:1. The expected quality of product can be produced and hence customers satisfaction can beachieved which brings higher profit.2. It is very easy to separate allowable variation from the preventable variation by this.3. It ensures an early detection of faults in process and hence minimum wastage.4. With its help one can easily defect the impact of chance in production process in the change inquality.5. It ensures overall co-ordination.6. It can be use in the interpretation control chart.

Fabric Quality Inspection:

Inspection in reference to the apparel industry can be defined as the visual examination or reviewof raw materials (like fabric, sewing threads, buttons, trims, etc). It is an important aspectfollowed prior to garment manufacturing to avoid rejects due to fabric quality and facing withunexpected loss in manufacturing.The quality of a final garment depends on the quality of a fabric when it is received as a roll.Even the most outstanding manufacturing methods cannot compensate for defective materials.Normally, we inspect 10% of the rolls we receive and evaluate them based on a four-pointsystem. This way, we can avoid fabric related quality problems before it is put into production.Normally four systems are used for inspection of finished garments.

1. 4 point system2. 10 point system3. Graniteville "78" system.4. Dallas system.

But among them four point system is widely used. Now a short description of 4 point inspectionsystem is given below.

Apparel inspection

Four Point System:The 4-Point System, also called the American Apparel Manufacturers (AAMA) point-gradingsystem for determining fabric quality, is widely used by producers of apparel fabrics and is


endorsed by the AAMA as well as the ASQC (American Society or Quality Control).The 4-Point System assigns 1, 2, 3 and 4 penalty points according to the size and significance ofthe defect. No more than 4 penalty points can be assigned for any single defect. Defect can be ineither length or width direction, the system remains the same. Only major defects are considered.No penalty points are assigned to minor defects.

In this system, one should inspect at least 10 per cent of the total rolls in the shipment and makesure to select at least one roll of each colour way. Fabric defects are assigned points based on thefollowing:

Size of defect Penalty3 inches or less 1 points

Over 3 but not over 6 2 points

Over 6 but nor over 9 3 points

Over 9 inches 4 points

Total defect points per 100 square yards of fabric are calculated and the acceptance criteria isgenerally not more than 40 penalty points. Fabric rolls containing more than 40 points areconsidered "seconds".

The formula to calculate penalty points per 100 square yards is given by:

= (Total points scored in the roll * 3600) / Fabric width in inches * Total yards inspectedThe following are noteworthy points for this system:

No more than 4 penalty points can be assigned for any single defect. The fabric is graded regardless of the end-product. This system makes no provision for the probability of minor defects. 4 point system is most widely used system in apparel industry as it is easy to teach and

learn.

Garments Sample-

Garment samples are inevitably important and are developed tested before starting the bulkproduction. It means making a sample of the garment /fabric which requires to be sold. Samplingis one of the main processes in Garment Industry and it has a vital role in attracting buyers.Because the buyers generally places the order after they are satisfied with the quality of thesamples.


Types of Garments Sample

a. Proto Sample:Features:

These samples are made by the manufacturer by available fabric and accessories. These samples are made before or after order confirmation.

Purpose:By These samples buyer checks whether or not the factory can make the garments.b. Fit Sample:Features:

These samples are made by the manufacturer by available fabric and accessories. These samples are made after order confirmation.

Purpose:By These samples buyer checks the fitness or measurement of the garments.c. Pre-Production (P.P) Sample:Features:

These samples are made by the manufacturer by actual fabric and accessories. These samples are made after order confirmation.

Purpose:Buyer will do bulk production following P.P sample.d. Size Set Sample:Features:

These samples are made in all sizes. These samples are sent to the buyer. These samples are made in the production floor.

Purpose:These samples are made only for PP meeting or internal purpose.e. Production Sample:Features:

These samples are collected from the production floor while bulk production is running. These are sent to the buyer.

Purpose:By these samples buyer compares Production Sample with the P.P Sample.f. Garments Test Sample:Features:

These samples are collected from the production floor while bulk production is running. These are sent to the testing house.


Purpose:By These samples Testing House tests different aspects of the garments and sends “test report”to the buyer and factory.g. Shipment Samples:Features:

These samples are not so mandatory. These are sent to the buyer after the shipment of the products.

Purpose:By These samples buyer compares the Production Sample with the Shipment Sample.

Woven Fabric Faults

Fabric faults are responsible for major defects found by the garment industry. Due to theincreasing demand for quality fabrics, high quality requirements are today greater since customerhas become more aware of “Non-quality” problems. In order to avoid fabric rejection, mills haveto produce fabrics of high quality, constantly. Often inspectors are given the responsibility ofinspecting finished garments without adequate training in fabric defects and their causes. Theultimate solution, of course, is to provide actual examples or photographs of both major andminor defects.

Names of Woven Fabrics Defects or Faults:1. Bad Selvedge2. Burl Mark3. Drawbacks4. Dropped Pick5. End Out6. Jerk-in7. Knots8. Mixed End (Yarn)9. Mixed Filling10. Open Reed11. Slub12. Smash13. Soiled Filling or End14. Stop Mark15. Thin Place16. Holes17. Drop Stitches18. Loop Distortion

1. Bad SelvedgeCauses: A defect in a fabric because of faulty weaving, warp ends being set too far apart for thethickness of the yarn or in finished fabric, an appearance in which the underlying structures isnot connected to the degree required.


2. Burl MarkCauses: When a slub or extra piece of yarn is woven into the fabric, it is often removed by a"burling tool." This will usually leave an open place in the fabric.3. DrawbacksCauses: Caused by excessive loom tension gradually applied by some abnormal restriction.When the restriction is removed the excess slack is woven into the fabric. Usually the ends arebroken.4. Dropped PickCauses: Caused by the filling insertion mechanism on a shuttleless loom not holding the fillingyarn, causing the filling yarn to be woven without tension. The filling yarn appears as "kinky."There will also be areas of "end out."5. End outCauses: Caused by yarn breaking and loom continuing to run with missing end.6. Jerk-inCauses: Caused by an extra piece of filling yarn being jerked part way into the fabric by theshuttle. The defect will appear at the selvage.7. KnotsCauses: Caused by tying spools of yarn together.8. Mixed End (Yarn)Causes: Yarn of a different fiber blend used on the wrap frame, resulting in a streak in thefabric.9. Mixed FillingCauses: Caused by bobbin of lightweight yarn or different fiber blend used in filling. Willappear as a distinct shade change.10. Open ReedCauses: Results from a bent reed wire causing wrap ends to be held apart, exposing the fillingyarn. Will be conspicuous on fabrics that use different colored yarns on wrap and shuttle.11. SlubCauses: Usually caused by an extra piece of yarn that is woven into fabric. It can also be causedby thick places in the yarn. Often is caused by fly waste being spun in yarn in the spinningprocess.12. SmashCauses: Caused by a number of ruptured wrap ends that have been repaired.13. Soiled Filling or EndCauses: Dirty, oil looking spots on the wrap or filling yarns, or on package-dyed yarn.14. Stop MarkCauses: When the loom is stopped, the yarn elongates under tension; when loom starts again' theslackness is woven into the fabric.


15. Thin PlaceCauses: Often caused by the filling yarn breaking and the loom continuing to run until theoperator notices the problem.16. HolesCauses: Bad needle, take down mechanism too tight, high tension on yarn, bad yarn needle tootight in their slots, dial height too low or too high, badly tied knots, improper stitch setting.17. Drop StitchesCauses: Takedown mechanism too loose, defective needles, too loose yarn tension notsufficient, wrong needle timing set, and needle tricks closed.18. Loop DistortionCauses: Bad and bent needles, bent trick walls, uneven yarn tension, needle timing set wrong,yarn carriers set wrong.

Inspection of Fabric:Inspection is an important aspect followed prior to garment manufacturing to avoid rejects dueto fabric quality and facing with unexpected loss in manufacturing. Fabric inspection is done forfault/defect rate, fabric construction, fabric weight, shrinkage, end to end or edge to edgeshading, color, hand feel, length/width, print defect and appearance. Fabric inspection ensures tominimize the rejection of cut panels or rejected garments due to fabric faults. Cutting inspectedand approved fabric ensures not only finished garment quality but also reduces rejects, improvesefficiency and timely deliveries.

Slub

Fabric Defect:Fabric faults are responsible for major defects found by the garment industry. Due to theincreasing demand for quality fabrics, high quality requirements are today greater since customerhas become more aware of “Non-quality” problems.

Major Defects in Fabric are given below:Askewed or Bias : Condition where filling yarns are not square with warp yarns on wovenfabrics or where ctheirses are not square with wale lines on knits.Back Fabric Seam Impression:Backing fabric is often used to cushion fabric being printed. If there is a joining seam in thebacking fabric, an impression will result on printed fabric.


Barre: Occurs in circular knit. Caused by mixing yarn on feed into machine. Fabric will appearto have horizontal streaks.Birdseye: Caused by unintentional tucking from malfunctioning needle. Usually two smalldistorted stitches, side by side. This term should not be confused with Birdseye fabric which is infact created intentionally.Bowing: Usually caused by finishing. Woven filling yarns lien in an arc across fabric width: inknits the ctheirse lines lie in an arc across width of goods. Critical on stripes or patterns and notas critical on solid color fabrics.Broken Color Pattern: Usually caused by colored yarn out of place on frame.Color Contamination: A transfer of color from one fabric to another. All bleeding and colormigration should be considered defective.

Color Contamination

Color Out: The result of color running low in reservoir on printing machine.Color Smear: The result of color being smeared during printing.Crease Mark: Differs from crease streak in that streak will probably appear for an entire roll.Crease mark appears where creases are caused by fabric folds in the finishing process. Onnapped fabric, final pressing may not be able to restore fabric or original condition. Oftendiscoloration is a problem.Crease Streak: Occurs in tubular knits. Results from creased fabric passing through squeezerollers in the dyeing process.Drop Stitches: Results from malfunctioning needle or jack. Will appear as holes or missingstitches.Dye Streak in Printing: Results from a damaged doctor blade or a blade not cleaned properly.Usually a long streak until the operator notices the problem.End Out: Occurs in Warp knit. Results from knitting machine continuing to run with missingend.Hole: Caused by broken needle.Jerk-in: Caused by an extra piece of filling yarn being jerked part way into the fabric by theshuttle. The defect will appear at the selvage.Knots: Caused by tying spools of yarn together.Missing Yarn: Occurs in warp knit. Results from wrong fiber yarn (or wrong size yarn) placedon warp. Fabric could appear as thick end or different color if fibers have different affinity for


dye.Mixed End (yarn): Yarn of a different fiber blend used on the warp frame, resulting in a streakin the fabric.Mottled: Color applied unevenly during printing.Needle Line: Caused by bent needle forming distorted stitches. Usually a vertical line.Open Reed: Results from a bent reed wire causing warp ends to be held apart, exposing thefilling yarn. Will be conspicuous on fabrics that use different colored yarns on warp and shuttle.Pin Holes: Holes along selvage caused by pins holding fabric while it processes through tenterframe.Press-Off: Results when all or some of the needles on circular knitting fail to function and fabriceither falls off the machine or design is completely disrupted or destroyed. Many knitting needlesare broken and have to be replaced when bad press-off occurs. Bad press-offs usually start a newroll of fabric. Printing Machine Stop: Dye or ink smudged along width of fabric as a result of theprinting machine stopping.Print Out of Repair: Caused by print rollers not being synchronized properly. This results invarious colors of the design not being printed in the proper position. Puckered Selvage : Usuallycaused by selvage being stretched in finishing or by uneven wetting out in sanforization process.Runner : Caused by broken needle. The runner will appear as vertical line. Most machines havea stopping device to stop the machine when a needle breaks.Sanforize Pucker : Results from uneven wetting out on sanforize; usually caused by defectivespray heads. Fabric will appear wavy or puckering when. spread on cutting table. Difficult todetect while inspecting on inspection machine with fabric under roller tension.Scrimp: The result of fabric being folded or creased when passing through tenter frames.Slub (woven fabric): Usually caused by an extra piece of yarn that is woven into fabric. It canalso be caused by thick places in the yarn. Often is caused by fly waste being spun in yarn in thespinning process.Slub (Knit fabric): Usually caused by a thick or heavy place in yarn, or by ling getting ontoyarn feeds.Smash: Caused by a number of ruptured warp ends that have been repaired.Snag: A pulled thread in the fabric. All snags should be considered defective

Snag


Soiled Filling or End: Dirty, oily looking spots on the warp or filling yarns, or on packaged-dyed yarn.Stop Mark: When the loom is stopped, the yarn elongates under tension; when the loom startsagain, the slack is woven into the fabric.Straying End: Warp Knit. Caused when an end of yarn breaks and the loose end strays and isknit irregularly into another area.Thin Place: Often caused by the filling yarn breaking and the loom continuing to run until theoperator notices the problem.Water Spots: Usually caused by wet fabric being allowed to remain too long before drying:color migrates leaving blotchy spots.

Fabric Defects and Fabric Inspection MethodsIntroduction:The aim of garment inspection is to visually inspect articles at random from a delivery in order toverify their general conformity and appearance with instruction/descriptions and/or samplesreceived. Many readers, asking me to provide information in regard to the fabric defects and thecommon visual inspection methods for the fabrics. This is my attempt to provide a brief detail inregard to the common fabric defects and inspection methods for checking the fabrics. I will becovering the following three aspects in this article:

Common fabric defects Fabric inspection methods Acceptability criteria of the flaws in fabric inspection methods.

Fabric Defects:For the purpose of convenience, fabrics defects can be classified in three main categories asbelow:

1. Woven Fabric Defects2. Knitted Fabric Defects3. Printed Fabric Defects.

Woven Fabric Defects:Bull Mark: When a slub or extra piece of yarn is woven into the fabric. This is often removedby a "burling tool". This will usually leave an open place in the fabric.Dropped Pick: Caused by the filling Insertion mechanism on a shuttleless loom not holding thefilling yarn, causing the filling to be woven without tension.Drawbacks: Caused by excessive loom tension gradually applied by some abnormal restriction.When the restriction is removed, the excess slack is woven into the fabric. Ends are usuallybroken.End Out: Caused by yarn breaking and loom continuing to run. The defect will appear as a thinline.Open Reed: Results from a bent reed wire causing warp ends to be held apart, exposing thefilling yarn. Will be conspicuous on fabrics that use different colored yarns on warp and shuttle.Thin Place: Often caused by the filling yarn breaking and the loom continuing to run until the


operator notices the problemJerk-in: Caused by an extra piece of filling being jerked part way into the fabric by the shuttle.The defect will appear at the selvedge.Mixed Filling: Caused by bobbin of lightweight yarn or different fiber blend used in filling. Willappear as a distinct shade change.Slub: Usually caused by an extra piece of the yarn that is woven into the fabric. It can also becaused by fly waste being spun in yarn in the spinning process.Stop Mark: When the loom is stopped, the yarn elongates under tension, when loom startsagain, the slack is woven into the fabric.

Knitted Fabric Defects:Barre: A noticeable stripes in the direction of the weft-wise. Some of the causes are uneven yarnand uneven tension.Birdseye: An unintentional tucked stitch which appear occasionally on the knitted fabric.Coarse yarn: A yarn having a large diameter than that normal to the fabric.Dropped stitches: When a stitch failing to form because of malfunctioning needle. Fine yarn: Ayarn having a smaller diameter than normal to the fabric.Misdraw (color): In warp knits, the colored yarns are wrongly drawn through the guide barwhich causes the appearance of the fabric different from the designated pattern.Missing yarns: A yarn is missing or broken which the machine continuing to run. Needle line:Wales are distorted caused by a bent needle.Press-off: A condition in which a knitted fabric fails to knot and as a result, either the fabric fallsoff the needle or the design of the fabric is completely destroyed.Run: A vertical line of unformed stitches caused by damaged needle.Tucking defect: One or more unwanted tuck stitches appear on the knitted fabric which areoccurred due to the malfunctioning needle or jack.

Printed Fabric Defects:Color out: Some printing patternColor smear: The color smeared out during printing.Out of register: The color printed not in a proper position during printing.Scrimp: The printing pattern is broken due to fabric creased during printing.Snap: During printing, the doctor blade is held from the engraved roller by a hard particle whichis lodged under the blade. As a result, the color escapes from both sides of the particle.

Fabric Inspection MethodsSide Seam Check:After thread sucking then the garments side seam are checked very carefully. If faulty side seamsare found, the faulty garment is send to the sewing room. Due to seam pucker or stitch formation,the faulty side seam is occurred in the garments.


Fig: Side Seam

Check spot and remove:When checking the side seam is complete, the garments are checked for spot. If any spot is foundin the garments, the spot will remove by chemical using.

Fig: Remove the spot by using chemical

Spot name and use remove chemical: Oil spot : A.D Max Shing spot : G.R.O Ink spot, etc. : B.T.S

Ironing:After passing through the inspection table, each garment is normally ironed/ pressed to removeunwanted crease and to improve the smoothness, so that the garments looks nice to the customer.Folding of the garment is also done here for poly packing of the garments as per requireddimension.


Fig: Ironing

Hang tag attach:After ironing is done then the sale price or tack packs are attached with the garments.

Attached the tack pack


Inspection:It is the last stage of inspection the manufactured garments on behalf of the garmentmanufacturing organization, to detect any defective garments before packing.

Fig: Final inspection

Folding:When the metal free operation is complete then the folding is done.

Fig: Folding

Packing:After folding the garments then it’s packed by poly bag.


Fig: Packing

Cartooning:After completing the packaging process of garments then cartooning is done.

Fig: Cartooning

Knitted Fabric Defects

Dye MarkDye Spot

Holes


by defective machine elements

LadderWales Collapse in straight line

Missing Plush LoopMalfunctioning of loop

Pin MarksPoorly adjusted stenter pin


SlubThickness of yarn

SpiralityOver twisted yarn

StainExcessive oil, dirt


Faults in the Knitted Fabrics:

A defect of the knitted fabric is an abnormality which spoils the aesthetics i.e. the clean &uniform appearance of the fabric & effects the performance parameters, like; dimensionalstability etc.

There are various types of defects which occur in the Knitted fabrics of all types caused by avariety of reasons. The same type of defects may occur in the fabric due to a variety of differentcauses e.g. Drop Stitches, Spirality etc.

Category of Defects:Yarn Related Defects:Almost all the defects appearing in the horizontal direction in the knitted fabric are yarn related.These defects are mainly;

1. Barriness2. Thick & Thin lines3. Dark or Light horizontal lines (due to the difference in dye pick up)4. Imperfections5. Contaminations6. Snarling7. Spirality

Knitting Elements Related Defects:Almost all the defects appearing in the vertical direction in the knitted fabrics are as a cause ofbad Knitting Elements.These defects are mainly;

1. Needle & Sinker Lines2. Drop Stitches etc.


Machine Settings Related Defects:These defects appear randomly in the knitted fabrics due to the wrong knitting machine settings&that of the machine parts. The defects are mainly;

1. Drop Stitches2. Yarn Streaks3. Barriness4. Fabric press off5. Broken Ends6. Spirality

Dyeing Related Defects:The Dyeing related defects are as follows;

1. Dyeing patches2. Softener Marks3. Shade variation4. Tonal variation5. Color fading (Poor Color Fastness)6. Dull shade7. Crease or rope Marks

Finishing Related Defects:Defects caused mainly due to the wrong process parameters are;

1. High Shrinkage2. Skewing3. Spirality4. Surface Hairiness & Pilling5. Tonal variation6. Snagging (Sharp points in the dyeing machine or trolley etc)7. Fold Marks8. Wet Squeezer Marks9. GSM variation10. Fabric Width variation11. Curling of S.J. Fabrics

Drop Stitches (Holes)Definition:Drop Stitches are randomly appearing small or big holes of the same or different size whichappear as defects in the Knitted fabrics.


Hole in fabric

Major Causes: High Yarn Tension Yarn Overfeed or Underfeed High Fabric Take Down Tension Defects like Slubs, Neps, and Knots etc. Incorrect gap between the Dial & Cylinder rings.

Remedies:1. Ensure uniform yarn tension on all the feeders with a Tension Meter.2. Rate of yarn feed should be strictly regulated as per the required Stitch Length.3. The fabric tube should be just like a fully inflated balloon, not too tight or too slack.4. The yarn being used should have no imperfections like; Slubs, Neps & big knots etc5. The gap between the Cylinder & the Dial should be correctly adjusted as per the knitted

loop size.

BarrinessDefinition: Barriness defect appears in the Knitted fabric in the form of horizontal stripes ofuniform or variable width.Causes:

High Yarn Tension Count Variation Mixing of the yarn lots Package hardness variation

Remedies: Ensure uniform Yarn Tension on all the feeders. The average Count variation in the lot should not be more than + 0.3 Ensure that the yarn being used for Knitting is of the same Lot. Ensure that the hardness of all the yarn packages is uniform using a hardness tester.

StreakinessDefinition: Streaks in the Knitted fabrics appear as; irregularly spaced & sized thin horizontal


lines.Causes:

Faulty winding of the yarn packages. Yarn running out of the belt on the Pulley

Remedies: Winding of the yarn package should be proper. The yarn should be running between the belt and around the pulley.

ImperfectionsDefinition: Imperfections appear on the fabric surface in the form of unevenly placed orrandomly appearing Knots, Slubs & Neps, Thick & Thin places in the yarn.Causes:

Big Knots, Slubs & Neps in the yarn, Thick & Thin yarn.

Remedies: Specify the quality parameters of the yarns to be used for production to the yarn supplier.

SnarlsDefinition: Snarls appear on the fabric surface in the form of big loops of yarn getting twisteddue to the high twist in the yarn.Causes:

High twist in the yarn.

Remedies: Twist in the yarn should be in required TPM.

ContaminationsDefinition: Contaminations appear in the form of foreign matter such as; dyed fibers, husk, deadfibers etc. in the staple spun yarn or embedded in the knitted fabric structure.Causes:

Presence of dead fibers & other foreign materials, such as; dyed fibers, husk & syntheticfibers etc.

Dyed & other types of fibers flying from the adjacent Knitting machines cling to the yarnbeing used for knitting & get embedded in the Grey Fabric.

Remedies: Use rich fiber mixing for the yarns to be used for Knitting in order to have less dead

fibers appearing in the fabric. Rigid control measures in the Blow Room to prevent the mixing of foreign matters in the

Cotton mixing. Segregate the Spinning & Knitting Machines, with Plastic Curtains or Mosquito Nets, to

prevent the fibers flying from the neighboring machines, from getting embedded in theyarn / fabric.


SpiralityDefinition: Spirality appears in the form of a twisted garment after washing. The seams on boththe sides of the garment displace from their position & appear on the front & back of thegarment.Causes:

High T.P.I. of the Hosiery Yarn Uneven Fabric tension on the Knitting machine. Unequal rate of Fabric feed on the Stenter, Calender & Compactor machines.

Remedies: Use the Hosiery yarns of the recommended TPM level for Knitting. Ensure uniform rate of feed of the dyed fabric on both the edges while feeding the fabric

to the Calender, Compactor or Stenter machines.

Needle LinesDefinition: Needle lines are prominent vertical lines along the length of the fabric which areeasily visible in the grey as well as finished fabric.Causes:

Bent Latches, Needle Hooks & Needle stems Wrong Needle selection (Wrong sequence of needles, put in the Cylinder or Dial)

Remedies: Inspect the grey fabric on the knitting machine for any Needle lines. Check the Needle filling sequence in the Cylinder / Dial grooves (tricks).

Horizontal linesCauses:

Fault in bobbin Irregular tension on cams.

Remedies: Replace that bobbin. Check cams positioning

Horizontal line in fabric


Broken Needles/ LadderingDefinition: Defects caused by the broken needles show prominently as vertical lines parallel tothe Wales. There are no loops formed in the Wale which has a broken needle.

Laddering effects

Causes: High Yarn Tension Bad Setting of the Yarn Feeders Old & Worn out Needle set Cylinder Grooves are too tight restricting needle movement Breakage of hook or butt in needle.

Remedies: Ensure uniform & the right Yarn tension on all the feeders. Keep the recommended gap between the Yarn Feeders & the Needles. Periodically change the complete set of needles. Remove fly or blockage from groove. Replace defective needle.

Sinker LinesDefinitions: Sinker lines are prominent or feeble vertical lines appearing parallel to the Walesalong the length of the knitted fabric tube.Causes:

Bent or Worn out Sinkers Sinkers being tight in the Sinker Ring grooves

Remedies: Replace all the worn out or bent sinkers causing Sinker lines in the fabric. Sinker lines are very fine & feeble vertical lines appearing in the fabric. Remove the fibers clogging the Sinker tricks (Groove

Oil LinesDefinitions: Oil lines are prominent vertical lines which appear along the length of the knitted


fabric tube. The lines become permanent if the needle oil used is not washable & gets baked dueto the heat during the finishing of the fabric.Causes:

Fibers & fluff accumulated in the needle tricks which remain soaked with oil. Excessive oiling of the needle beds.

Remedies: Fibers accumulated in the needle tricks cause the oil to seep into the Fabric. Some lubricating oils are not washable & can not be removed during Scouring. Remove all the Needles & the Sinkers of the machine periodically. Clean the grooves of the Cylinder & Dial of the machine thoroughly with petrol. Blow the grooves of the Cylinder Dial & Sinker ring with dry air after cleaning.

Broken EndsDefinition: Broken ends appear as equidistant prominent horizontal lines along the width of thefabric tube when a yarn breaks or is exhausted.Causes:

High Yarn Tension Yarn exhausted on the Cones.

Remedies: Ensure correct yarn tension on all the feeders. Ensure that the Yarn detectors on all the feeders are working properly. Depute a skilled & alert machine operator on the knitting machine.

Fabric Press OffDefinition: Fabric press off appears as a big or small hole in the fabric caused due to theinterruption of the loop forming process as a result of the yarn breakage or closed needle hooks.Press off takes place, when the yarn feeding to both the short butt & long butt needles suddenlystops due to the yarn breakage.At times complete fabric tube can fall off the needles if the needle detectors are not functioningor are not properly set.Causes:

End breakage on feeders with all needles knitting. Yarn feeder remaining in lifted up position due to which the yarn doesn’t get fed in the

hooks of the needles.

Remedies: Needle detectors, should be set precisely to detect the closed needles & prevent the fabric

tube from completely pressing off. Proper yarn tension should be maintained on all the feeders.

Surface Hairiness & PilingDefinition: Surface hairiness appears in the form of excess superfluous fibers, on the surface of


the knitted fabrics, which have either been reprocessed, or tumble dried.Pilling appears as, small fiber balls formed on the fabric surface, due to the entanglement ofloose surface fibers.Factors such as, the fiber staple length, low T.P.M. & fabric construction (with long yarn floats)etc. also contribute to pilling.Causes:

Abrasion due to the contact with rough surfaces Excessive surface hairiness caused, due to the abrasive tumbling action Fabric friction in the Tumble Dryer Rough Dyeing process & abrasive machine surfaces (Soft Flow Machine tubes, Tumble

Dryer drum etc.) Reprocessing of the fabric is, also a major cause of piling.

Remedies: Avoid using the Tumble Dryer. Control shrinkage by maximum fabric relaxation & over feed in the processing. Regularly inspect the fabric contact points on all the machines, for any rough & sharp

surface. Avoid repeated reprocessing of the fabrics. Use anti pilling chemical treatments for the fabrics prone to pilling.

SnaggingDefinition: Snagging appears on the knitted fabric surface as a pulled up yarn float showing upin the form of a large loop.Causes:

Caused by the pulling or the plucking of yarn from the, fabric surface, by sharp objects.

Remedies: Inspect & rectify the fabric contact points on all the machines (Soft Flow Dyeing,

Tumble Dryer & Centrifuge etc), on which snagging is taking place.

BowingDefinition: Bowing appears as rows of courses or yarn dyed stripes forming a bow shape alongthe fabric width.Causes:

Uneven distribution of tensions across the fabric width while dyeing or finishing thefabric.

Remedies: Bowing can be corrected by reprocessing the fabric by feeding it from the opposite end. A special machine (MAHLO) is also available for correcting the bowing in the knitted

fabrics.


Dyeing PatchesDefinition: Dyeing patches appear, as random irregular patches on the surface of dyed fabrics.Causes:

Inadequate Scouring of the grey fabric is one of the primary causes of the dyeing patches. Improper leveling agent is also one of the causes of dyeing patches. Correct pH value not maintained. Dyeing machine stoppage due to power failure or the fabric entanglement in the dyeing

machine is a major cause of the dyeing patches.

Remedies: Scour the grey fabric thoroughly to remove all the impurities from the fabric before

dyeing. Use appropriate leveling agents to prevent patchy dyeing. Maintain the correct pH value during the course of dyeing. Use a power back up (Inverter) for the dyeing operation to be completed uninterrupted.

Softener MarksDefinition: Softener marks appear as distinct irregular patches in the dried fabric after theapplication of softener.Causes:

Softener not being uniformly dissolved in water

Remedies: Scour the grey fabric thoroughly to remove all the impurities from the fabric before

dyeing. Ensure that the softener is uniformly dissolved in the water & doesn’t remain un-

dissolved as lumps or suspension. Use the right softener & the correct procedure for the application. Maintain the correct pH value of the softener before application.

StainsDefinition: Stains appear as spots or patches of grease oil or dyes of different color, in a neat &clean finished fabric surface.Causes:

Dyeing Machine not cleaned thoroughly after dyeing a lot. Grease & Oil stains from the unguarded moving machine parts like; Gears Shafts Driving

Pulleys & Trolley wheels etc. Fabric touching the floors & other soiled places during transportation, in the trolleys. Handling of the fabric with soiled hands & stepping onto the stored fabric with dirty feet

or shoes on.

Remedies: Wash & clean the dyeing machine thoroughly after dyeing every dye lot.


Follow the dyeing cycle of Light- Medium- Dark shades & then the reverse the cyclewhile dyeing the fabric.

All the lubricated moving machine parts should be protected with safety guards. Make sure that the fabric is neatly packed in or covered with Polythene sheets while

transporting or in storage. Handle the fabric carefully with clean hands & do not let anyone step onto the stored

fabric.

Color Fading (Poor Color Fastness)Definition: The color of the garment or the fabric appears lighter & pale in comparison to theoriginal color of the product after a few uses.Causes:

Dyeing recipe i.e. the poor fixing of the dyes is a major cause of color fading. Using the wrong combination of colors in a secondary or tertiary shade. Use of strong detergents & the quality of water are also the common causes for color

fading. Prolonged exposure to strong light will also cause the colors to fade. High level of acidity or alkalinity in the perspiration of individuals also causes color

fading.

Remedies: Use the correct dyeing recipe i.e. the appropriate leveling, fixing agents & the correct

combination of dyes. Follow the wash care instructions rigidly. Use mild detergents & soft water for washing the garments. Don’t soak the garments for more than 10- 15 minutes in the detergent prior to washing Turn the wet garments inside out while drying. Dry in shade & not in direct sunlight. Protect the garments against prolonged direct exposure to strong lights (show rooms or

exhibitions etc.).

Shade Variation(Roll to roll & within the same roll)

Definition: Sometimes there appears to be a difference in the depth of shade between the roll toroll & from place to place in the same roll. The defect will show up clearly in the garmentsmanufactured from such fabric.Causes:

Shade variation can be as a result of mixing of the, fabrics of two different lots. Shade variation is also caused, by the variation in the process parameters i.e. Time,

Temperature & Speed etc. from one fabric roll, to the other. Shade variation can appear to be, in fabrics with GSM variation, caused due to the

uneven stretching, unequal fabric overfeed % etc.

Remedies:


Ensure that the grey fabric used for one shade is knitted from the same lot of the yarn. Ensure that the same process parameters (Width, Overfeed, Temperature & Machine

Speed etc.) are used for each roll of a dye lot.

Tonal VariationDefinition: Roll to roll or within the same roll difference in the color perception i.e. Greenish,Bluish, Reddish or Yellowish etc. is attributed as tonal variation in the shade.Causes:

Wrong Dyeing recipe Wrong leveling agent selection or wrong dyes combinations. Improper fabric Scouring. Impurities like Oil & Wax etc. not being completely removed in Scouring Level dyeing not being done due to the inappropriate leveling agents. Variation in the process parameters, e.g. Temperature, Time & Speed etc .

Remedies: Use appropriate leveling agents to ensure uniform & level dyeing. Scour the grey fabric thoroughly to ensure the removal of all the impurities. Ensure that the whole lot of the dyed fabric is processed under uniform process

parameters.

Wet Squeezer MarksDefinition: The fabric on the edges of the fabric tube gets permanent pressure marks due to thehard pressing by the squeezer rolls. These marks appear as distinct lines along the length of thefabric & can’t be corrected.Causes:

These marks are caused due to the excessive pressure, of the squeezer rolls of thePadding Mangle, on the wet fabric, while rinsing.

Remedies: Use the Padding mangle only for the application of the softener. Use a hydro extractor (Centrifuge) for the extraction to avoid the squeezer roll marks. Soon after extraction open the fabric manually to prevent crease marks in the damp

fabric.

Folding MarksDefinition: Fold marks appear as distinct pressure marks along the length of the fabric.Causes:

High pressure of the fabric Take Down rollers of the Knitting machine on the grey fabricis one of the main causes.

Too much pressure of the feeding rolls of the Calander & Compactor is the primary causeof the folding marks in the knitted fabric.

Remedies:


Adjust the gap between the two rolls as per the thickness of the fabric sheet . Gap between the two Calander rolls should be just enough to let the rolls remove the

wrinkles in the fabric but put no pressure on the fabric sheet especially in the case ofPique & structured fabrics.

Crease MarksDefinition: Crease marks appear in the knitted fabric, as dark haphazard broken or continuouslines.Causes:

Damp fabric moving at high speed in twisted form, in the Hydro extractor (Centrifuge)

Remedies: Use anti Crease, during the Scouring & the Dyeing process . The use of anti Crease swells the Cellulose & prevents the formation of Crease mark. Spread the fabric in loose & open form & not in the rope form, in the Hydro Extractor.

High ShrinkageDefinition: The original intended measurements of the Garment go, haywire, during storage orafter the very first wash.Causes:

High Stresses & strains exerted on the fabric, during Knitting, Dyeing & Processing &the fabric not being allowed to relax properly, thereafter.

High shrinkage is primarily due to the fabric being subject to high tension, during theKnitting, Dyeing & the Finishing processes

Remedies: Keep the Grey Fabric in loose plated form, immediately after the roll is cut. Store the finished fabric also in the plated form & not in the roll form. Allow the fabric to relax properly, before it is cut. Give maximum overfeed to the fabric, during the processing, on the Stenter, Compactor

& the Calandering machines.

GSM VariationDefinition: The fabric will appear to have a visible variation in the density, from roll to roll orwithin the same roll of, the same dye lot.Causes:

Roll to roll variation in the, process parameters, of the fabric, like; Overfeed & Widthwise stretching of the dyed fabric, on the Stenter, Calender & Compactor machines.

Roll to roll variation in the fabric stitch length.

Remedies: Make sure that all the fabric rolls in a lot, are processed under the same process

parameters.


The Knitting Machine settings, like; the Quality Pulley diameter etc. should never bedisturbed.

Fabric Width VariationDefinition: Different rolls of the same fabric lot, having difference in the finished width of thefabric.Causes:

Grey fabric of the same lot, knitted on different makes of Knitting Machines, havingvarying number of Needles in the Cylinder.

Roll to roll difference, in the Dyed Fabric stretched width, while feeding the fabric onthe Stenter, Calander & Compactor.

Remedies: The whole lot of the grey fabric should be knitted on the same make of knitting

machines. For the same gauge & diameter of the knitting machines, there can be a difference of as

high as 40 needles, from one makes to the other make of the machine. This difference, in the number of needles, causes a difference of upto 2”-3” in the

finished width of the fabric The stretched width of the grey fabric should remain constant, during finishing on the

stenter.

Measurement ProblemsDefinition: The measurements of the garments totally change after, a few hours of relaxation &after the first wash. The arm lengths or the front & back lengths of the garments may vary, due tothe mix up of the parts.Causes:

Shrinkage caused due to the inadequate relaxation of the knitted fabrics, before cutting. Mixing of the garment parts cut from, different layers or different rolls of the knitted

fabric.

Remedies: Use a trolley, for laying the fabric on the table, to facilitate a tension free, laying. Let the fabric relax for a few hours, before cutting, especially the Lycra fabrics. Ensure the numbering of the different layers of the fabric, to prevent the mix up of the

components.


Woven Fabric Defects

BarVariation in weft yarn

Colour BleedingPoor Wet fastness

Burst SelvedgePoor Construction selvedge


Pin MarksPoor stenter pin

Floatslack warp, faulty pattern card

MispickIncorrect weft insertion


Reed MarkDamaged reed

Starting Placerestarting of loom

Slack EndInsufficient Warp Tension


Slough-off WeftWeft yarn slips from pirn

Wrong Endlack of control of warp tension

Common Weaving Defects:

1. Missing end/pick2. Broken end/pick3. Double end/pick4. Floats5. Weft bar6. Stop mark or staining mark7. Hole, cut tear8. Smash9. Damaged selvedge


Faults are given below with picture:

Missing warp

Weaving defect

Thick weft


Weft bar

Stenter mark

Dirty weft


Design cut

Double warp

Bow and bias


Dirty warp

Crease mark

Knots


Loose weft

Loose warp

Oil stain


Missing pick

Contamination yarn

Shuttle trap


Roll up creases

Starting mark

Slubs and knot


Weft bar


Common seam quality Defects in Garments

Seam DefectsA seam is a method of joining two or more pieces of materials together by a row of stitching.The purpose of most of these seams is purely functional and can be called as constructionalseams. Seams should be as flat as possible and unseen except those that are used for decorativepurposes for garment design and line.When seaming then lots of defects occurred. These defectsof seam are discussed below.

Improper stitch balance (301 lock-stitches):The loops are seen either on the bottom side or topside of the seam. This is prominent withdifferent coloured needle and bobbin threads and also, this defect comes where the stitch is tooloose. To overcome this problem use a quality thread with consistent frictional characteristics,properly balance the stitch so that the needle and bobbin threads meet in the middle of the seam.Always start by checking the bobbin thread tension to make sure it is set correctly, so that theminimum thread tension is required to get a balanced stitch.

Improper stitch balance (401 chain stitches):Where the loops on the bottom-side of the seam are inconsistent and do not appear uniform. Toovercome this use a quality thread with consistent frictional characteristics, properly balance thestitch so that when the looper thread is unravelled, the needle loop lays over half way to the nextneedle loop on the underside of the seam.

Improper stitch balance (504 over-edge stitches):Where the needle loop is not pulled up to the underside of the seam and the “purl” is not on theedge of the seam we get over edge stitch. To overcome this use a quality thread with consistentfrictional characteristics and properly balance the stitch so that when the looper thread isunravelled, the needle loop lays over half way to the next needle loop on the underside of theseam.

Needle cutting on knits:The needle holes appear along the stitch line that will eventually turn into a “run”. This defect iscaused by the needle damaging the fabric as it is penetrating the seam. Make sure the properthread size and needle type and size are being used for the fabric, the fabric has been properlystored to prevent drying out and finished properly and check with your fabric manufacturer.

Open seam – seam failure – fabric:Open seam is where the stitch line is still intact but the yarns in the fabric have ruptured.Solutions are reinforcing stress points with bartacks. Make sure the bar tacks are the properlength and width for the application, make sure the patterns has been designed for proper fit,make sure the ideal seam construction is being used, and contact your fabric supplier.


Open seam – seam failure – stitch:Where the threads in the seam have ruptured leaving a hole in the stitch line, caused by improperstitch for application, inadequate thread strength for seam and not enough stitches per inch. Thesolutions are using a better quality sewing thread, the proper size thread for the application. Forknit fabrics, check for “stitch cracking” caused by not enough stitches per inch, improper seamwidth or needle spacing for application, improper stitch balance and improper thread selection.

Puckered seams (knits and stretch woven):Puckered seam is where the seam does not lay flat after stitching mainly due to too muchstretching of the fabric while sewing. The solutions include setting the sewing machines properlyfor the fabric if sewing machines are equipped with differential feed, using minimum presserfoot pressure during sewing and adopting correct handling techniques.

Excessive seam puckering (woven):The seam does not lay flat and smooth along the stitch line. The reasons may be ‘feedpuckering’, where the plies of fabric in the seam are not being aligned properly during sewing,‘tension puckering’ where the thread has been stretched and sewn into the seam causing the seamto draw back and pucker and yarn displacement or ‘structural jamming’ caused by sewing seamswith too large of thread causing displacement of yarn in the seam. To avoid this use the correctthread type and size for the fabric, (In many cases, a smaller, higher tenacity thread is required tominimize seam puckering but maintain seam strength), sew with minimum sewing tension to geta balanced stitch, make sure that machines are set up properly for the fabric being sewn andcheck for proper operator handling techniques.

Ragged/Inconsistent edge:Over-edge or safety stitch seams are where the edge of the seam is either extremely “ragged” or“rolls” inside the stitch. To avoid this sharpen the sewing machine knives and change regularly,adjust the knives properly in relationship to the “stitch tongue” on the needle plate to obtain theproper seam width or width bite.

Re-stitched seams / broken stitches:This is the defect where a “splice” occurs on the stitch line. This is highly objectionable in topstitching. It is caused by thread breaks or thread run-out during sewing, or cut or broken stitchesduring a subsequent treatment of the finished product (i.e., stone washing). To avoid this use abetter quality sewing thread. This may include going to a higher performance thread designed tominimize sewing interruptions. Ensure proper machine maintenance and sewing machineadjustments. Make sure sewing machines are properly maintained and adjusted for the fabric andsewing operation. Observe sewing operators for correct material handling techniques.


Re-stitched seams in jeans:If there is a splice on stitch line and occurs on top stitching, it is objectionable. It may be causedby breaks or thread run out during sewing, or cut or broken stitches during a subsequenttreatment of the finished product. The solutions include using better quality sewing thread,ensuring proper machine maintenance and adjustments of sewing machine and observing sewingoperators for correct material handling techniques.

Re-stitched seams in jeans

Broken stitches (needle cutting in jeans):When a thread is being broken one seam crosses over another seam resulting in stitch failure likebartacks on top of waistband stitching, seat seam on top of riser seam. Using the proper threadand maintaining the proper stitch balance can minimize broken stitches due to needle cutting.Use of higher performance perma core or D-core thread, using a larger diameter thread onoperations where the thread is being cut, making sure the proper stitch balance is being used,using needles with the correct point and changing the needles at regular intervals on operationsare the remedies.

Broken stitches – needle cutting in jeans


Broken stitches (abrasion in jeans):The thread on the stitch line is broken during stone washing, sand blasting, hand sanding, etc.Broken stitches must be repaired by re stitching over the top of the stitch-line. The preventioncan be done by use of higher performance perma core or D-core thread, use of larger diameterthread on operations where excessive abrasion is occurring (e.g. waist band), ensuring thatstitches balance properly, using air entangled thread in the looper due to its lower seam profilemaking it less susceptible to abrasion (in yoke, seat and waistband seam) and monitoring thefinishing cycle.

Broken stitches – abrasion in jeans

Excessive seam grin:Excessive grin is where the stitch balance is not properly adjusted (stitch too loose) and the seamopens up. To check for seam grin, apply normal seam stress across the seam and then remove thestress. If the seam remains opened, then the seam has too much “grin through”. To correct,readjust the sewing machine thread tensions so that the proper stitch balance is achieved. Toomuch tension will cause other problems including seam failures (stitch cracking), excessivethread breakage, and skipped stitches.Seam failure:Seam Slippage is where the yarns in the fabric pull out of the seam from the edge. This oftenoccurs on fabrics constructed of continuous filament yarns that are very smooth and have a slicksurface and in loosely constructed fabrics. To avoid consider changing the seam construction to aFrench seam construction, increase the seam width or width of bite, optimize the stitches perinch and contact your fabric supplier.Skipped stitches:This is where the stitch length is inconsistent, possibly appearing as double the normal stitchlength; or that the threads in the stitch are not properly connected together. It is caused by thestitch forming device in the sewing machine missing the thread loop during stitch formationcausing a defective stitch. On looper type stitches, this will allow the stitch to unravel causingseam failure. To avoid this use a better quality sewing thread, ensure proper machine


maintenance and sewing machine adjustments, make sure that sewing machines are properlymaintained and adjusted for the fabric and sewing operation. Observe sewing operators forcorrect material handling techniques.Skipped stitches in jeans:Where the stitch forming device misses the needle loop or the needle misses the looper loop.Skips are usually found where one seam crosses another seam and most of the time occurs rightbefore or right after heavy thickness. The solutions are using core-spun thread, minimum threadtension to get a balanced stitch, the ideal foot, feed and plate that help to minimize flagging,training sewing operators not to stop on the thickness, making sure the machine is feedingproperly without stalling and the machine is not back-feeding.

Skipped stitches in jeans

Unravelling buttons:This is where a tail of thread is visible on the topside of the button and when pulled, the buttonfalls off. To avoid this use a quality sewing thread to minimize skipped stitches, specifyattaching the buttons with a lockstitch instead of a single thread chain stitch button sewingmachine.Broken stitches (due to chemical degradation in jeans):The thread in seam is degraded by the chemicals used during laundering resulting in loss orchange of colour and seam failure. The solutions include using higher performance Perma CoreNWT that has higher resistance to chemical degradation. It is recommended to go for largerthread sizes when the denim garments are subjected to harsh chemical washes. Ensure properwater temperature and pH levels, and proper amount and sequence of chemical dispersion as perguidelines and proper rinsing and neutralizing. Monitor the drying process, cycle time, andtemperature

Unraveling seams in jeans:Generally occurs on 401 chain stitch seams where either the stitch has been broken or a skippedstitch has occurred. This will cause seam failure unless the seam is re stitched. The solutionsinclude using a high performance Perma Core or DCore thread that will minimize broken stitches


and skipped stitches, ensuring proper maintenance and adjustments of sewing machine andtraining sewing operators for correct material handling techniques.

Unravelling seams in jeans

Sagging or rolling pockets:Where the pocket does not lay flat and rolls over after laundering. The solutions include makingsure the sewing operators are not holding back excessively when setting the front pocket, thehem is formed properly and that excessive fabric is not being put into the folder that will causethe hem to roll over. Ensure that pocket is cut properly and pocket curve is not too deep. Use areinforcement tape on the inside of the pocket that may help prevent the front panel fromstretching along the bias where the front pocket is set. Select fabric construction as the type andweight of fabric also can contribute for this.

Sagging or rolling pockets

Ragged / Inconsistent edge:This is where the edge of the seam is either extremely “Ragged” or “Rolls” inside the stitch. Toavoid this make sure the sewing machine knives are sharpened and changed often. The knivesshould be adjusted properly in relation to the “Stitch Tongue” on the needle plate to obtain theproper seam width or width bite.


Ragged / Inconsistent edge

Wavy seam on stretch denim:Where the seam does not lie flat and is wavy due to the fabric stretching as it was sewn or duringsubsequent laundering and handling operations. To avoid this use minimum presser footpressure. Instruct sewing operators to use proper handling techniques and not stretch the fabric asthey are making seam. Where available, use differential feed to compensate for the stretch of thefabric.

Wavy seam on stretch denim

Ropy hem:Ropy hem is where hem is not laying flat and is skewed in appearance, usually caused by pooroperator handling. Sewing operator should make sure they get the hem started correctly in thefolder before they start sewing and should not hold back excessively as the seam is being sewn.Use minimum roller or presser foot pressure.


Ropy hem

Twisted legs in jeans:Twisted leg is where the side seam twists around to the front of the pant and distorts theappearance of the jeans, usually caused by poor operator handling. To avoid this sewing operatorshould match the front and back properly so they come out the same length. Notches might beused to ensure proper alignment. Ensure that operator does not trim off the front or back withscissors to make them come out the same length. Make sure the cut parts are of equal lengthcoming to the assembly operation. Check fabric quality and cutting for proper skew. Make surethe sewing machine is adjusted properly for uniform feeding of the top and bottom plies.

Twisted legs in jeans


Disappearing stitches in stretch denim:Where the thread looks much smaller on seams sewn in the warp direction than in the weftdirection of the fabric. To prevent this use a heavier thread size on top stitching [120 to 150 Tex],go to a longer stitch length [from 8 to 6 S.P.I] and make sure the thread tensions are as loose aspossible so the thread sits on top of the fabric rather than burying in the fabric on seams sewn inthe warp.

Disappearing stitches in stretch denim

Thread discolouration after laundry in jeans:The thread picks up the indigo dyes from the fabric giving the thread a ‘dirty’ appearance. Acommon discoloration would be the pick up of a greenish or turquoise tint. The main reasons areimproper pH level, improper water temperature, improper chemical selection and shortcuts onwash methods. The solutions for this are using thread with proper colour fastness characteristics,correct pH level and low water temperature during laundry, using the proper chemicals andlaundry cycles, and using denimcol PCC or similar additive in wash. Do not over load washerswith too many garments at one time.

Thread discoloration after laundry in jeans


Poor color fastness after laundry:The thread does not wash down consistently in the garment or changes to a different color alltogether. The normal reasons are mixing threads in a garment, using threads with different colourfastness and not doing preproduction testing. To avoid this use thread with proper color fastnesscharacteristics, use threads from same thread supplier and do not mix threads in a garment.Always do preproduction testing on denim garments using new colors to assure that they willmeet the requirements. Make sure sewing operators select thread by type and color number anddo not just pick a thread off the shelf because it looks close in color.

Poor color fastness after laundry


Consumption Calculation for Woven Basic Pant:Woven Basic Pant Consumption Calculation is widely used in apparel industry and specially inapparel merchandising. It is important tusk for merchandiser. If calculation is not correct thencompany will face to huge loss and reputation also fall. This article will be helpful for beginnerswho are involved in apparel sector.

Basic pant structureHere,Fabric width =59″½ waist circular =46cm + 8 (Seam allowance) = 54cmFront rise = 28cm ( Including waist belt ) + 8 (Seam allowance) = 36cm½ Thigh circular = 36cm + 6 (Seam allowance) = 42cmInseam length = 821cm + 3 (Seam allowance) = 85cmConsumption Formula:

Consumption = (54 × 36) × 2 + (42 × 85) × 4 ÷ 36 ÷ 59 + 5%= 3888 + 14280 ÷ 6.45 ÷ 36 ÷ 59 + 5%= 1.33 + 0.05= 1.38 yds / pcsPer dz = 1.38× 12= 15.84 /dz (ypd) + 5%(wastage)= (15.84 × 5/ 100) + 15.84= 0.792 + 15.84= 16.63 yds


If the price for the fabric is $0.95 per yds. The cost for the garment will beCost per dozen (Fabric) = .95 x 16.63

= $ 15.80Accessories: cost /dz = US $ 6.00 (1 piece all time $ .15)

CM /dz = US $ 10.00..........................................................................

Subtotal = US $ 31.80Transport cost from factory to sea or airport (.5%) = US $ 0.20Clearing and forwarding cost (2%) = US $ 0.90

Overhead cost (.5%) = US$ 0.20Net cost price = US$ 33.10Profit (10%) = US $ 4.2.....................................................................................................Net FOB price = US$ 37.30

Freight (4%) = US$ 2.00Net C & F price = US$ 39.30Insurance (1%) = US$ 0.48....................................................................................................Net CIF price = US $ 49.12

Short cut formula for quick consumption

:

At 1st pls note the below point-Body length = Body length + Seam allowance. (In case of wash garments, washing allowance tobe added).


Body width = Chest width + Seam allowance. (In case of wash garments, washing allowance tobe added).Sleeve Length = Sleeve length + Seam allowance. (In case of wash garments, washing allowanceto be added).Suppose:Body length = 32" + 1" (Seam Allowance) = 33"Sleeve length = 23" + 2.5" (Cuff width) + 1.5" (Seam Allowance) = 27"1/2 Chest Width = 24" + 1" (S.A) + 3" Pleat width = 28"Formula: = {1/2 Chest X (CB length + Sleeve length)} X 2 / 36 / Fabric width + wastes %= {28" X (33+27)} X 2 / 36 / 44 + 5%= (28X60) X 2 / 36 / 44 + 5% = 2.22 YDS / PC.How to calculate the fabric consumption of towelsFirstly, you've to know what you going to make or about the measurement? All measurement hasit LENGTH & WIDTH. Equations as bellow-# Body Length + Sleeve Length + 10 (for folding {sleeve & bottom}) * (Chest width + 4 C.M.)* 2 / 10,000 * G.S.M. (Gram per square meter) Range / 1000 * 12 * 10% (wastages)= K.G. per DozenFirstly, you've to know what you going to make or about the measurement? All measurement hasit LENGTH & WIDTH. Equations as bellow-# Body Length + Sleeve Length + 10 (for folding {sleeve & bottom}) * (Chest width + 4 C.M.)* 2 / 10,000 * G.S.M. (Gram per square meter) Range / 1000 * 12 * 10% (wastages)= K.G. per DozenThe standard measurement for weight and quality of fabrics is grams per square meter, usuallyabbreviated as GSM. This is the accepted standard in the United States as well as in foreigncountries. Towels and bath robes typically vary from 300 to 800 GSM; other fabrics may havevalues as low as 100 GSM. The same units are used for toilet paper and other tissues (18 to 22GSM is typical) as well as paper towels (35 to 50 GSM is typical).Occasionally I receive requests to convert these units to U.S. pounds (usually from U.S. visitorswho are not comfortable with metric units). The reason grams per square meter are used even inthe U.S. is that they are a more accurate indicator of quality than pounds. Let's compare, forexample, two towels both weighing 1.5 pounds (680 grams) but with different dimensions, asfollows:Towel A weighs 1.5 pounds (680 grams) and measures 26 by 52 inches (.66 by 1.32 meters).Calculate the surface area by multiplying the length and width in meters: .66 times 1.32 equals.8712 square meters.Divide the weight in grams (680) by .8712 and find that you have a 780 GSM towel-quite plush.Towel B also weighs 1.5 lbs (680 gms) but is larger, measuring 34 by 68 in (.864 by 1.727 m).Multiply .864 by 1.727 to determine the area: 1.4921 square meters.Divide 680 grams by 1.4921 and find that this towel is only 455 GSM-nice but not nearly asplush as Towel A.As you can see from these examples, there is no direct conversion between GSM and pounds; thetotal weight of the towel is actually the product of the GSM and the towel's dimensions.NOTE: The surface area of a bath robe would be harder to figure because of the various piecesand angles, so the GSM would be equally difficult to figure this way.The standard measurement for weight and quality of fabrics is grams per square meter, usuallyabbreviated as GSM. This is the accepted standard in the United States as well as in foreign


countries. Towels and bath robes typically vary from 300 to 800 GSM; other fabrics may havevalues as low as 100 GSM. The same units are used for toilet paper and other tissues (18 to 22GSM is typical) as well as paper towels (35 to 50 GSM is typical).Occasionally I receive requests to convert these units to U.S. pounds (usually from U.S. visitorswho are not comfortable with metric units). The reason grams per square meter are used even inthe U.S. is that they are a more accurate indicator of quality than pounds. Let's compare, forexample, two towels both weighing 1.5 pounds (680 grams) but with different dimensions, asfollows:Towel A weighs 1.5 pounds (680 grams) and measures 26 by 52 inches (.66 by 1.32 meters).Calculate the surface area by multiplying the length and width in meters: .66 times 1.32 equals.8712 square meter.Divide the weight in grams (680) by .8712 and find that you have a 780 GSM towel-quite plush.Towel B also weighs 1.5 pounds (680 grams) but is larger, measuring 34 by 68 inches (.864 by1.727 meters).Multiply .864 by 1.727 to determine the area: 1.4921 square meters.Divide 680 grams by 1.4921 and find that this towel is only 455 GSM-nice but not nearly asplush as Towel A.As you can see from these examples, there is no direct conversion between GSM and pounds; thetotal weight of the towel is actually the product of the GSM and the towel's dimensions.NOTE: The surface area of a bath robe would be harder to figure because of the various piecesand angles, so the GSM would be equally difficult to figure this way.

Woven Shirt Fabric Consumption Formula

Woven Shirt

For fabric consumption of woven shirt we need MEASUREMENT sheet. We have to considerthe measurement of middle size garment or the garment containing maximum quantity. Supposemeasurement sheet is as follows:


Measuring Point Meas in inch

Body Length @ C.B. neck 31”Chest circumf. 44 ½”Across shoulder width seam to seam 19”Bk Yoke height FM HPS 3 ½”Sleeve length fm CBN thru sh to slv edge(3 pt) 34 ½”Armhole ( Straight, point to point ) 9 ½”Sleeve bottom opening circ.@ cntr btn 9”Cuff height 2 ½”Neck circumf. closed(cntr bttn to BH end stitching) 16 ¼”Collar height at CB (without neck band) 1 7/8”Chest Pkt Width @ top 5”Chest Pkt Length @ center 5 ¾”FABRIC CONSUMPTION

PARTSLENGTH (With

sewingallowance)

WIDTH (Withsewing allowance)

FABRIC Formula

Back (*Except yoke) 29 ½” 24 ¼” 0.45163 yds

={(L xW)/(36 x

44)}

Front 33” 26 ¼” 0.54688 yds

Yoke 21 4 ½” 0.11932 yds

Collar 17 ¼” 5 ¾” 0.12524 yds

Slv(**Width=armhole straight X 2)

22 ½” 20”0.56818 yds

(2 Slv)

Pocket 5” 5 ¾” 0.03630 yds

Cuff 10” 3 ½” 0.04419 yds

Total (Pc) 1.89173 yds /pcTotal (Dzn) 22.70076 yds/dzn

Clarification of formula:**Why 36Ans: To convert inch into yard. 36 inch=1yard**Why 44Ans: Fabric width 44 inch. It may vary.

Knit Garments Fabric Consumption Formula


Clear concept on correct fabric consumption and costing is a primary requisite for amerchandiser as fabric cost bears the 40% to 45% of the total cost of any garments.To calculate the fabric consumption of knit garments we need following information:a. Body length of the garment in cm. Suppose it is - 70 cm+5cm (Sewing allowance)=75cmb. 1/2 Chest width in cm. Suppose it is 48 cm+2cm (Sewing allowance)=50cmc. Sleeve length of the garment in cm. Suppose it is 20 cm+5cm (Sewing allowance)=25cmd. Armhole circumference in cm. Suppose it is-40cm+2cm (Sewing allowance)=42cme. Fabric GSM. Suppose it is 180 gsm.f. Percentage of fabric wastage. Suppose it is 10%.***For consumption we have to consider the measurement of middle size garment or thegarment containing maximum quantity.

Consumption:

Fabric Consumption Calculation of a Knit T-ShirtLengt

hWidt

hConsumption in

SCM

Back Part

75 cm ( length) x 50 cm ( Chest width) 75 50 3,750 scm

Front Part

75 cm ( Front length) x 50 cm ( Front chest width) 75 50 3,750 scm

Sleeve

25 cm ( Sleeve length) x 42 cm ( Armhole circumference)x 2 ( 2 sleeves)

25 42 2,100 scm

Total Fabrics Consumption 9,600 scm/pc

Now we can apply following formula to make consumption for 1dzn garments:= (Fabric consumption in SCM X GSM X 12 / 10,000,000) + Wastage=(9600 X 180 X 12 / 10,000,000) + 10%=2.0736+10%


=2.0736+0.20736=2.280 KG/DZN

OrLet us make the 9600 scm into sm. We know 10000scm=1sm

0.960 sm/pc

Fabric is 180gsm, (that is, 1sm=180gram). So 0.960sm=0.960x180=

172.8 gram/pc

We know 1,000gram=1kg. So 172.8 gram=172.8/1,000= 0.1,728 kg/pc

Wastage 10% 0.01728 kg

Total Weight with wastage 0.19008 kg/pc

Therefore, Weight of 1dzn (12 Pcs) 2.280 Kg/Dzn

Note:scm=square centimetersm=square meter*Why 12?Ans: Calculation of 1dozen (12pcs) garments*Why 10,000,000?Ans: 10,000 x 1,000=10,000,000We know GSM = Grams per square meter. Conversion of the fabric into square meter.1m=100cm, 1sqr meter=10,000 cm (100cm x 100cm),We know Kg=1,000 Gram.

Knit Garments CM Calculation Formula

CM is the abbreviation for Cost of Manufacture. In apparel industry CM means ManufacturingCost of 12 pcs garments. To calculate Manufacturing Cost of 12 pcs knit garments of a specificorder we must know-

1. Monthly expenditure of the factory,


2. Total running machine,3. Machine qty to execute the layout of the specific order,4. Daily (8 hour/day) productivity of the said order (excluding alter and reject) and5. Dollar conversion rate (if monthly expenditure amount is other than US Dollar)Suppose,-Monthly Factory Expenditure is BD Taka 40, 00,000-Working days of the month=26 days-Daily Factory Expenditure= BD Taka 153,846.2 (Monthly Factory Expenditure/working days ina month)-Total running machine qty=125 Machine-Daily Expenditure of 1 Machine = BD Taka 1230.769 (Daily Factory Expenditure/Total runningmachine)-Machine qty for the layout (for the said order)=30-Daily cost for the layout= BD Taka 36923.08 (Daily Expenditure of 1 Machine x Machine qtyfor the layout)-Hourly production of the layout=120pcs-Normal daily working hour=8hours-Daily Production of the layout=960 pcs (Hourly production of the layout x Normal dailyworking hour)-Manufacturing cost of 1pc=BD Taka 38.46154(Daily cost for the layout / Daily Production ofthe layout)-So, CM (Manufacturing Cost of 12 pcs garments)= BD Taka 461.5385 (Manufacturing cost of1pc x 12)-Dollar conversion rate: BD Taka 78=US$1-So, CM (Manufacturing Cost of 12 pcs garments) in US$= US$ 6.24-20% profit could be added with CM= US$1.24-Final CM = US$7.484 (US$6.24+ US$1.24)

Knit Garments | Costing Formula-

Knit Garments


For knit garments costing a merchandiser needs to have clear conception of the raw materialsprice & CM calculation of knit garments. Following one is the sample polo shirt costing sheet forbasic concept. This sheet can be followed for all other knit garments.

COST SHEET (KNIT GARMENTS)

BUYER :WASHINST.

:

STYLE : DATE :DESCRIPTION : DELIVERY :FABRICATION : QUANTITY :SIZE :FACTORY :

YARN : 100% COTTON 30/1 (Carded)GSM : 190

ITEM Consumption Unit Price Amount100% Cotton Pique Solid 190gsm Yarn 4.5 $ 4.55 $ 20.48

knitting 4.5 $ 0.25 $ 1.13DEYING 4.5 $ 1.13 $ 5.06

100% CTN 1X1 RIB Collar + Cuff $ 0.38 $ 4.50$ -$ -

TOTAL (FABRIC)/Dzn $ 31.16

ACC(TRIMS/Packing/Embellishment )

Main Label $ 0.30Care Label $ 0.10Sewing Thread $ 0.75

Drawstring $ -

Eyelet $ -

Elastic $ -

Twill Tape $ -

Print $ -

Embroidery $ -

Washing $ -

Button $ 0.50

Zipper $ -

Hanger $ -

Hang Tag $ 0.30

Poly $ 0.60

Carton $ 0.80Other $ 0.10

TOTAL (ACC)/Dzn $ 3.45


LAB TEST (FABRIC & GARMENTS)/Dzn $ -TOTAL (FABRIC+ACC+LAB TEST)/Dzn $ 34.61CM/Dzn (Including profit) $ 8.00COMMERCIAL/Dzn (3% of TOTAL FABRIC+ACC+LAB TEST/Dzn) $ 1.04BHC $ -TOTAL PRICE PER DOZEN $ 43.65

FOB PRICE/PER PC $ 3.64

Determination of Fabric Consumption of a Dress ShirtIntroduction:To determine fabric consumption of any garments we face many problem with memorizingproblem of equation. So, here presenting a simple way of fabric consumption determinationsystem of dress shirt which may be helpful for all of us.Shirt:The cloth which is for the upper part of the body is called shirt. It was discovered by FlindersPetrie. Shirts can be of different types. Major two types are:

1. Casual shirt2. Dress shirt

Others types are as follows:1. Camp shirt2. Polo – shirt3. T-shirt4. Henley shirt5. Sweatshirt etc.

Dress Shirt:In other words dress shirt is known as formal shirt. Special features of dress shirt are as follows-

A dress shirt should have a formal collar It will contain full sleeve with cuff It will have full-length opening at the front from the collar to the hem It will contain clean button and stiff collar and cuff


Basic parts of dress shirt:

Anatomy of Dress Shirt

1. Main body2. Sleeve3. Collar4. Cuff5. Pocket6. Placket Box7. Top centre

Formula:For evaluating fabric consumption, there is nothing to memorize any formula of fabricconsumption determination. It’s all about calculation sense. If we know about the areacalculation of a rectangle than I want to say that we also know about the calculation of fabricconsumption.For determination of fabric consumption of any parts of a woven shirt, we have to take readinglength and maximum width of this part of shirt. And then we have to multiply length with widthto find out the area of fabric required of this part and other should be followed as unit terms.Measurement of a dress shirt (inch):(On which shirt I am working, you can try your one)

Centre Back length = 30” Chest = 46” Sleeve Length = 24” Arm hole = 20” Collar Length = 16” Collar height = 4” Pocket Length = 6”














Pocket width = 5.5” Cuff Length = 9” Cuff width = 3” Across Back = 20” Yoke Height = 4” Top centre width = 1.5” Top centre Length = 28”

For Body required fabric: {(Centre Back Length + allowance)*(Chest + allowance)}*12 inch2= {(30+2)*(46+3)}*12 inch2= 33*49*12 inch2= 19404 inch2For sleeve required fabric: {(Sleeve length+allowance) * ( Arm hole + allowance)}*2*12inch2= {(24+2)*(20+2)}*2*12 inch2= 26*22*2*12 inch2= 13728 inch2For collar required fabric: {(collar length + allowance) * ( collar width+allowance)}*12 inch2= {(16+2)*(4+2)}*12 inch 2= 18*6*12 inch2= 1296 inch2For pocket required fabric: {(Pocket Length + allowance)*(Pocket width+allowance)*12inch2= {(6+1)*(5.5+1)}*12 inch2= 7*6.5*12 inch2= 546 inch2For Cuff required fabric: {(Cuff length + allowance)*(cuff width + allowance)}*12 inch2= {(9+1)*(3+1)}*12 inch2= 10*4*12 inch2= 480 inch2For Back Yoke required fabric : {(Across back + allowance)*(yoke height + allowance)}*12inch2= {(20+1)*(4+1)}*12 inch2= 21*5*12 inch2= 1260 inch2For top centre required fabric :{(top centre length+allowance)*(top centre width +allowance)}*12 inch2= {(28+2)*(1.5+1)}*12 inch2= 30*2.5*12 inch2= 900 inch2Total fabric Area (Sum of above value) : (19404+13728+1296+546+480+1260+900) inch2


= 37614 inch2Let,Fabric width: 56”Marker Width : 55”So, Fabric required = 37614/55 inch= 684 inch= 684/36 yds/dz= 19 yds/dzSo, Fabric consumption,= 19 yds/dz+7%(wastage %)= 19+7% of 19 yds/dz= 19 + 1.33 yds/dz= 19/12 yds/piece= 1.58 yds/pieceIn short cut way we can find out fabric consumption of a Dress shirt in following way:-

= 48804/2016 + 7% yds/dz=24.2 + 7% of 24.21 yds/dz=24.21 + 1.69 yds/dz= 25.90 yds/dz= 25.90/12 yds/piece= 2.16 yds/pieceNote: Short cut way of fabric consumption determination is not so accurate as elaborate waydetermination system.But it is easy and time saved way.Conclusion:Consumption determination is a very important term in garments section. Thought fabric coversthe greatest part of garments costing, so we should have better knowledge about fabricconsumption determination.


Consumption for Knit Garments:Knit fabric consumption calculation is one of the most important part of knit garmentMerchandising. It plays important rules in costing of garments. Firstly, you've to know what yougoing to make or about the measurement? All measurement has it length and width. The standardmeasurement for weight and quality of knit fabrics is grams per square meter (GSM).

Knit garmentsTo calculate the knit fabric consumption following information is required:

1. Body length of the garment in cm. Suppose it is - 70 cm+5cm (Sewingallowance)=75cm c. Sleeve length of the garment in cm. Suppose it is 20 cm+5cm(Sewing allowance)=25cm

2. 1/2 Chest width in cm. Suppose it is 48 cm+2cm (Sewing allowance)=50cm3. Armhole circumference in cm. Suppose it is-40cm+2cm (Sewing allowance)=42cm4. Fabric GSM. Suppose it is 180 gsm5. Percentage of fabric wastage. Suppose it is 10%

Formula for Fabric of Knit Garments Consumption:

{(Body length + Sleeve length + Sewing Allowance) X (1/2 Chest + Sewing Allowance)}X 2X GSM X 12 / 10000000 + Wastage%

Here,Body Length = in CMSleeve Length = in CMChest/Bottom (most widest part) = in CMGSM = gm/m2

Example for 1 dozen garments:{(Body length + Sleeve length + Sewing Allowance) X (1/2 Chest + Sewing Allowance)}X 2 XGSM X 12 / 10000000 + Wastage%.= {(73 + 19.5 + 10) X (52 + 4)} X 2 X 160 X 12 / 10000000 + 10%


= (102.5 X 56) X 2 X 160 X 12 / 10000000 + 10%= 5740 X 2 X 160 X 12 /10000000 +10%= 22041600 / 10000000 + 10%= 2.20416 + 10 %= 2.424576= 2.43 kg per dozen.

Costing of Long Sleeve Shirt (Woven):For a long sleeve shirt: (measurement chart)

Part DimensionCollar 16”Chest 48”Center back length 31”Sleeve length 34.5”Drop shoulder 21” (yoke)Arm hole depth (1/2) 0.5”Cuff 9”Pocket 6”*5.5”Yoke is all time 4”

Back part:The part of a garment, which covers the back part of human body.

Back part of shirt


Formula:

= [(31" + 2") × (24" + 2" ) /36] / 44

= 0.541yds

Yoke:A shaped piece fabric in a garment, fitted about or below the neck and shoulders, from which therest of the garment hangs. It can be split in two, called the ―split yoke.

Yoke of shirtFormula:

= [(21" + 4") × (4"+ 1") / 36] / 44

= 0.079yds

Front part:The front part of a shirt.

Front part of shirt


Formula:

= [(31" + 2") × (24" + 2" ) /36] / 44

= 0.541yds



= [(21" + 4") × (4"+ 1") / 36] / 44

= 0.079yds


Front part of shirt


Formula:

= [(31" + 2") × (24" + 2" ) /36] / 44

= 0.541yds



= [(21" + 4") × (4"+ 1") / 36] / 44

= 0.079yds


Front part of shirt


Formula:

= ([{31"-1 ¼" + 1"} × {12" + 2 ½" }] 2" /36) / 44= 0.562 yds

Sleeve:The part of a garment that covers the arm and is usually cut wider than the cuffs. Most sleevelengths fall between 32 and 36 inches.

Sleeve

Formula:

=( [{34 ½" -11"} +1"] × {21" +1"} × 2 /36) / 44= 0.68yds


Cuff:A fold or band serving as a trimming or finish for the bottom of a sleeve. Some cuff stylesinclude: French Cuffs and Barrel Cuffs.

Cuff

Formula:

= [(9" + 3") × (2 ½" + ½" ) ×2 /36] / 44

= 0.05yds

Pocket:A small bag like attachment forming part of a garment and used to carry small articles, as a flatpouch sewn inside a pair of pants or a piece of material sewn on its sides and bottom to theoutside of a shirt.

Pocket

Formula:

= [(6" +2") (5½" +1") /36] / 44

= 0.032yds

Collar:The part of a shirt that encompasses the neckline of thegarment, often so as to fold or roll over.Comes in various shapes, depending on the face shape and occasion.



Cuff

Formula:

= [(9" + 3") × (2 ½" + ½" ) ×2 /36] / 44

= 0.05yds


Pocket

Formula:

= [(6" +2") (5½" +1") /36] / 44

= 0.032yds




Cuff

Formula:

= [(9" + 3") × (2 ½" + ½" ) ×2 /36] / 44

= 0.05yds


Pocket

Formula:

= [(6" +2") (5½" +1") /36] / 44

= 0.032yds



Collar

Formula:

= [(16" + 5") × (2" +1") × 4/36] / 44

= 0.159yds

Total Consumption for one Garment:= 0.541+0.079+0.562+0.68+0.05+0.159+0.032= 2.100yds/ per garmentPer dz = 2.100 ×12= 25.20/dz (ypd) + 5%(wastage)= {25.20 ×5 / 100} + 25.20= 1.26 + 25.20=26.46ydsIf the price for the fabric is $0.95 per yds. The cost for the garment will beCost per dozen (Fabric) = .95x 26.46

= $ 25.14Accessories: cost /dz = US $ 6.00 (1 piece all time $ .15)CM /dz = US $ 10.00...........................................................................................................Subtotal = US $ 41.14Transport cost from factory to sea or airport (.5%) = US $ 0.20

Clearing and loading cost (2%) = US $ 0.90Overhead cost (.5%) = US$ 0.20............................................................................................................Net cost price = US$ 42.44Profit (10%) = US $ 4.2............................................................................................................Net FOB price = US$ 46.64


Freight (4%) = US$ 2.00...........................................................................................................Net C & F price = US$ 48.64Insurance (1%) = US$ 0.48..........................................................................................................Net CIF price = US $ 49.12

Woven Fabric Consumption FormulaThe quantity of fabric which is required to produce a garment is called consumption. How muchfabric is required to produce a garment, we can determine it through marker planning andmathematical system. We can calculate and determine the consumption of fabric by thefollowing two systems: 1. Marker planning system 2. Mathematical system. There are also twoformula for fabric consumption. One is woven fabric consumption formula and another is knitfabric consumption formula. Now I only discuss on Consumption of woven fabric. Which isdone in mathematical system.

Consumption of woven fabricTo calculate the woven fabric consumption the following requirements is need.

1. Fabric Description.2. Fabrics width/weight.3. Measurement chart with technical spec.4. Washing shrinkage if any.5. Style Description.

Formula for woven fabric consumption:

Formula = Length X Width / Fab width X Fab UnitHere,Length = length of the specific parts + allowance


Width = width of the specific parts + allowanceFab width = Fabric width ( after considering the shrinkage allowance). Say, fabric width is 45″& the shrinkage allowance is 1″, Then the Fabric width will be (45″-1″) = 44″ in the formula.Fab unit = Fabric calculation unit, here it will be 36 because we are going to calculate theconsumption in Yards.For example, calculate the consumption of a Shirt (front part):Center front length = 32″+1″ (Sewing allowance) = 33″Width (Chest) = 24″ + 1″ (Sewing allowance) + 3″Pleat.W (1.5*2) = 28″= Length X Width / Fab width X Fab Unit= 33″ X 28″ / 44″ X 36″= 924″ / 1584″= 0.5833333= 0.59 Yards. (for front part)

Knit Fabric

Knit Fabric

Knitting is a process to produce knit fabric. In this process the yarn is turned into knit fabric. Theprocess includes various types of knitting technique, dying, washing etc. To purchase knit fabric,concerned person needs to know the yarn price and charges of all the process. The most commonfibres used for knit fabrics are cotton and viscose with or without elastane and the most commonconstruction is single jersey which is widely used for making t-shirt and knit tops and bottoms.There are also various types of fibres and knitting constructions. Let us see the yarn and fabricupdate.


YARN Price

100% Cotton

Yarn CountPrice/Kg

Carded Combed

20/1 $4.45 $4.75

24/1 $4.45 $4.80

26/1 $4.50 $4.85

28/1 $4.55 $4.85

30/1 $4.55 $4.90

32/1 $4.70 $5.00

34/1 $4.85 $5.1036/1 $4.95 $5.2040/1 $4.95 $5.20

CVC 60% Cotton 40% Polyester

Yarn Count Price/Kg20 $4.75

24 $4.80

26 $4.85

30 $4.85

34 $5.05

36 $5.20

40 $5.35

65%Polyester 35% Cotton

Yarn Count Price/Kg

20 $4.75

24 $4.80

26 $4.85

30 $4.85

34 $5.05

36 $5.20

40 $5.35


100% Viscose Yarn

Yarn Count Price/Kg

20’s $5.05

22’s $5.15

24’s $5.20

26’s $5.25

28’s $5.30

30’s $5.35

32’s $5.45

34’s $5.55

36’s $5.65

40’s $6.05

100% Cotton Slub yarn

Yarn Count Price/Kg

20’s $5.05

22’s $5.15

24’s $5.20

26’s $5.25

28’s $5.30

30’s $5.35

32’s $5.45

34’s $5.55

36’s $5.65

40’s $6.05

100% Viscose Slub Yarn

Yarn Count Price/Kg

20’s $5.55

22’s $5.65

24’s $5.65

26’s $5.85

28’s $5.95

30’s $6.05

32’s $6.15


34’s $5.2036’s $5.2540’s $6.55

Indian Yarn

Yarn CountPrice/Kg

Combed Carded20/1 $ 3.35 $ 3.1024/1 $ 3.45 $ 3.2026/1 $ 3.50 $ 3.2530/1 $ 3.55 $ 3.3034/1 $ 3.75 $ 3.4040/1 $ 3.95 $ 3.70

Knitting Charge

Knitting TypeKnitting Charge/Kg

Bd Tk Us$

1x1 Rib 15 - 18 0.188 - 0.225

2x2 Rib 30 - 35 0.375 - 0.437

Cotton Fleece 20 - 22 0.250 - 0.275

Double Lacouste 15 - 18 0.188 - 0.225

Double Pique 15 - 18 0.188 - 0.225

Drop Needle S/Jersy 18 - 20 0.225 - 0.25

Flat Back Rib Normal 30 - 35 0.375 - 0.437

Heavy Jersy 25 - 30 0.313 - 0.375

Honey Comb 25 - 30 0.313 - 0.375

Interlock 20 - 25 0.250 - 0.312

Lycra Enginering Striped 140 - 150 1.750 - 1.875

Lycra Pk Enginering Striped 160 - 170 2.000 - 2.125

Lycra S/Jersy 30 - 35 0.375 - 0.437

Pk Enginering Striped 130 - 140 1.625 - 1.75

Plain S/Jersy 10 - 12 0.125 - 0.15

S/J Enginering Striped 110 - 115 1.375 - 1.437

Single Lacouste 15 - 18 0.188 - 0.225

Single Pique 15 - 18 0.188 - 0.225

Terry Fleece 25 - 30 0.313 - 0.375

Tharmal 40 - 45 0.500 - 0.562

Waffle 30 - 35 0.375 - 0.437

Yarn Dyed Feeder Striped 30 - 70 0.375 - 0.875


Collar Knitting Charge

COLLAR TYPECHARGE KG/TK

BD Tk US$

Normal Collar 08-10 0.100 - 0.125

Tipping Collar 10-12 0.125 - 0.15

Jacquard Collar 35 - 50 0.438 - 0.625

Double Collar 30 - 35 0.375 - 0.4375

Fabric Dyeing Charge

COLOR100 % CTN /Kg CVC/Kg

BDTk

US$BDTk

US$

Average Color 90 $ 1.13 140 $ 1.75

Extra Deep 5% 95 $ 1.19 150 $ 1.88

Reactive Black 120 $ 1.50 165 $ 2.06

Royal Blue 4% 125 $ 1.56 170 $ 2.13

White 45 $ 0.56 55 $ 0.69

Color Bdt/Kg Us$/Kg

Beige 110 $1.38

Black 170 $2.13

Blue 170 $2.13

Brick Red 160 $2.00

Brown 150 $1.88

Dk Fuschia 135 $1.69

Fuschia 120 $1.50

Green 155 $1.94

Red 160 $2.00

Indigo 160 $2.00

Sky 110 $1.38

White 75 $0.94


Washing price

Wash Type Price/Dzn

Acid Spray Wash $ 3.10 - 3.70

Acid Wash $ 3.00 - 3.80

Bio Polish Wash $ 1.30 - 1.70

Bleach Wash $ 2.00 - 2.50

Carbon Wash $ 1.25 - 1.50

Deep Dye Wash $ 3.50 - 4.00

Enzyme Wash $ 1.00 - 1.50

Fixing Wash $ 1.00 - 1.50

Heavy Enzyme $ 1.50 - 1.70

Normal Wash $ 0.45 - 0.65

Panal Wash $ 0.70 - 0.85

Ready to dye $ 2.60 - 3.10

Rinse wash $ 1.00 - 1.25

Sand Wash $ 1.50 - 2.00

Silicon Spray Wash $ 0.70 - 1.00

Silicon Wash $ 0.95 - 1.30

Snow Wash $ 2.00 - 2.50

Stone Wash $ 1.10 - 1.60

Tie Dye Wash $ 3.50 - 4.50

Tremble Wash $ 0.75 - 0.85

Use effect Wash $ 1.50 - 2.00

Vintage Wash $ 1.05 - 1.55

Yarn count vs Fabric GSM

Fabric Type Yarn Count GSM

100 % Cotton/Jersey

40/1 9030/1 120-15026/1 155-17024/1 170-19034/1 13026/1 16024/1 18020/1 22030/2 260

100 % Cotton Rib 1x1 34/1 160


30/1 18026/1 20024/1 23024/1 26020/1 300

100 % Cotton Rib 2x2

34/1 18030/1 23028/1 28024/1 330

100 % Cotton Pique

30/1 16026/1 18024/1 20024/1 22020/1 240

95% Cotton 5% Lycra

34+20 18030+20 21030+40 24028+20 27028+40 30040+20 160

100 % Cotton Interlock

40/1 18034/1 21028/1 24026/1 27020/1 300

Sweater Yarn with Price List

Sweater Yarn


Different types of yarn are used to knit sweater. Find below a list of yarns widely used forknitting sweater with current price. The price list is collected from a Bangladeshi yarn dyeingmill.

S/L

Yarn Count Price $ /Lbs GG

1 100% Acrylic2/32 "SMM" 2/24

"DMM"$1.90/lLbs 3,5,7

2 100% Acrylic 2/36 "SMM" 02.15/Lbs 10,12

3 100% Acrylic Mélange 2/32 "SMM" $2.20/Lbs 3,5,7

4 100% Acrylic Mélange 2/36 "SMM" $2.35/Lbs 12

7 100% Acrylic Cashmere Like 2/32 "SMM" $2.50/Lbs 3,5,7

8 100% Acrylic Cashmere Like2/28 "SMM" / 2/36

"SMM"$2.60/Lbs 10,12

9100% Acrylic Cashmere Likemel.

2/32 SMM" $2.70/Lbs 10, 12

10100% Acrylic Cashmere Likemel.

2/36 "SMM" $2.80/Lbs 12

11 70% Acrylic 30% Wool 2/32 "SMM" $2.90/Lbs 3,5,7



14 100% Acrylic Chenille (5gg) 1/3.5 "NM" $2.85/Lbs 5

15 100% Acrylic Chenille (7gg) 1/4.5 "NM” $2.95/Lbs 7

16 100% Acrylic Chenille (3gg) 1/2.2 "NM” $2.95/Lbs 3

17100% Acrylic Mohairlike/(TAMU/Tam Tam)

1/5.5 “NM” $2.50/Lbs. 3,5

18100% Acrylic Mohairlike Mel./(TAMU/Tam Tam)

1/5.5 “NM” $2.70/Lbs. 3,5

19 70% Acrylic 30% Nylon 1/19 “NM” $3.10/Lbs 12

20 100% Acrylic Tube Yarn 1/2.2 “NE” $2.60/Lbs 3,5

20 100% Acrylic Tube Yarn 1/2.4 “NE” $2.60/Lbs 3,5

20 100% Acrylic Tube Yarn 1/4.7 “NE” $2.70/Lbs 7

21 100% Acrylic Cotton Like 2/27 "NM", $2.55/Lbs 3,5,7,10,12

22 100% Cotton (Carded) 2/20 "NE", $2.25/Lbs3,5,7 (INCONE)

23 100% Cotton (Combed) 2/30/ , 2/32 "NE" $2.55/Lbs10,12 (INCONE)

24 100% Cotton (Combed) 2/40 "NE" $3.30/Lbs12 , 14 (IN

CONE)


25 50% Acrylic 50% Cotton 2/20 "NE" $2.55/Lbs 3,5,7

26 50% Acrylic 50% Cotton 2/30 "NE" $2.85/Lbs 10,12

27 55% Cotton 45% Acrylic 2/20 “NE” $2.55/Lbs 3, 5, 7

28 55% Cotton 45% Acrylic 2/30 “NE” $2.85/Lbs 10, 11

2960% Cotton 40% Acrylic(Roving Yarn)

2/16 ‘S $2.90/Lbs 5 GG 3 Ply

3060% Cotton 40% Acrylic(Roving Yarn)

2/16 ‘S $2.95/Lbs 3 GG 5 Ply

3160% Cotton 40% Acrylic(Rugular Yarn)

2/16 ‘S $2.85/Lbs 7 GG 2 ply

32 100% Viscose/Reyon 2/30 “NM” $2.65/Lbs(IN

CONE)

33 100% Nylon /Polimaed 70 D/1 (Single) $3.80/Lbs(IN

CONE)

34 100% Nylon /Polimaed 70 D/2 (Double) $3.60/Lbs(IN

CONE)

35Stone & Acid Wash Cot 2/20& 2/30

INCLUDING RAWYARN

$3.40/Lbs &$3.60/Lbs

3,5,7,12

36Up & Down / Deep Dyeing &Wash Cott 2/20 & 2/30

$3.50/Lbs &$3.70/Lbs

3,5,7,12

37Acid & Enzyme Wash Cott2/20 & 2/30

$3.60/Lbs &$3.80/Lbs

38Piece Dyeing Cashmere Like2/28 / 2/32

$2.75/Lbs -$2.80/Lbs

3,5,7,10,12

39Piece Dyeing (Cotton ) 2/20 &2/30

2.80/Lbs /2.95/Lbs

3,5,7,10,13

40DeepDye

100% Cashmere Like

2ToneColor

INCLUDING RAWYARN

$3.30Llbs

100% Cashmere Like

3ToneColor

$3.60Lbs

41100% Cotton (Carded) RawYarn Only

2/20 / 2/30 "NE"$1.80/Lbs &

$2.00/Lbs3,5,7,10,12

42100% Acrylic Cashm. LikeRaw Yarn Only

2/32 /2/28 "SMM"$2.30/Lbs/$2.45/Lbs

3,5,7,10,12


Sweater Yarn Consumption

Sweater Yarn Consumption

Making process of sweater is different from knit and woven garments since sweater is not madefrom finished fabric. There are two main kinds of sweaters. Full fashioning and cut and sew.Full-fashioning is the process of making a sweater that is knitted in the pieces by knittingmachine and the knitted pieces are assembled on a linking machine.Cut-and-sew sweaters are knit in large panels and cut out like a woven garment and sewn on amachine; this is what has most been used in the U.S.

For sweater consumption we have to make a sweater first in middle size or the size containingmaximum quantity (if bigger than the middle size contains maximum quantity). We have toconsider the weight of that sweater as standard. Need to add wastage with the actual weight of12pcs sweaters. Normal wastage percentage of Acrylic & Cotton is 6% to 8% and for theViscose, Spandex, Wool etc. is 10% to 12%. If cutting wastage is more than the usual, we haveto add more than the usual as wastage. See following yarn consumption sheet for clearconception:

YARN CONSUMPTION

Buying House Buyer DATEBUYER

REF.STYLE NO.

Walmart 10-Apr GRF12004MN

Description V-Neck L/S SweaterYarn 100% Cotton 2/32GG 12 GG

COLORSWATCH

COLOR NAMEGarments Qty/

PcsTrue Black 4,000Lt. Grey Heather 4,000Grey heather 4,000


Charcoal Mix 4,000

TOTAL 16,000TOTAL YARN REQUIRED:

TOTAL PCSLBS/DOZ

.WASTAGE TOTAL (a)

16,000 9.5 10% 13,933.33 Lbs

YARN REQUIRED PER COLOR:COLOR

SWATCHCOLOR NAME

TOTALPCS.

LBS/DOZ

WASTAGE

TOTALYARN (LBS)

True Black 4,000 9.5 10% 3,483.33 Lbs

Lt. Grey Heather 4,000 9.5 10% 3,483.33 Lbs

Grey heather 4,000 9.5 10% 3,483.33 Lbs

Charcoal Mix 4,000 9.5 10% 3,483.33 Lbs

Please note that TOTAL(a) and TOTAL(b) must be equal. Ifnot then yarn consumption is not correct.

TOTAL (b) 13,933.33 Lbs

signature (marchendiser) date

10-Apr

Consumption and chart:Approx sewing thread consumption of different itemsNo. Product name Consumption01 Basic t- shirt 125meter02 Basic polo shirt 17503 Tank top 50meter04 Fleece/Sherpa jacket 250meter05 Kids/girls dresses 300-450meter06 basic long sleeve woven shirt 150meter


07 Basic short sleeve woven shirt 125 meter08 basic long trouser/pant 350meterMachine wise sewing thread consumption/inch1.plain m/c 1 needle 2.5 inch2.plain m/c 2 needle 5 inch3.over lock 3 thread 13.25 inch4. over lock 4thread 16.75inch5.over lock 5 thread 18.75inch6.flat lock 3 thread 16.75inch7.flat lock 5thread 22.25inch8.bar tack stitching Per operation Generally 7 inch

Some conversion unit

Conversion system

1 Yard = 0.9144 Meter

1 Foot = 0.3048 Meter

1 Foot = 30.48 cm

1 inch = 2.54 cm

1 Meter = 1.09 Yard

1 Meter = 3.28 Foot

1 CM = 0.032 Foot

1 CM = 0.393 Inch

1 Square Inch = 6.45 Square CM

1 Square Meter = 0.836 Square CM

3.4 Fabric Consumption Calculation for 1 dozen Men’s T-shirt:For a Men’s T-Shirt:

a) G.S.M (Given by buyer) Body : 145-150

Neck/Rib : 175-180

b) Sewing & seam allowances (Not given by buyer) – 1.50-3cm

c) Wastage % (Not given by buyer) – 7%


d) Measurement chart (given by buyer)

Measurement Chart:

Parameter Given Estimated with sewing allowancea) Chest 96cm 102cmb) HPS 65cm 70cmc) sleeve length 20cm 25cmd) Arm hole 46cm 49cme) Neck 58cm 61cmf) Neck width 2+2=4cm 7cmg) Bottom hem 2cm

Formula:

Cpd = L x W x 12 x GSM kg

10000000

Where, Cpd = Consumption per dozenL = LengthW = Width

A) Cpd (body) = L x W x 12 x GSM kg10000000

= 70 x 102x 12 x 150 kg10000000

= 1.28 kgB) Cpd (Sleeve) = L x W x 12 x 2 x GSM kg

10000000= 25 x 49 x 12 x 2 x 150 kg

10000000

= 0.44 kg

C) Cpd (Neck) = L x W x 12 x GSM kg10000000

= 61 x 7 x 12 x 180 kg10000000

= 0.092 kg

So, total Cpd = (A + B+C)

= (1.28 + 0.44 + 0.09) kg


= 1.81 kg

Actual Cpd = Total Cpd + 7% wastage

= (1.81 + 7%)

= 1.94 kg

So, the fabric consumption for men’s T-shirt is 1.94 kg per dozen.

3.5 Consumption Calculation for 1 dozen Polo shirtHere,

a) G.S.M. (given by buyer) body 145 – 150

Collar (12pcs) 400

Cuff (12 x 2) 300

b) Sewing & seam allowance 1.50 – 3cm

c) Wastage % 7%

d) Measurement chart (given by buyer.

Measurement Chart:

Parts Name Given Estimated

a) Chest 96 cm 102 cmb) HPS 65 cm 70 cm

c) Sleeve length 20 cm 25 cm

d) Arm hole 46 cm 49 cm

e) Collar length 46 cm 46 cm

f) Collar width 7 cm 10 cm

g) Cuff length 26 cm 10 cm

h) cuff width 3 cm 5cm

A) Cpd (body) = L x W x 12 x GSM kg10000000= 70 x 102x 12 x 150 kg

10000000

= 1.28 kg


B) Cpd (Sleeve) = L x W x 12 x 2 x GSM kg

10000000

= 25 x 49 x 12 x 2 x 150 kg

107

= 0.44 kg

C) Cpd (Collar) = L x W x 12 x GSM kg

107

= 46 x 10 x 12 x 400 kg107

= 0.22 kgC) Cpd (Collar) = L x W x 12 x GSM kg

107

= 46 x 10 x 12 x 400 kg107

= 0.22 kgD) Cpd (Cuff) = L x W x 12 x 2 x GSM kg

107

= 30 x 5 x 12 x 2 x 300 kg107

= 0.108 kgSo, total Cpd= A + B + C + D

= (1.28 + 0.44 + 0.22 + 0.108) kg= 2.05kg

Actual Cpd = 2.05 kg + 7%

= 2.19 kg

So, fabric consumption for 1 dozen polo shirt is 2.19 kg.

Consumption calculation for 1 dozen Trousers:For Trouser,

a) G.S.M. (given by buyer) 180 - 250b) Sewing & seam allowance 1.50 – 3cmc) Wastage % 7%


Parts Name Given Estimateda) Waist 112 cm 114 cmb)Side seam (length) 107 cm 114 cm

c) Thigh (width 66 cm 72 cmd) Front rise 28 cme) Back rise 36 cmf)Leg Opening (bottom) 46 cmMeasurement Chart:

Cpd = L x W x 12 x GSM kg

107

= 114 x 2 x 72 x 12 x 200 kg

107

= 3.93 kg

Actual Cpd = (3.93 + 7%) kg

= 4.2 kg

So, fabric consumption for 1 dozen Trousers is 4.2

Result and discussionCost a price for 1 dozen T- shirt:Pre-requisites:

Unit price Costing

1. Fabric consumption 2 kg/dz $5.0/kg $10/kg

2. Accessories $2/dz $2/dz

3. CM (cost of manufacturing) $2/dz $2/dz

Total $14

A) Direct cost (raw materials) = $14.0

B) Indirect cost (15% to 20% of direct cost)

Indirect cost = $14.0 x 20%

= $2.8


Total = $14.0 + $2.8

= $16.8

C) Profit @5% = $16.8 x 5%= @0.84

Therefore, total cost = $16.8 + $0.84= $17.64= $18

So, the cost for 1 dozen mean’s T-shirt is $18


Cost a price for 1 dozen Polo shirt:Pre-requisites

Unit price Cost

1. Fabric consumption 2.7 kg/dz $5.0/dz $13.5

2. Accessoires $2.5/dz $2.5

3. CM $4-6/dz $5

Total $21

A) Direct cost (raw material) = $21

B) Indirect cost = 15% - 20% of direct cost

= $21 x 20%

= $4.2

Total cost = A + B

= $21 + $4.2

= 25.2

C) Profit at 5% = $25.2 x 5%

= $26.46

= $26.5The total cost for 1 dozen polo shirt is $26.5

Cost a price for 1 dozen Trousers:Pre-requisites

Unit price Cost

1. Fabric consumption 4.2 kg $5.0/dz $21

2. Accessories $3.5/dz $3.5

3. CM $4-6/dz $5

Total $29.5

A) Direct cost (raw material) = $21

B) Indirect cost = 15% - 20% of direct cost


= $21 x 20%

= $4.2

Total cost = A + B

= $21 + $4.2

= $33.2

C) Profit at 5% = $33.5 x 5%

= $35.18

= $35.18

The total cost for 1 dozen polo shirt is $35.18


Material costMaterial cost is the major cost component of a garment manufacturing costs. A correct costcalculation method will give you better projection of garment cost for a style. In this article howto calculate direct materials cost have been explained in details. Raw materials required formaking a garment is sourced from suppliers. Main materials are like fabric, labels, sewingthread, hang tags, trims etc. So to have correct material cost you must have price knowledge ofeach item.Steps used for material costing estimation are – Preparation of material requirement sheet Material price listing Preparation of material cost sheet

Prepare material requirement sheetList down all items required and calculate consumption per unit for all materials to be used ingarments.For an example, let you are going calculate material cost for a polo shirt. To make polo you needknitted fabric – Single jersey/pique, cuff and collar rib. Sourcing of knitted fabric can be donethree ways

- You can directly purchased dyed fabric or- You can source yarn, knit fabric and process the knitted fabric as per your requirement or- Purchase dyed yarn and knit.

Let you will purchase yarn and get knitting and dyeing processes done by job workers. To gothrough this process collect the pricing list of different types of yarn (or at least for the yarn thatyou will purchase for your product), knitting cost, knitting loss%, dyeing cost per kg and processloss% from suppliers.Material Price listingCollect material price quote for all the material you need to purchase from different vendors.Prepare database for the current market price of raw materials.For example here is one Price ListYarn: The costs for different yarns are –

20s Combed – Rs.105/kg30s Combed – Rs. 115/kg50s Combed – Rs.140-145/kg2/60s Combed – Rs.200/Kg2/60s dyed yarn – Rs.420/Kg dark shade

Knitting cost:For Single Jersey – Rs.15/kgFor Rib - Rs.18/kgFor Interlock - Rs. 30-35/kg

Knitting loss: 2%


Dyeing cost: Rs. 80/kg for dark shadesProcess loss (Dyeing): 6%

Fabric cost: Ready to use fabric cost is calculated using basic calculation as shown in thefollowing table. Cost of the knits fabric is represented in price per Kg.

Shell Fabric Collar/Cuff

Fabric Description 2/60s single jersey 2/60s ribYarn cost (Rs.) 200.00 200.00Knitting cost (Rs.) 18.00 20.00Knitting loss (2%) 4.36 4.40Processing cost (Dyeing) (Rs.) 80.00 80.00Processing loss (6%) (Rs.) 18.14 18.26Cost per Kg Rs. 320.50 Rs. 322.66

Fabric Consumption: Next step is to find requirement of fabric for the polo. Suppose for thispolo shirt you need shell fabric 0.32 Kg and Ribs for cuff and collar 0.080 Kg. Read how tocalculate fabric consumption for a knitted garment to know fabric consumption calculation.

Prepare material Cost SheetOnce you find fabric cost and fabric consumption prepare material cost sheet including all othermaterial required to make a garment ready for sale. An example of material cost sheet has beenshown below.

Items Consumption UOM* Rate(Rs.)

Amount(Rs.)

Remarks

1 2/60s singlejersey

0.32 KGs 320.5 102.56

2 Cuff andcollar ribs

0.08 KGs 322.66 25.81

3 Sewing thread 159 Meters 4 approx.

4 Buttons 3 Gross 2 approx.

5 Main label 1 Unit 1 approx.6 Care label 1 Unit 1 approx.

7 Hang Tags 1 Unit 3 approx.8 Price Tags 1 Unit 2 approx.9 Poly bags 1 Unit 1 approx.10 Kimble 1 Unit 0.5 approx.

Total Cost 142.87*UOM - Unit of measureSo, Total fabric cost is Rs. 128.37 and including other material costs total cost of the material formaking this Polo Rs. 142.87


Now for each item merchants generally purchased extra quantity of inventory (from 2% to 7%)as buffer. This excess cost due to extra purchase of material is added into the garment costing.

How to Calculate Production Capacity of a Factory?In Apparel Manufacturing, “Production capacity” is one of the most important criteria used forvendor selection by the buyers. It is because; the production time of an order is directlyproportional to vendor’s production capacity. So it is very important that marketing and planningpersonnel should aware about the production capacity of their production units.

Capacity of a factory is primarily expressed in terms of total machines factory have. Secondly,how much pieces the factory produces on daily for the specific products? In general, totalnumbers of machines in a factory mostly remains same for a period. But factory may producevarious types of product during the season. According to the product (style) category, machinerequirement may change and daily average production in each style may vary. So to be specificduring booking orders, planner should know exactly how much capacity he or she needed toprocure the order in a given time period.

Sewing Floor (Image Credit: Shahi Exports Pvt. Ltd. via Facebook page)

A factory’s capacity is presented in total minutes or hours or in pieces (production per day). Themethod used to calculate capacity has been explained in the following. To calculate Dailyproduction capacity (in pieces) one needs following information.

1. Factory capacity in hours2. Product SAM3. Line efficiency (Average)

1. Calculation of factory capacity (in hours): Check how many machines factory has and howmany hours factory runs in a day. For example suppose,Total number of machines = 200Shift hours per day = 10 hoursso total factory capacity (in hours) = 200*10 hours = 2000 hours


2. Calculation of Product SAM (SAM): Make a list of product category that you manufactureand get standard minutes (SAM) of all products you make from work study engineers. If youdon’t have product SAM then calculate the SAM. Or you can use average. Suppose you areproducing shirt and its SAM is 25 minutes.

3. Factory Average Efficiency: This data is collected from industrial engineer. Or calculate itwith historical data. Suppose average line efficiency is 50%. Read the article - How to calculateefficiency of a production line or batch?

Calculation of production capacity (in pieces): Once you have above information usefollowing formula to calculate production capacity.Production capacity (in pieces) = (Capacity in hours*60/product SAM)*line efficiency

For Example: Suppose a factory has 8 sewing lines and each line has 25 machines. Total 200machines and working shift is 10 hours per day. Total factory capacity per day is 2000 hours(200 machines * 10 hours). If factory is producing only one style (Shirt) of SAM 25 minutes andused all 200 machines daily production capacity at 50%

= (2000*60/25)*50% Pieces= (2000*60*50) / (25*100) Pieces= 2400 Pieces[Note: Production will vary according to the line efficiency and during learning curve or in theinitial days when style is loaded to the line]

Production (capacity) planning is normally done based on sewing capacity. Having knowledge ofthe capacity in other processes (internal or external) is also very important. Otherwise plannermay fail and will not be able to meet the dead line. Other departments such as Cutting roomcapacity, Finishing room capacity, Washing Capacity and capacity of the value added jobs.

How to calculate operator efficiency at work?In apparel manufacturing, skills and expertise of a sewing operator is being presented in“Efficiency” term. An operator with higher efficiency produces more garments than an operatorwith lower efficiency in the same time frame. When operators work with higher efficiency,manufacturing cost of the factory goes down.Secondly, factory capacity is estimated according to the operator efficiency or line efficiency.Hence, efficiency is one of the mostly used performance measuring tools. So how do youcalculate operator efficiency in factory? To calculate operator efficiency you will be neededstandard minutes (SAM) of the garment and operations your operator is making. Use followingformula and calculate operator efficiency.

Efficiency calculation formula:Efficiency (%) = [Total minute produced by an operator/Total minute attended by him *100]

Where,Total minutes produced = Total pieces made by an operator X SAM of the operation [minutes]


Total minutes attended = Total hours worked on the machine X 60 [minutes]

Example: An operator was doing an operation of SAM 0.50 minutes. In an 8 hours shift day heproduces 400 pieces. So according to the efficiency calculating formula, that operator’s overallefficiency= (400 x 0.50) / (8 X 60)*100%= 200/480*100%= 41.67%

On-Standard Operator Efficiency:Operator efficiency can be expressed in more specific ways, like ‘On-Standard Efficiency’instead ‘over-all efficiency’. An operator may be attending all hours in a shift but if he has notbeen given on-standard work to do in all hours, he will not be able to produce minutes as per hiscapability and skill level. In this case, to know operator’s on-standard efficiency followingformula is used.

Operator on-standard efficiency (%) = Total minute produced /Total on-standard minute attended*100%

Where,Total minutes produced = Total pieces made by an operator X SAM of the operation [minutes]Total on-standard minute attended = (Total hours worked – Loss time) x 60 [minutes]

Example: An operator was doing an operation of SAM 0.50 minutes. In an 8 hours shift day heproduces 400 pieces. Operator was idle ‘waiting for work’ for 30 minutes and his machine brokedown for 15 minutes in hours shift. So according to the efficiency calculating formula, thatoperator’s on-standard efficiency= (400 x 0.50) / {480 – (30 +15)}*100%= 200/435*100%= 45.98%The above example clarifies that if an operator sits idle during shift hours his overall efficiencywill go down.


Name of the Experiment: Study on interlock circular knitting machine.OBJECTS:1.To have the idea about an interlock m/c.2.To know about its working principles.

Introduction:Interlock structure is a double faced Interlock structure which consists of two 1×1 Interlockstructures. These two 1×1 Interlock structures are joined by interlocking sinker loops and thusproduce interlock structure. Interlock structure is produce by special cylinder dial circularmachines. Double system V-bed flat knitting machine also used to produce interlock structure.

SPECIFICATIONS:1. Machine name: Interlock Circular Knitting Machine.2. Company: - Precision FUKUHARA Works Limited.3. Origin of the machine:- Japan4. Model no. :- V 8ME 425. Dia of the machine: - 30”.6. Gauge of the machine:- 227. No of Feeder:- 848. Serial no: - 1352761.9. Creel Capacity: 84.10. Feeding: Positive.

MACHINE PARTS:1. Yarn career2.Break stop motion3.Yarn guides4.Dial5.Cylinder6.Dial cams7.Cylinder cams8.Dial needles9.Cylinder needles10.Oiling and air following devices11.Sensors12.Take up rollers13.Batch rollers14.Motor15.Belts 16.Clutches17.Pulleys and gears


Machine description:The machine has two sets of needles on two different beds, one set on cylinder one in the dialbed. These two sets of needles must be exactly opposite to each other.The machine has two separate cam system in each bed needles of different length called shortneedles and long needles. Each cam system controls half of the needles in alternate sequences.One cam system controls knitting at one feeder and other ca, system controls at the next feeders.T ale down mechanism is the same as the other Interlock and plain machines mechanism.

Interlock cam system:In the figure the cylinder and dial camming to produce one course of ordinary interlock fabricwhich is actually work of two knitting feeders.

The cylinder cam:A → clearing cam which lifts the needles to clear the old loopB, C → stitch cam and guard cams respectively both vertically adjustable to control the stitchlength.D → up through to rise the needle whilst dial needle knock overE, F → guard cam to complete the truckG, H → guide cam to provide the track for idling needles

Cylinder Cam System


The dial system:1. Raising cam for tuck position only2, 3. Dial knock over cam4. Guard cam to compete the truck5. Auxiliary knock over cam to prevent the dial needle reentering the old loop6, 7 Guide cams provides the tracks for idling needles8. Sewing type clearing cam which may occupy the knitting position as shown in feeder 1 or intuck position at feeder 2.

Machine parts:1. Yarn career2. Break stop motion3. Yarn guides4. Dial5. Cylinder6. Dial cams7. Cylinder cams8. Dial needles9. Cylinder needles10. Oiling and air following devices11. Sensors12. Take up rollers13. Batch rollers14. Motor15. Belts16. Pulleys and gears Clutches

Knitting action:


Conclusion:The circular Interlock machine is a very commonly used machine in country to make Interlockknitted fabric. So this experiment has significance in our study life. In this experiment we sketchthe yarn path diagram of the machine, show the knitting action, cam system. We point out thevarious specification of the machine. So the experiment helps us to know more.Above all the experiment is a successful one.

Name of the experiment: Study on Rib Circular knitting machine.

IntroductionThe structure in which the face and back loop occurs along to the coarse successively but all theloops of a wale is same is called rib structure. The circular knitting machine which is used toproduce the rib structures is known as rib machine.

Machine specification:1. Machine model → cmoan2. Manufacturer → Paolo Orizio3. Made in → Italy4. No of feeders’ → 405. Cylinder diameter →20”6. Needle gauge → 18 / inch

Machine parts:1. Yarn career2. Break stop motion3. Yarn guides4. Dial5. Cylinder6. Dial cams7. Cylinder cams8. Dial needles9. Cylinder needles10. Oiling and air following devices11. Sensors12. Take up rollers13. Batch rollers14. Motor15. Belts16. Pulleys and gears17. Clutches

Description of the machine:In a dial cylinder rib machine there is one set of needles on the circumference of the verticalcylinder and another set of needles on a horizontal dial. So two sets of needles remain at the right


angle with each other. In dial cylinder machines the dial and cylinder rotates but the cam systemswith the feeders remain stationary.The dial needles get its motion from its butt who is placed on the cam truck. This cam truck isformed by different cam placed on a cam plate.During the rotation of the cylinder, cylinder needles moves vertically and dial needles moveshorizontally. Cylinder needles also get its motion from it. There is a cloth tale up roller whichalso rotates with unison to dial and cylinder and fabric is wound on it.

In rib circular knitting m/c, Rib gaiting:

Knitting action:The knitting action of a circular rib machine is shown in Fig:

1. Clearing: The cylinder and dial needles move out to clear the plain and rib loops formed inthe previous cycle.

2. Yarn feeding: The needles are withdrawn into their tricks so that the old loops are covered bythe open latches and the new yarn is fed into the open hooks.

3. Knocking Over: The needles are withdrawn into their tricks so that the old loops are cast offand new loops are drawn through them.


Fig: Knitting action of rib circular knitting machine

Conclusion:This experiment has significance in our study life. In this experiment we sketch the yarn pathdiagram of the machine, show the knitting action, cam system. We point out the variousspecification of the machine.

Experiment name: Study on Electronic Interlock Circular Knitting Machine.Introduction:Interlock structure is a double faced Interlock structure which consists of two 1×1 Interlockstructures. These two 1×1 Interlock structures are joined by interlocking sinker loops and thusproduce interlock structure. Interlock structure is produce by special cylinder dial circularmachines. Double system V-bed flat knitting machine also used to produce interlock structure.

Machine specification:Brand: FUKUHARAModel: V8ME42Origin: JapanManufacturing Company: Precision Fukuhara Works. Ltd.Serial: 1352761Dia of cylinder: 30 inch


Machine description:The machine has two sets of needles on two different beds, one set on cylinder one in the dialbed. These two sets of needles must be exactly opposite to each other.The machine has two separate cam system in each bed needles of different length called shortneedles and long needles. Each cam system controls half of the needles in alternate sequences.One cam system controls knitting at one feeder and other ca, system controls at the next feeders.T ale down mechanism is the same as the other Interlock and plain machines mechanism.

Machine parts:1. Yarn career2. Break stop motion3. Yarn guides4. Dial5. Cylinder6. Dial cams7. Cylinder cams8. Dial needles9. Cylinder needles10. Oiling and air following devices11. Sensors12. Take up rollers13. Batch rollers14. Motor15. Belts16. Pulleys and gears17. Clutches

Interlock cam system:In the figure the cylinder and dial cam to produce one course of ordinary interlock fabric whichis actually work of two knitting feeders.

The cylinder cam:A → clearing cam which lifts the needles to clear the old loopB, C → stitch cam and guard cams respectively both vertically adjustable to control the stitchlength.D → up through to rise the needle whilst dial needle knock overE, F → guard cam to complete the truckG, H → guide cam to provide the track for idling needles

The dial cam system:Raising cam for tuck position only2, 3. Dial knock over cam4. Guard cam to compete the truck


Auxiliary knock over cam to prevent the dial needle reentering the old loop6, 7 Guide cams provides the tracks for idling needles8. Sewing type clearing cam which may occupy the knitting position as shown in feeder 1 or intuck position at feeder 2.

Knitting action:The knitting cycle of an interlock machine can be divided in to eight headings. They arediscussed below,Position – 1: rest positionPosition – 2: tucking position of dial needlePosition – 3: tucking positionPosition – 4: clearing position of dial needlePosition – 5: clearing positionPosition – 6: yarn presenting positionPosition – 7: cast on positionPosition – 8: knock over position

Fig: Knitting action of interlock m/c


Conclusion:The circular Interlock machine is a very commonly used machine in country to make Interlockknitted fabric. So this experiment has significance in our study life. In this experiment we sketchthe yarn path diagram of the machine, show the knitting action, cam system. We point out thevarious specification of the machine. So the experiment helps us to know more. Above all theexperiment is a successful one.

Experiment name: Study on Mechanical Interlock Circular Knitting Machine.Objectives:To know about the different parts of this machine.To learn the functions of these parts.To know the knitting technique of interlock m/c.To learn the characteristics of the interlock circular knitting m/c

Introduction:Interlock structure is a double faced Interlock structure which consists of two 1×1 Interlockstructures. These two 1×1 Interlock structures are joined by interlocking sinker loops and thusproduce interlock structure. Interlock structure is produce by special cylinder & dial circularmachines. Double system Tricot flat knitting machine also used to produce interlock structure.

Machine specification:Brand: MYKModel: FILSOrigin: JapanManufacturing company: MIYAKE KNITTING MACHINE W. LTD.Manufacturing year: 1965Serial: 1289/3Dia of cylinder: 17 inchNeedle Gauge: 20No of feeder: 20No. of needle: 204Motor Rpm: 1430

Machine description (Yarn to fabric path diagram):Yarn from package set in the creel comes into m/c with the help of the guide & tensionar. Withthe help of feeder yarn is feed to the needles of cylinder & dial. Then yarn in fabric from comesto take down roller & lastly cloth roller.

Machine parts:1. Yarn career2. Break stop motion


3. Yarn guides4. Dial5. Cylinder6. Dial cams7. Cylinder cams8. Dial needles9. Cylinder needles10. Oiling and air following devices11. Spreader12. Take up rollers13. Batch rollers14. Motor15. Belts16. Pulleys and gears Clutches

Operation Principle:The yarn is supplied from cone, placed either on an integral over head bobbin stand or one freestanding creel through tensioners stop motion & guide eyes down to the yarn feeder guides.The fabric is tube form is drawn downwards from inside the needle cylinder by tension rollers &is wound on to the fabric batching roller of winding down fabrics.The winding down mechanism revolves in unison with the cylinder & fabrics tube & in rocklever operated via cam followers running on the underside of a profiled cam - ring.The sinker cam plate is mounted outside on the needle circle, the center of the cylinder isreferred to as an open top or sinker top m/c.

Interlock cam system:In the figure the cylinder and dial camming to produce one course of ordinary interlock fabricwhich is actually work of two knitting feeders.

The cylinder cam:• A → clearing cam which lifts the needles to clear the old loop• B, C → stitch cam and guard cams respectively both vertically adjustable to control the stitchlength.• D → up through to raise the needle whilst dial needle knock over• E, F → guard cam to complete the truck• G, H → guide cam to provide the track for idling needles

The dial system:• 1. Raising cam for tuck position only• 2, 3. Dial knock over cam• 4. Guard cam to compete the truck• 5. Auxiliary knock over cam to prevent the dial needle reentering the old loop


• 6, 7 Guide cams provides the tracks for idling needles• 8.Sewing type clearing cam which may occupy the knitting position as shown in feeder 1 or intuck position at feeder 2.

Knitting Action:The knitting cycle of a interlock machine can be divided in to eight headings. They are discussedbelow,• Position – 1: Rest position: The head of these needles are in the range of the knock over edgesof cylinder & dial respectively.• Position – 2: Tucking position of dial needle: The dial needles are brought into the tuckingposition.• Position – 3: Tucking position: The cylinder needles are brought in the tucking position.• Position – 4: Clearing position of dial needle: The dial needles are come into the clearingposition.• Position – 5: Clearing position: The cylinder needle are come into the clearing position.• Position – 6: Yarn presenting position: Both cylinder & dial are moved to the yarn presentingposition.• Position – 7: Cast on position: Both cylinder & dial are moved to their cast on position.• Position – 8: Knock over position: Both cylinder & dial are reaches to the knock over position.

Conclusion:The circular Interlock machine is a very commonly used machine in country to make Interlockknitted fabric. So this experiment has significance in our study life. In this experiment we sketchthe yarn path diagram of the machine, the knitting action, cam system. We point out the variousspecification of the machine. So the experiment helps us to know more. Above all theexperiment is a successful one.

Experiment name: Study on four truck single jersey circular knitting m\c.Objects:--To identify the four truck single jersey circular knitting m\c.--To know about it’s different parts.--To know the function of it’s different parts.--To know the operation of this m\c.

Identification:1. Cylinder is open, no dial.2. Cylinder & sinker plate are present.3. Close cam box.4. Cylinder cannot be seen.5. Needle cannot be seen.


6. Positive cam system.7. Positive feed system.

Specification of the machine:1. Machine no:-1. 4-Truck Single Jersey Circular Knitting Machine.2. Company: - PAOLO ORIZIO.3. Origin of the machine: - ITALY.4. Model no. : - GOH N/C.5. Dia of the machine: - 22”.6. Gauge of the machine:- 247. No of Feeder:- 668. No of Needle: Π*24*22.9. Creel Capacity: 144.10. Sinker type: 2061905G.

Main parts:1. 4(butt) latch needle,2. Holding down sinker,3. Cam &cam box,4. Sinker plate& sinker cam plate,5. Cylinder,6. Feeder(+ve)7. Needle detector,8. Fabric detector,9. V.D.Q. pulley,10. Spreader,11. Take down roller,12. Cloth roller.

Description:The single jersey circular knitting m/c is one of the modern m/c. It has one set of needle andanother set of sinkers. Both needle and sinkers have different cam system. Cam system arestationary and the cylinder with needle and sinkers are movable. The yarn feeder is stationary.The yarn is coming from cheese or cone package by yarn guide, north catcher, accumulator andyarn guide or feeder. The fabric draw off by the side of the needle and it take up by take uproller. There is a lighting system to inspection the fabric. The m/c has positive feed system andbreakage indicator.

Operating Principle:As the m\c is modern, it has a control panel of its own. In a switch box three switches areavailable. One is for full sewing, one is for m\c stop & another is for machine motion. By theinching motion switch, the m\c can be run slowly or fastly. Beside this switch box anothercontrol panel is available. It has different functions, switches as F1.F2……f6 have theirparticular functions.


Conclusion:In circular knitting m/c there many set of cams but in V-bed knitting m/c there only one set ofcam for each bed. From this practical we learn about the cams of V-bed knitting m/c and theirfunction. We also learn how we can change design of loops as well as fabric by changing canarrangement. I think this practical will help me in future.

Experiment Name: Study on V-bed knitting machine.Objects:

To know about the passage of yarn and fabric of the machine. To know about the different parts and their functions of the machine. To know about the cam arrangement of the machine. To know about the different types of cam and their functions.

Specification:1. Brand: PROTTI2. Feeder no: 43. Gauge: 84. Width: 48 inch5. Cam per bed:6. Knit cam- 2 no.s7. Tuck cam- 2 no.s8. Stitch cam- 2no.s

Main parts:1. Yarn package2. Front needle bed3. Yarn guide4. Needle spring5. Tension spring6. Fabric7. Cymbal tension8. Dead weightening system9. Yarn take-up10. Latch needle11. Fabric comb12. Yarn carrier13. Back needle bed

M/c description:In the following figure shows a cross section of a simple hand powered and manipulated V-bedrib flat machine. The trick walls are replaced at the needle bed verges by fixed, thinner, polishedand specially shaped knock-over bit edges. In rib gating, a knock-over bit in one bed will bealigned opposite to a needle trick in the other bed. During knitting, the edges of the knock-over


bits restrain the sinker loops as they pass between the needles and thus assist in the knockingover of the old loops and in the formation of the new loops.

V-bed Knitting Machine

The cover plate is a thin metal blade, located in a slot across the top of the needle bed tricks. Itprevents the stems of the needles from pivoting upwards out of the tricks as a result of the fabrictake down tension drawing the needle hooks downwards whilst allowing the needles to slidefreely in their tricks.Latch opening brushes are attached to the cam plates of both needle beds to ensure that theneedle latches are fully opened. The supports of the brushes are adjustable to ensure precisesetting of the bristles relative to the needles.The cam-carriage either slides or runs on ball bearings or wheels, along guide rails, one of whichis fixed over the lower end of each needle bed. It is propelled either by hand or from a motordriven continuous roller chain or rubber belt.Each yarn carrier is attached to a block which slides along a bar, which, like the carriage guiderails, passes across the full width of the machine.Two levers are usually provided, one at each end of the needle bed. One is for racking the backneedle bed, to change the gating of the needle beds for changes of rib set out or rib loop transfer.Cam system of the V-bed hand flat machine:The following figure illustrates the knitting action of a V-bed hand flat machine and the anotherfigure shows the underside of the cam carriage and the cams forming the tracks that guide theneedle butts through the knitting system.The needle butts will enter the traversing cam system from the right during a left to right carriagetraverse and from the left during a right to left traverse. For each needle bed there are two raisingcams (R), two cardigan cams (C) and two stitch cams (S).The arrangement as shown in the following figure is referred to as a knitting system. A singlesystem machine will knit one course of rib in one traverse whereas a double system machine willknit two courses of rib per traverse. Sometimes a set of cams in one bed is referred to as a lock.


A (L) – Raising cam (left)B (R) – Raising cam (right)C – Tuck cam (left & right)D (L) – stitch cam (left)D (R) – stitch cam (right)E – Guard cam

The knitting action of the V-bed hand flat machine:The rest position: The tops of the heads of the needles are level with the edge of the knock overbits. The butts of the needles assume a straight line until contacting the raising cams R (R)because the leading stitch cams S and AS (L) are lifted to an inactive position. The lifting actionis an alternating action that always lowers the trailing stitch cams and raises the leading stitchcams in each system as the traverse commences. This action prevents needles from beingunnecessarily lowered and strain being placed on the old loops prior to the start up of the knittingaction.

Clearing:The needle butts are lifted as they contact the leading edge of cams R (R), which raises theneedles to ‘tucking in the hook’ height with the undersurface of cams S (L) acting as guard cams.The needles are lifted to full clearing height as their butts pass over the top of cardigan cams C(R) and C (L).Yarn feeding: The yarn is fed as the needles descend under the control of guard cam (G). Therequired loop length is drawn by latch needle as it descends the stitch cam S (R).

Knocking over:To produce synchronized knocking over of both needle beds simultaneously, the stitch cam S (R)in the front system is set lower than the auxiliary stitch cam AS (R), so that the latter is renderedineffective.

Knocking over


Conclusion:Finally it can be said that the experiment is very important. By this experiment we may learnhow to change the design, how to operate the machine and how to changing the position of camsto produce different types of designs which helps us in our practical life.

Experiment name: Study of Single Truck Single Jersey Circular Knitting Machine.Objectives:1. To know about the different parts of this machine.2. To learn the functions of these parts.

Two draw the yarn path diagram of this machine.To know about the gearing diagram of this machine for production calculation of this machinewith the help of gearing diagram.

Different parts of this machine are given bellow:1. Latch needle:This type of needle has a special sliding latch with other common features. This part is used toform loops.2. Cams:There are three types of cams:a. Knit cam: This cam helps needle to form knit loops.b. Tuck cam:This cam helps needle to form tuck loops.c. Miss cam:This cam helps needle to form miss loops.

Yarn Path Diagram of single jersey circular knitting machine


3. Sinker:

There are three types of sinkers:a. Loop forming sinker:This sinker is used to sink or kink the newly laid yarn.b. Holding down sinker:This sinker is used to hold down the old loops.c. Knocking-over sinker:This sinker supports the old loop as the new loop is drawn through it.4. Feeding unit:-A feeder supplies yarn to needles. A positive feeder contains the following parts:a. Knot catcher:This part finds any fault in yarn.b. Yarn tensioner:This part gives proper tension to yarn for proper knitting.(5) Timing belt/Tooth belt:This part helps machine to stop immediately.

6. VDQ Pulley:This part is used to control stitch length of the knitted fabric.7. Cylinder:This frame contains needles, cams, jacks and sinkers.8. Sinker Ring:Sinkers are placed on the sinker cam in the sinker ring.9. Needle Detector:


This part detects the any type of faults of needles.10. Fabric Detector:This part detects any fault of fabric.11. Adjustable Fan:This part removes lint, hairy fibre from yarn and others.12. Take up Roller:This part is used to take up the fabric from cylinder.13. Cloth Roller:The final product i.e. cloth is wound on this roller.14. Expander:This part is used to control the width of fabric.16. Creel:This part is used to contain yarn packages.Conclusion:To drive a machine properly and to get the maximum product from a machine it is very essentialto know very well about its different parts and their controls. This practical helps me to knowabout the different parts of a single jersey knitting machine and their functions. So I think it willbe very helpful in my future career.

Experiment name: Study on yarn to fabric path diagram of Tricot warp knitting machine.

Introduction:Warp knitting m/c is one kind of flat bed m/c. This m/c produces the knitted loops in walesdirection. There are two major classes of warp knitting m/c. They are the ‘Tricot’ & the‘Raschel’ warp knitting m/c. The ‘Tricot’ warp knitting m/c is also termed as automatic warpknitting of its function.

Objectives:1. To know about the yarn to fabric path diagram of Tricot warp knitting machine.2. To know about the name of the different parts of the machine.

Main parts of the Machine:1. Compound needle.2. Needle bar3. Guide bar4. Sinker& sinker bar5. Sliding latch6. Sliding latch bar7. Comb8. Cloth roller.


9. Link10. Rocker shaft11. Pattern chain.12. Pattern drum.13. Main shaft.14. Intermediate shaft.15. Let-off mechanism16. Take-up mechanism.17. Machine A/C.18. Toothed belt/ Timing belt.19. Warp beam.20. Bottom Beam.

M/C specification:1. Brand: LIBA2. Origin: W. Germany3. Manufacturing Company: MASCHINEN FABRIK, NAILA.4. Manufacturing Year: 19915. Width: 84 inch/ 213 cm6. Type: COP 2K7. Gauge: 28

M/C Description:Compound needle is used in the m/c. With the help of the pattern drum and the chain link thepatterning is done. The gears are merged in oil bath for smooth operation. There are two backbeams for yarn supply. The yarns come through guide bar and through the needle the cloth istaking down by cloth roller

Tricot warp knitting machine

Function of different parts of M/C:1. Compound needle: In Tricot warp knitting m/c compound needle is used. To form loop and


produce the fabric is the main function of the needle.2. Needle bar: A needle bar is used in this m/c. The main function of it is to hold the needlestogether and helps the needles to move unison while loop forming.3. Guide bar: Guide bar is used in this m/c to guide the yarn properly to the needle. It feeds theyarn around the needle and controls the rate of warp feed from the warp beam by making lappingmovement.4. Sinker and Sinker bar: In the tricot warp knitting m/c tricot sinker is used to hold down theloops produced by the needles. The sinker bar keeps the sinkers together to move unison whileknitting. The main function of the sinker is to hold down, knock over and supporting the fabricloops.5. Sliding latch: In warp knitting m/c compound needles are used. A sliding latch is used here toclose the hook while knitting.6. Sliding latch bar: In warp knitting m/c the sliding latches remain unison. The latch bar keepsthe latches together and helps it to move unison while knitting.7. Cloth roller: The produced fabric is wound on the cloth roller.8. Let-off mechanism: The process of releasing the warp yarns according to the requirement ofthe m/c and speed of cloth roller is the main function of let-off mechanism.9. Take up mechanism: It helps the produced fabric to wound on the cloth rollerin proper tension. There are 3 take-up r/r in this m/c. It also gives proper tension to the warpsheet and controls the speed of warp beam.11. Link: In the warp knitting m/c the link is used to make design in the knitted fabric. Thedifferent links used here has different thickness and thus it helps to produce design.12. Pattern chain: The pattern chain is the chain of links joined with each other. The patternchain helps the m/c to produce design.13. Pattern drum: It is a drum, which gives motion to the pattern chain. There are groove on itand the pattern chain is placed on it. It gets motion from the m/c driving motor through gearing.14. Comb: In this warp knitting m/c the comb is used to separate the warp yarns coming from thewarp beam. It works as the reeds of the weaving m/c and also controls the fabric width.15. Warp beam: In tricot warp knitting m/c warp beam is used to supply the warp yarns parallely.There are 8-warp beam in this m/c. 4 beam are on the upper side and 4 are to the downside.These beams are not so big as the weavers beam.15. Machine A/C: The m/c a/c is one kind of cooling device, which keeps the m/c parts and themotor from overheating and damage while running continuously.16. Main shaft: The main shaft of this m/c gives the m/c motion from the motor.17. Lubrication: The m/c has automatic lubrication system.18. Controlling unit: The controlling unit is used to control the m/c easily. It has a digital controlunit.19. Toothed belt: In this m/c the toothed belts are used to transfer motion without any slippage.


Conclusion:By this experiment I learned about the Tricot warp knitting m/c and their several parts. I alsolearned the function of the different parts used here. This is a modern m/c and so this experiencewill help me in my future practical life.

Experiment name: Study of thread path, main adjustment points of different industrialover lock machine and production of sample.Introduction:

There are many types of sewing machine. Some are used for special purposes such as bar tackmachine, button hole making machine etc. This type of machines works in a cycle and so theseare called simple automatic machine. Here we study on such a type of machine thatis button attaching machine.

Objectives:1.To knows about the machine parts.2. To know about the thread path.

Specification:Name : Industrial overlock m/c.Types : 3, 4 & 5 threadsBrand : JUKIModel : MO-3614 (4 thread)SPM : 6500-8500TPI : 15-16 (3), 17-18 (4) & 21-22 (5)Needle no : 1 needle, 2 loopers (3); 2 needles, 2 loopers (4) & 2 needles, 3 loopers (5)Needle name : DCX1Needle size : 9, 11, 14, 16, 18, 20 & 21

Main parts:1.Thread stand2. Thread package3.Thread guide4. Disc type tensioner5.Thread guides6. Needles7.Loopers8. Thread cutter

Description:Mainly over edge machines are over lock machines. In this type of sewing machines there are


one or two needles and edge-trimming knife is at the front of needle. To make over lock stitch 2-5 threads are used. Usually SPM of over lock machine is 6500. But SPM of 8500 machines arealso found. In this machine there also stretching (stretching max 1: 0.6) and gathering (gatheringmax 1: 4) systems during feeding cloth. Stitch is done up to maximum 4 mm length and stitchlength may also be changed by push button. This type of machines can be used for sewing forboth woven and knitted cloths.

Conclusion:This type of machine cannot be used for normal purpose. But for making a complete garmenttheir importance cannot be denied. Special care and sufficient knowledge is necessary for properworking. Otherwise faulty sewing may be done. I would like to give special thanks to ourteacher. I am also grateful to our instructors. I think this will be very helpful in my future life.

Name of the Experiment: Study of Industrial Button Hole machine.Introduction:There are many types of sewing machine. Some are used for special purposes such as ButtonAttaching machine, Bar tack machine etc. This type of machines works in a cycle and so theseare called simple automatic machine. Here we study on a type of machine that is Button holemachine.

Objectives:1. To know about the machine parts.2. To know about the thread path.3. To draw the thread path diagram of button holing machine.4. To know different parts of button holing machine.5. To know the working principle of button holing machine.6. To know the types of needle, it’s no, size, SPM, group, TPI of the machine.7. To know about the button holing machine.

Specification:Brand : JUKIModel : LBH/781Group : Lock stitchNeedle use : DPX5Needle size : 9, 11, 14, 16, 18, 20 & 21SPM : 3000-3600TPH : 6-7 inchPressure : 123

Different parts:


1. Bobbin winding2. Bobbin winding spring tensioner3. Back stitch lever4. Driver wheel5. Driven wheel6. Spring tensioner post box7. Thread guide8. Knife lever 9.Thread take-up lever10. Needle11. Knife12. Wiper13. Pressure feed guide14. Throat plate15. Bobbin16. Bobbin case

Main Adjustment Points:1. Thread.2. Tensioner.3. Needle.4. Pressure feed.5. Stitch density.6. Looper.

Description:This machine works in cyclic system i.e. during pressing switch after sewing one completebutton hole the machine will stop. In fully automatic button hole m/c more than one i.e. pre-selected no. of button holes can be sewn in pre-selected distance. In this system no mark isneeded on cloth for button hole. In button hole m/c there is system to make big or small buttonhole and also to increase or decrease the stitch density. Usually lock stitch or chain stitch is usedhere. Button hole can be made before or after sewing. Both system has some advantage anddisadvantage. If hole is made before then the cut edge is closed in sewing and the button hole isseen very good and clean. But the disadvantage is that after starting sewing there is no chance tochange the button hole place & cut edge disturbs to sew well due to flagging. But disadvantage isthread of cloth is come out along the sewing line of button hole that looks very bad. Usually fordense woven & coarse cloth before sewing, for thin cloth after sewing button hole is made.


Fig: Industrial Button Hole machine.

Where,A=Cone packageB=GuideC=GuideD=spring box tensionerE=GuideF=GuideG=TensionerH=Thread cutting everI=Take up leverJ=Trimming leverK=GuideL=GuideM=Throat plateN=Cutting knife

Use:To make button hole in different apparels.



Experiment name: Study of Button attaching machine and production of sample.

Introduction:There are many types of sewing machine. Some are used for special purposes such as bar tackmachine, button hole making machine etc. This type of machines works in a cycle and so theseare called simple automatic machine. Here we study on such a type of machine that is buttonattaching machine.

Objectives:1.To knows about the machine parts.2. To know about the thread path.

Specification:Brand: JUKIModel: MB-377Group: Chain stitchNeedle no: 1Needle use: TQX1Needle size: 9, 11, 14, 16, 18, 20 & 21SPM: 1200-1500TPI: Per pressure 64Adjustment: Thread, tension, needle & button

Different parts:1.Thread stand2.Thread guide3.Disc type tensioner4.Thread guides 5.Thread take-up lever6. Thread guide7. Needle8. Clamp

Description:There are different types of button attaching m/c and different types of clamps are needed fordifferent types and sizes of buttons. Especially there may two or three holes in the button. Againbutton of three holes may be attached by parallel or cross sewing. Buttons may be of differenttypes specially there may be shank below the button or during sewing shank may be made bythread. For sewing button lock stitch, chain stitch or hand stitch machine may be used. Whenusing chain stitch the sewing looks neat below the button but the safety of stitch is low that is thebutton may be fall out opening the sewing. This will not happen when used lock stitch but it is


not as neat as chain stitch. In automatic machine by a hopper and pipe button is fed in buttonclamp in auto system and button is positioned. Moreover a predetermined number buttons can beattached in a cycle in a predetermined distant in a dress.


Name of the Experiment: Study on Bar tack sewing machine & produce sample.Introduction:There are many types of sewing machine. Some are used for special purposes such as bar-tack,button hole attaching machine, button hole making machine etc. This type of machines works ina cycle and so these are called simple automatic machine. Here we study on a type of machinethat is bar tack machine. Bar tack means to increase strength of small length of fabric by sewingon it and then by repeating it. For example – belt loop, opening of pocket. It is a simpleautomatic machine which produces stitches in a cyclic order.

Objectives:1. To know about the machine parts.2. To know about the thread path.3. To know about the parts of bar tack machine.4. To know the working principle of this machine.5. To know the SPM, TPI, needle name, needle size of this machine.

Specification of Bar Tack Sewing Machine: Brand : JUKI Model : LK1850 Group : Lock stitch Needle use : DPX5 Needle size : 9, 11, 14, 16, 18, 20 & 21 SPM : 3000-3600 TPH : 6-7 inch Pressure : 64 Length : 1-1.5 cm Made in : Japan. TPI (Thread per inch) per pressure: 64 stitch.

Different Parts of Bar Tack Sewing Machine:1. Bobbin winding2. Bobbin winding spring tensioner3. Back stitch lever


4. Spring tensioner post box5. Thread guide6. Knife lever7. Thread take-up lever8. Needle9. Knife10. Wiper11. Pressure feed guide12. Throat plate13. Bobbin14. Bobbin case15. Pressure lever16. Tensioner

Bar Tack Sewing Machine

Where,A=Cone Package

B=ThreadC=GuitdD=GuideE=GuideF=TensionerG=TensionerH=GuideI=GuideJ=Thread take up lever


K=GuideL=GuideM=NeedleDescription:In a few length of cloth sewing again and again after sewing one time to increase the power ofbearing load of that place of cloth is called bar tack. A bar tack machine can sew strongly withina few lengths cyclically. At first doing tak stitch (1-2 cm) then in opposite make cover stitch(zigzag) on tak stitch. A little change can be done between tack stitch and cover stitch.

Working Principle of Bar Tack Sewing Machine:At first this machine produces tack stitches in a small length (1-2 cm) and then sews coveringstitches over and at right angles to the first stitches. The variables are the number of tackingstitches and the number of covering stitches. Typical uses are closing the ends of buttonholes,reinforcing the ends of pocket openings and the bottoms of flies and sewing on belt loops. Theadjustment points of this machine are needle, pressure feed, stitch length, stitch density.

Uses of Bar Tack Sewing Machine:1. Attaching belt loops.2. Increasing strength in corner of pocket.3. Closing the two corners of button hole.4. At the end of zipper.5. In that place where more strength is needed to support extra load.


Name of the Experiment: Study on Blind Stitch sewing machine and production sample.Introduction:For the clothing industry there is a great diversity of regular and special machines for sewingevery conceivable type of garment and it is this variety which enables clothing manufacturing toemploy specialized equipment for their own particular requirement. These sewing machines areused for sewing fabrics and garments, leather goods, sacks, tents; bags etc. There are many typesof sewing machines. Some are used for special purposes such as Chain Stitch machine, Flat Lockmachine, Feed of the Arm machine etc, this type of machines works with continuous sewing andso these are called automatic machine. Here we study on a type of machine that is Blind Stitchsewing machine.


Objectives:1. To know about the machine parts.2. To sketch the thread path.3. To know about sewing mechanism of blind stitch sewing machine.4. To know the working principle of blind stitch machine.5. To know the types of needle, it’s no, size, SPM, group, TPI of the machine.

Machine Specification: Name: Industrial blind stitch machine. Brand : Brother Model : CM3-B938 Group : Chain stitch Needle no : 1 Needle name : LW´6T Needle size : 9, 11, 14, 16, 18, 20 & 21 SPM : 2500-3000 TPI : 3-4 inch Sample

Function: Attaching hemming & facing.

Different parts:1. Thread stand2. Pressure feed lever3. Skip stitch device4. Thread guides5. Thread take-up lever6. Stitch length adjustment 7. Disc type tensioner8. Needle Looper

Adjustment point:1. Thread2. Tension3. Needle4. Pressure feed5. Stitch density6. Looper.

Description:The stitch produced by this machine in the fabric is not shown from face side and so this is calledblind stitch machine. Usually curved needle is used in this machine as it can penetrate in thefabric partially. The needle comes out from the side of the fabric through which it penetrated.Again in maximum blind stitch machine optional skip device is attested by which it is possible topenetrate the outside layer after one or two stitch. The speed of this type of machine is up to2500 SPM and the stitch length can be 3 to 8 mm long. Usually one thread is used to make the


stitch but two threads may also be used. In case of two threads blind stitch, it is safe fromopening. Mainly for attaching hemming or facing this machine is used.

Fig: Blind Stitch sewing machine

Conclusion:Blind stitch machine is one of the important sewing machines in garment factory of making acomplete garment. This type of machine cannot be used for normal purpose. But for making acomplete garment their importance cannot be denied. Special care and sufficient knowledge isnecessary for proper working. Otherwise faulty sewing may be done. By this practical we learnabout the different parts, thread path and blind stitch sewing system in a practical manner. Iwould like to give special thanks to our teacher. I am also grateful to our instructors.

Experiment name: Study on flat lock sewing machine and production of sample.Introduction:There are many types of sewing machines. Some are used for special purposes such as bar tackmachine, button hole machine etc. This type of machine works in a cycle and so they are calledsimple automatic machine. Here we study on such a type of machine that is flat lock sewingmachine.

Objectives:1.To know about the machine parts.2.To sketch the thread path.

Specification: Brand : JUKI Model : MFD 47605U Type : Flat or Cylinder bed Group : Chain stitch Needle no : 3


Needle name: UY-128 Needle size: 9, 11, 14, 16, 18, 20 & 21 SPM : 2500-6000 TPI : 25-35

Adjustment: Thread, tension, needle, pressure feed, and stitch density, looper etc.

Function: Sewing all types of knitted cloth.

Different parts:1. Thread stand2. Thread guides3. Disc type tensioner4. Pressure feed lever5. Thread take-up lever6. Needle7. Looper

Description:This machine may be of flat bed or cylinder bed type. In our lab 21, 22 nos. machines are flatbed and 32 no. machines is cylinder bed type. Flat bed is used for sewing body cloth and cylinderbed is used for sleeve cloth. In this machine 4 needles may also be used and sewing may be doneusing from 4 to 9 threads. Sewing with flat lock machine the most quantity thread is needed. Forexample for sewing 1 inch cloth up to 32 inches thread is needed. The SPM of this type ofmachine is usually 6000 and 8-16 stitches may be done per inch. It is a very expensive machineand is used for mainly sewing knitted goods but also used for making woven cloth.Conclusion:This type of machine cannot be used for normal purpose. But for making a complete garmenttheir importance cannot be denied. Special care and sufficient knowledge is necessary for properworking. Otherwise faulty sewing may be done. I would like to give special thanks to ourteacher. I am also grateful to our instructors. I think this will be very helpful in my future life.

Name of the Experiment: Study on Feed of the Arm sewing machine and production ofSample.Introduction:There are many types of sewing machines. Some are used for special purposes such as Feed ofthe Arm machine, Industrial Overlock machine etc. This type of machine works with continuoussewing and so they are called automatic machine. Here we study on such a type of machine thatis Feed of the Arm sewing machine.Objectives:1. To know about the machine parts.2. To sketch the thread path.


3. To produce a sample.Specification:

Brand : JUKI Model : MFD 47605U Type : Flat bed. Group : Chain stitch Needle no : 2 Needle name : EYX128 Needle size : 9, 11, 14, 16, 18, 20 & 21 SPM : 3000-3200 TPI : 15-20

Main Adjustment Points:1. Thread.2. Tensioner.3. Needle.4. Pressure feed.5. Stitch density.6. Looper.Different parts:1. Thread stands2. Thread guides3. Disc type tensioner4. Pressure feed lever5. Thread take-up lever6. Needle7. LooperDescription:This machine may be of flat bed type. In our lab 31 no. machine is feed of the Arm machine. Inthis machine 2 needle, 2 loopers may also be used & sewing may be done using from 4 threads.Sewing with Feed of the Arm machine, 1 inch cloth up to16 inches thread is needed. The SPM ofthis type of machine is usually 3000 and 8-16 stitches may be done per inch. It is a veryexpensive machine and is used for mainly sewing Jeans, Grabidding goods & Double stitchingpants.Conclusion:This type of machine cannot be used for normal purpose. But for making a complete garmenttheir importance cannot be denied. Special care and sufficient knowledge is necessary for properworking. Otherwise faulty sewing may be done. I would like to give special thanks to ourteacher. I am also grateful to our instructors. I think this will be very helpful in my future life.


FIBER FINENESS, YARN COUNTS AND CONVERSIONS

Micronaire Value (Cotton): The unit is micrograms per inch. The average weight of one inchlength of fibre, expressed in micrograms (0.000001 gram).Denier (Man-Made Fibres): Weight in grams per 9000 meters of fibre.Micron (Wool): Fineness is expressed as fibre diameter in microns (0.001mm)Conversions:

Denier = 0.354 x Micronaire value Micronaire value = 2.824 x Denier

YARN COUNTSIt is broadly classified into;

1. INDIRECT SYSTEM2. DIRECT SYSTEM

INDIRECT SYSTEM English count (Ne) French count(Nf) Metric count(Nm) Worsted count

Metric system: Metric count (Nm) indicates the number of 1 kilometer (1000 m) lengths per Kg. Nm = length in Km / weight in kg (or) Nm = length meter / weight in grams

DIRECT SYSTEM Tex count Denier

CONVERSION TABLE FOR YARN COUNTS

Tex Den Nm Grains/yd

Tex den/9 1000/Nm gr.yd x 70.86

Ne 590.54/tex 5314.9/den Nm x .5905 8.33 / gr/yd

Den tex x 9 9000/Nm gr/yd x 637.7

Nm 1000/tex 9000/den 14.1 / gr/yd

Grains/yd tex / 70.86 den / 637.7 14.1/Nm

Where, Nm – metric count, Nec – cotton count


CONVERSION TABLE FOR WEIGHTS

Ounce Grains Grams Kilograms Pounds

Ounce 437.5 gr 28.350 grams

Grains 0.03527 ounces 0.0648 grams

Grams 0.03527 grains 15.432 gr 0.001 kgs

Kilograms 35.274 ounces 15432 gr 1000 grams 2.2046 lbs

Pounds 16.0 ounces 7000 gr 453.59 grams 0.4536 kgs

CONVERSION TABLE FOR LINEAR MEASURES

Yard Feet Inches Centimeter Meter

Yard 3 feet 36 inches 91.44 cms 0.9144 meter

Feet 0.3333 yd 12 inches 30.48 cms 0.3048 meter

Inches 0.0278 yd 0.0833 feet 2.54 cms 0.254 meter

Centimeter 0.0109 yd 0.0328 feet 0.3937 inch 0.01meter

Meter 1.0936 yd 3.281 feet 39.37 inch 100 cms

CALCULATIONS Grams per meter = 0.5905 / Ne Grams per yard = 0.54 / Ne Tex = den x .11 = 1000/Nm = Mic/25.4 Ne = Nm/1.693 DRAFT = (feed weight in g/m) / (delivery weight in g/m) DRAFT = Tex (feed) / Tex(delivery) DRAFT = delivery roll surface speed / feed roll surface speed No of hanks delivered by m/c = (Length delivered in m/min) / 1.605

1) Calculate the length of a package of 80/1 and cone weight 2.083 lb.(Note: - English count is represented as C/N i-e, yarn count/ no. of yarn plies)Yarn type = 80/1Cone wt. = 2.083 lbCone length =?Solution:Length = Ne x lb x 840 yards= 80 x 2.083 x 840 yards= (139977.6÷ 1.0936 )m= 127997.07 m ------------Ans.


2) Calculate the length of yarn with Ne (80/2) and weight 4.166 lb.Yarn type = 80/2Cone weight = 4.166 lbCone length = ?Solution:Length = Ne x lb x 840 yards

= (80÷2) x 4.166 x 840 yards= (139977.6÷1.0936) m= 127997.07 m ---------------Ans.

W INDING1. Slub catcher settings:

a. Fixed Blade = Carded - (2.0 to 2.5) x diameterCombed - (1.5 to 2.0) x diameter

b. Electronic yarn clearer = 3 cm x 3 diameter

Diameter in inch for Blended yarn = 1/( 28 x √count )= 10 to 15% more settings

Number of objectionable thick faults removed by slub catcher2. Yarn clearer efficiency =........................................................................................x 100

Total objectionable thick faults present in yarn before winding

Total breaks during winding (at faults)3. Knot factor =...............................................................................

No. of breaks due to objectionable yarn faults

Strength of spliced joint x 1004. Retained splice strength =...........................................................

Strength of parent yarn

5. Winding Tension = 0.1 x Single yarn strength in grams

4500 x Y6. Expected efficiency E =......................................................

S x N (12 + 98)7. Winder’s workload (0.17 min/operation on conventional winding m/c) = 2300 operations pershift of 8 hoursWhere,

1 creeling or 1 piecing = 1 operation 1 doffing = 2 operations


8. Winder’s workload on autoconer (0.08 min per operation) = 4800 operations/shift of 8hoursWhere,

1 bobbing feeding = 1 operation 1 doffing (manual) = 4.5 operation

Y = Length/Bobbin (metres)B = Breaks per bobbinS = Winding speed (metres/min)C = English count

9. Production in Kgs / 8 Hrs = (0.2836 x L x Effy x Nd) / (Ne) L - delivery speed in m/min effy - efficiency Ne - english count Nd - No of delvieries

10. P =( L x 1.0936 x 60 x Effy ) / (Hank (Ne) x 36 x 840 x 2.2045) P - production in kgs / hr L - delivery speed in m/min effy- efficiency Ne - English count ( number of 840 yards in one pound) 840 - constant 2.2045- to convert from lbs to kilograms

WARPINGR x 100

1. Machine Efficiency E =.............................R + S

R = Uninterrupted running time for 1,000 meters (in sec)

1000 x 60= .................................................

Machine speed in mtr/min.

S = Total of time in seconds for which the machine is stopped for a production of 1,000 meters

B X N X T1 T2 T3= R + --------------- + ----- + ---------- + T4

400 L L x C

B = Ends breaks/400 ends/1,000 meters N = Number of ends L = Set length in 1,000 meters C = Beams per creel


Timing of activities in seconds is: T1 = To mend a break T2 = To change a beam T3 = To change a creel T4 = Miscellaneous Time loss/1,000 mtrs.

3. Production in metres per 8 hrs. (K) = 480 x mtrs/min x E/100 kgs.3. Production in Kgs. per 8 hrs. = (K x N) / (1693 x English Count)4. Warping Tension = 0.03 to 0.05 x Single thread strength

SIZINGLength in metre x 1.094 x Total ends

1. Warp weight (in kg.) = ……………………………………………………..x 100840 x 2.204 x Warp count

Sized warp weight - Unsized warp weight2. Size pick-up % =……………………………………………………………. x 100

Un-sized warp weight

3. Weight of size = Warp Weight x Size pick up %

Sized warp length - Unsized warp length4. Stretch % = …………………………………………………x 100

Un-sized warp length

Total-ends x Warp length in yards5. Sized yarn count = ………………………………………………………

Sized warp weight (lbs) x 840

Wt. of sized yarn - Wt. of oven dried yarn6. % of Moisture content= ………………………………………………… x 100

Wt. of sized yarn

Deliver counter reading - Feed counter reading7. % of Stretch =……………………………………………………… x 100

Feed counter reading

840,000 x D x C8. % Droppings on loom = …………………………………. x 100

454 Y x N x PD = Dropping in gms.C = English CountY = Length woven (yds.)N = Number of EndsP = % size add on


9. Invisible Loss%

Amount of size material issued - Amount of size added on yarn= ………………………………………………………….....................x 100

Amount of size issuedSteam, Consumption (Sizing M/c) = 2.0 kg/kg of sized yarn(Cooker) = 0.3 kg/kg of liquor(Sow box) = 0.2 kg/kg of yarn

No. of Cylinder x 1,000 x English count10. Max. Speed of machine = …………………………………………………..

(metres/min) Number of ends

Number of ends x 0.611. Wt. of warp in gms/mtr = ……………………………………….

English count

WEAVING1. Reed Count: It is calculated in stock port system.

EPIReed width = ………………………………

1 + Weft crimp %age

No. of dents in 2 inches is called Reed Count

2. Reed Width:100 + Weft crimp %age

Reed width = Cloth width x ………………………………….100

3. Crimp %:Warp length - Cloth length

Warp Crimp %age =…………………………………………. x 100Cloth length

Weft length - Cloth lengthWeft Crimp %age = ……………………………………… x 100

Cloth length

EPI4. Warp cover factor = ....................................

√Warp Count


PPI5. Weft cover factor =…………………….

√Weft countWp.C.F. x Wt. C.F.

6. Cloth cover factor = Wp.C.F. + Wt.C.F. - ……………………………….28

7. Maximum EPI for particular count:

a. For plain fabrics = 14 x √Count

b. For drill fabrics = √Count x 28 x 4/6

c. For satin fabric = √Count x 28 x 5/7

Ends/repeat x 1 / yarn diameterd. Other design = ………………………………………………………..

No. of intersections / repeat + ends/repeat

18. Yarn diameter = ……………………………

28 x √Count

Weave Density

1. Warp density = Ends/cm x √Tex x K= < 250

2. Filling density = Picks/cm x √Tex x K= < 350

(Warp density - 100) x F.D.- 1003. Weave Density = 50 + ……………………………………………

(Weft density - 100) x F.D.- 100

4. Effective weave density = W.D. x K of loom width x K of Design = < 72


Count Table

To change the count and number of thread/inch, keeping the same denseness of the fabric:

1. To change the EPI without altering the denseness:

EPI in given cloth x √ Warp count in expected clothEPI in Exp.Cloth =………………………………………………………………

√ Warp count in given cloth2. To change the count without altering the denseness :

EPI in exp. cloth2EPI in exp. cloth = ……………………… x Count in given cloth

EPI in given cloth

Warp requirement to weave a cloth:

Total ends x 1.0936 x 453.59 x crimp%1. Warp weight in gms/mtrs. =………….......................................x Wasteage%

840 x Count

2. Weft weight in gms/mtrs.

R.S. in inches x 453.59 x PPI=……………………………………………x Crimp % x Waste %

840 x Count

3. Cloth length in mtrs.with the given weft weightWeft wt. in kgs. X Weft count x 1848 x 0.9144

=……………………………………………………….PPI x R.S. in inches


For Silk and Polyester:

1. Warp weight in gms/mtrs.

Total ends x Count (Denier)= ……………………………..............x Crimp% x Waste %age

9000

2. Weft weight in gms/mtrs.RS in inches x PPI x Count (Denier)

= …………………………………........x Crimp% x Wasteage%9000

Allowance for count in Bleached and Dyed Fabric :

Count becomes 4% Finer Dyed counts become max.6% Coarser

FABRIC PRODUCTION

Motor pulley diameter1. Loom speed = Motor RPM x ………………………………….

Loom pulley diameter

Actual production2. Loom Efficiency % = ----------------------------- x 100

Calculated production

Yarn weight - Dryed yarn weight3. Moisture Regain % = --------------------------------------------- x 100

Dryed yarn weight

Yarn weight - dried yarn weight4. Moisture Content % = -------------------------------------------- x 100

Yarn weight

Total ends x Tape length in metre5. Warp weight in Kg. = ----------------------------------------------

1693.6 x Warp count

RS in centimetres x Coth length in metres x PPI6. Weft weight in Kg. = ----------------------------------------------------------------

4301.14 x Weft count


EPI PPI7. Cloth weight in GSM = ----------------- + ----------------- x 25.6

Warp count Weft count

GSM (Grams per sq. metre)8. Oz (Ounce) per sq.yard = -------------------------------------

34

Material measurement:For calculating of length of any rolled fabrics:

0.0655 (D - d) (D + d)L = -------------------------------

tWhere,L = Length of material (feet)t = Thickness of fabrics (inches)D = Outside diameter (inches)d = Inside diameter (inches)

Weight of yarn in a cloth:The weight of cloth manufactured on loom depends upon the weight of yarns in the warp andweft: ends/inch, picks/inch and the weight of size on the warp.

Therefore, Cloth weight = Weight of warp + Weight of weft + Weight of size (All in lbs.)

Total No. of Ends x Tape length in ydsWhere as Weight of warp in lbs = -----------------------------------------

840 x Warp yarn count

Also Weight of weft in lbs.

Length of cloth (yds) x Picks/inch in cloth x Reed width (inch)= --------------------------------------------------------------------------

840 x Weft yarn count

PREPARED BYABU SAYED

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