la: The Tudor monarchsOverviewSixteenth-century England and Wales experienced hugereligious, political, social and economic change. This was,to a large degree, influenced by the country's monarchs.The Tudor monarchs who ruled England and Wales from1485 to 1603 were all determined individuals who wereprepared to make enormous changes in the lives of theirpeople in order to achieve their goals. They would nothave seen this as selfish - particularly in religious matterswhere there was a strong sense from Edward VI onwardsof attempting to do the best for the English people and tosave them from etemal damnation. The monarch. it wasbelieved, was put on the throne to rule in the best interestsof their people. All of the rulers in this period shared somecommon characteristics. They were determined to rulerather than be ruled by their advisers. They were strong•minded, if not stubbom. Dynastic loyalty determinedtheir behaviour in most cases, unless (like Edward VI)religion over-ruled that. They had varying interests andpreoccupations, and religion was an important determinant

of their behaviour.

Dynasty was vital to Henry Vlll and remained so for hisheirs. This made the issue of the succession absolutelycentral to politics. The succession changed three timesunder Henry Vlll and again under Edward VI. Mary I

avoided the temptation to do this, but feared the impact

Note it downBegin your collection of index cards here using the method

on page xi. For each monarch create two cards. One will

be for their personal qualities; the other for their political .

abilities. Write their name and the years that they reigned for

on the front of the card. On the back write brief notes about

these aspects for each monarch.

This chapter also contains some complicated political,

theoretical and social concepts. The best note-taking

method to use here would be the 1:2 method (see

page x). In the left-hand column write the important

headings or points and in the right-hand column make

notes on the content that relates to them.

of Elizabeth's Protestantism. Disputed successions

brought instability among the political classes and

the ordinary people as well as for the royal family.

Succession had clear implications for the future of the

dynasty. Gender has been frequently explored in relation

to Elizabeth l, but it was also a significant point for

discussion for Mary too. She was the first queen regnant,

the first queen to rule as a monarch in her own right.

While their gender did not affect their determination or

ability to rule, it did cause more questions to be raised

about marriage and children. It could also be used to

their advantage, particularly by Elizabeth l.

This chapter explores the Tudor monarchs, their priorities,

personalities and political qualities through the following

sections:

1

2

3

Personal and political qualities looks at each of the

Tudor monarchs as rulers and people. It examines their

personal attributes and political aptitude.

Disputed successions? examines the extent to which

Tudor successions were disputed. It looks at the causes

and implications of disputed successions.

The significance of gender for Mary and Elizabeth

discusses these two reigning queens and the impact oftheir gender on their rule. It explores the theory of theking's two bodies and the reactions of different peopleto the prospect of a female 'king'.

1 Personal and political qualities

As might be expected, the personal qualities and politicalabilities of the Tudor tnonarchs were very different. Theirupbringings, interests and priorities varied greatly andthese had an impact on how the country was ruled. Theirpersonalities had an effect on how govermnent operated aswell as how they related to people around thetn, includingfuture heirs to the throne and close fatnily.

Note it downCreate a spider diagram (see page x) for the differentpolitical and personal characteristics of the monarchs.First, read the section carefully and identify commoncharacteristics. Note them on your diagram.

Paper I England, 1509-1603: authority, nation and religion

Henry Vill (1491-1547)Henry VI Il inherited the throne from his father, HenryV Il, in 1509. Henry V Ill was not originally meant toinherit the throne, but his elder brother Prince Arthurdied in 1502 shortly after Inarrying Catherine of Aragon.This Incant that Henry becarne king on his father's death.Henry VI I was not a hereditary monarch, however,and had seized the throne in 1485 after his victory overRichard Ill at the Battle of Bosworth Field. This Incantthat the Tudor dynasty was still very new. This providespart of the explanation for Henry's cornplete preoccupationwith an heir: the dynasty needed to be strongly establishedand look stable for it to continue, and avoid the fate ofRichard Ill. Henry was detertnined that his fanlily wouldcontinue to rule the country and was prepared to takeextreme tneasures in order to achieve that. He wanted toextend royal authority and power over institutions and

regions within the British Isles, and this was interwovenwith his personal and dynastic objectives.

Henry was firntly in control of his govermnent. He wasno mere figurehead but a king who was very determined

to achieve his main aims and ideals. His ministers,

Thotnas Wolsey and subsequently Thomas Cromwell, did

not rule on his behalf. They did carry out royal policy

once it was decided but Henry played a key role in the

decisions. Even when away on a royal progress Henry

kept in conununication with London, keen to be up to

date with all Inatters. Henry had a decisive influence on

important issues such as war, the Royal Suprernacy,

and the theology of his new Church of England. He did

listen to his advisors, however, and the court could make

an inopact on his decisions.

4

When young, Henry was handsome and athletic. Henry

was extremely interested in theology. He loved music,

dance, hunting and chivalric ideals. He was highly

educated and energetic — a symbol of renewal and change.

Indeed Henry's reign was to see significant religious,

political and social change. Henry was able but not as

intelligent as he believed hitnselfto be. Historian John

Guy has described him as having a 'second-rate Illind with

what looks suspiciously like an inferiority complex'. As

the years went on Henry becalne increasingly egotistical,

demanding, self-righteous and sornetimes rnorbid. He

suffered increasing ill-health and became erratic and

unpredictable. Throughout his reign Henry wanted to

conquer Inore territory, especially in France, and was

obsessed with chivalry and honour. Honour was anitnportant concept in Europe in this period, not just an

ernpty word but a concept that could start expensive wars

and battles over supremacy.

Edward VI (1537-53)Edward VI was the male heir that Henry had longed for

since his first tnarriage, born to Henry and Jane Seymour

(Henry's third wife) in 1537. He was a syrnbol of hope

and stability during his father's life and of change at

the beginning of his own reign. Edward's birth made

life at court easier for his half-sisters and put an end

to Henry's frantic search for a solution to his dynastic

problems. Inheriting the throne in 1547 at only 9 years

old, Edward laboured under heavy expectations. As he

xvas under the age of 18 years old, a regent was appointed

to govern for hirn. Initially this was Edward Seymour,

Earl of Somerset (see page 6), but after a coup in 1549,

4.

A The family of Henry Vlll, painted in about 1545. From left to right: Mary, Edward, Henry, Jane Seymour, Elizabeth. What does

this contemporary painting tell the historian about the relative importance of Henry's children? What can it say about Henry's

own image?

Theme 1 Monarchy and government, 1509—88 5

Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset (c1500—52)

Edward Seymour was

born to a noble family

and from early youth was

involved in court and royal

affairs. He was a member

of the household of

Princess Mary from 1514,

aged 14. He received

titles and positions

from Henry Vlll after his

sister Jane Seymour married the King in 1536. Seymour's

nephew Edward became king on the death of Henry Vlll in

1547. Seymour became Lord Protector (a kind of regent to

Edward) and created himself Duke of Somerset in 1547.

Through political skill, manipulation and bribes, Somerset

gathered much more power and authority than was ever

intended in Henry Vlll's will. The will stipulated a Regency

Council rather than one man having such power. He was

a skilled soldier, waging a successful war against the

independent kingdom of Scotland and defending English

territories such as Boulogne-sur-Mer against the French.

During the protectorate this put an enormous financial

burden on the English nation. Somerset fell following

the rebellions of 1549, which were seen as a failure of

government despite Somerset's popularist proclamations

against enclosure. Correctly fearing a coup, Somerset

seized Edward VI and withdrew to Windsor Castle, but was

arrested by the Regency Council on 11 October 1549. He

was initially released and restored to the Privy Council in

1550 but was executed for felony in January 1552 after

plotting against his successor's rule.

John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland (1504—53)

John Dudley was the eldest

son of Edmund Dudley, a

councillor to Henry Vll who

was executed by Henry Vlll

in 1510 as a scapegoat

for his father's financial

policies. John Dudley was

restored to his estates in

1512. He was brought up

by a guardian, Sir Edward

Guildford, whose daughter Jane he married in 1525. He was

father to their 13 children and was believed to be a diligent and

highly involved parent. Dudley took part in Wolsey's diplomatic

ventures in 1521 and 1527, fought in the 1523 invasion of

France and was knighted for his actions. He was close to Henry

Vlll, being appointed as a knight of the body in 1524. Dudley

was intelligent as well as being a skilled sportsman, excelling

at archery, jousting and wrestling. Dudley was a member of

evangelical circles in the 1530s and led one of the King's

armies against the Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536. He became

Viscount Lisle after the death of his stepfather in 1542. He

fought in the wars against Scotland and was Lord Admiral

in the wars against France. Dudley was one of the leading

John Dudley, Earl of Northutnberland, took over. He

took the title of Lord President of the Regency Council

to differentiate himself frorn Sornerset. Although in the

evangelical reformers at court, and this stood him in good

stead for Edward's rule. He was not an enemy of Somerset

and, indeed, was his second-in-command in Scotland. He was

involved in the brutal repression of Kett's rebellion in 1549. As

Somerset's fall was plotted, Dudley managed to consolidate his

power on the Regency Council, effectively replacing Somerset

in 1549. He took the title Lord President of the Regency Council

and repressed Somerset's attempts to re-establish his power.

He was less autocratic than Somerset and more prepared to

work with the Council. He encouraged Edward VI to take an

increasing role in government as he got older and established

practical measures to attempt to deal with the problem of

poverty. He was created Duke of Northumberland in 1551.

Northumberland promoted evangelical Protestants to positions

within the Church, and advanced the Protestant Reformation

despite its widespread unpopularity. He brought an end to

Somerset's costly wars. Northumberland played a key role in

Edward's attempt to change the succession, a role that was

to bring about his rapid fall on the accession of Mary l. His

efforts in favour of Jane Grey (his daughter-in-law) led to his trial

and execution in August 1553. Northumberland's attempts to

secure Mary's intervention in his favour (including converting

back to Catholicism) were fruitless.

was particularly the case in religious policy. During 1552,aged 15 years, Edward started to receive detailed briefingson the government's financial crisis. He began to directly

early years of Edward's reign the policies of his government participate in government from May of that year. The

were created by others, such as Lord Protector Somerset, boldest policy of Edward's reign, the attempt to change

Edward himself soon becalne involved personally. This the succession in favour ofJane Grey, has generally been

6 Paper 1 England, 1509—1603: authority, nation and religion

assumed to be Protector Northumberland's. It is irnpossible

to tell whose idea it originally was but drafts of the

docutnent show Edward's personal hand in working outthe details involved. Edward was genuinely evangelical and

his involvetnent in this is Inost likely a dennonstration of his

religious belief overcorning his dynastic loyalty.

In tertns of his personal qualities, Edward was an intelligent

and hardworking student. An archive of Edward's writingsstill survives, and demonstrates his abilities in rhetoric and

argument; Latin and Greek. He Inade thorough notes on

sermons that he heard, showing his deep personal piety

and interest in religious Inatters. Edward has been portrayed

in the past, particularly in popular culture and literature, as

a sickly child because of his early death. This was not the

case. Like his father, he was a keen sportsman and enjoyed

hunting and military displays. His illness in his last tnonths

did not define Edward as a person or ruler. His writings

also demonstrate that he was comtnitted to evangelical

Protestantism. He translated scriptural passages into French

as a gift for Protector Sotnerset in 1548 and between

December 1548 and August 1549 wrote a treatise on the

papal supremacy. He concluded that the Pope was the 'son

of the devil, a bad tnan, an Antichrist and abominable

tyrant'. Edward's governments were to illiplernent sotne of

the most radical religious changes of the sixteenth century.

The question of how Edward would have ruled had he

lived longer is an intriguing one, but irnpossible to answer.

He fell ill in late January 1553 with a chest infection

or tuberculosis. In late May his condition worsened

significantly, and he died in July.

Lady Jane Grey (1536—54)

Lady Jane Grey was of

noble birth and was a first

cousin once removed of

Edward VI. She was the

eldest daughter of Henry

Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk,

and his wife Lady Frances

Brandon. Her mother was

the youngest daughter

of Mary Tudor, Queen of

France, whose father was

Henry Vll. She received a humanist education in Latin,

Greek, Hebrew and Italian. Her father was a Protestant and

(particularly after her Protestant upbringing) she followed

in his footsteps. She was sent to live in the household of

Edward VI's uncle Thomas Seymour and Henry Vlll's widow

Catherine Parr in February 1547. She was chief mourner at

Catherine Parr's funeral in 1548. Jane was engaged to the

Mary I (1516-58)Mary had a difficult and unstable upbringing. In her earliest

years she was the heir apparent, with all the luxuries and

benefits that stich a status brought. She received a classical

humanist education and was intended to be betrothed

to a European prince. This childhood was disrupted

because of Henry V Ill's determination to produce a male

heir. Her status and future became increasingly uncertain,

especially after Henry's desire to divorce her mother,

Catherine of Aragon, becarne known. After 1531 Henry

banned Mary from seeing her mother, and declared Mary

illegitimate after he married Anne Boleyn in 1533.

Mary was removed to Hatfield to wait upon her half-sister

Elizabeth. Mary's health declined in these years, and was to

remain poor for the rest of her life. Her situation began to

ilnprove after the birth of Edward. She was reinstated in the

succession by 1544 and this was confirmed by Henry's will.

When Henry died Mary was 31 years old. Her subsequent

battles with her half-brother Edward concerning her

religion upset her greatly, and nearly brought the kingdom

to the brink of war with the Holy Roman Empire.

Mary succeeded to the throne finally at 37 years old,

overcolning Edward and Northumberland's plan to remove

her frotn the succession and place Jane Grey on the throne.

She was understandably embittered by her treatment since

childhood and (unlike Edward) was not well prepared by

her father or advisers for the role she was about to assume.

She was generous and amiable but also stubborn. During

her reign she suffered from depression, anxiety, neuralgia

Duke of Northumberland's son, Guildford Dudley, in spring

1553 and they were married in May of that year. As Edward

VI lay dying in 1553 the succession was changed by him

and Northumberland so that Jane Grey would succeed

him on the throne. This was to avoid the Catholic Mary

becoming queen. The King died on 6 July 1553 and Jane

was informed that she was queen. She was proclaimed

queen on 10 July, refusing to allow her husband to be king

and taking residence in the Tower of London. After a brief

armed struggle, however, and a popular rising in favour of

Mary, the forces of Northumberland were defeated. Mary

I entered London in procession on 3 August 1553. Jane

and Guildford Dudley were charged with high treason and

tried in London on 13 November. All of the defendants were

found guilty and sentenced to death but it was reported

that Jane's life was to be spared. If that was true, Thomas

Wyatt's rebellion changed that and Jane was beheaded on

12 February 1554.

Theme 1 Monarchy and government, 1509—88 7

and phantom pregnancies. Mary was unsurprisingly

untrusting towards other people and placed her faith

in Catholicism instead. She was an extremely devoted

Catholic throughout her life. She also tended to favour

Spaniards more than Englishmen for her closest advisers

— she had been very close to her Spanish 1110ther and she

found Spaniards more help than Englishtnen. This drove

her into a controversial and unpopular match with Philip

Il of Spain in 1554 — one that she insisted on despite her

English advisers' opinions. Religion was not the sole

focus of Mary's policy despite her infamous reputation.

She certainly was determined to restore Catholicism to

England, and in her short five years ofrule she experienced

a reasonable level of success in this. But she continued also

to reform govermnent, attctnpted to increase trade and

respond to problems like poverty.

Once Mary succeeded to the throne she was detertnined

to rule as a Inonarch rather than a consort, issuing

commands and orders with authority and deter:nination.

She was very aware of her royal status. Mary was a

dutiful monarch and was earnest about her role. She

was not temperamentally suited or intelligent enough to

understand the cotnplexities that faced her in governtnent

but she was a dedicated ruler. Mary was astute enough,

however, to realise that she needed capable advisers and

that she needed to consult and listen to them in order to

help her rule. She gathered advisers who were experienced

in government, frotn both Catholic and Protestant faiths.

Mary's reputation as a woman and ruler has suffered over

the centuries but in recent times she has been somewhat

rescued from her label 'Bloody Mary' and seen in a much

more nuanced light.

Elizabeth I (1533-1603)Elizabeth, too, suffered during the 1530s from Henry

V Ill's determination to achieve his dynastic goals. Like

Mary she was excluded from the succession after her early

life as a royal princess and termed a 'bastard'. In terms of

her political concerns Elizabeth followed her father Henry

V Ill and sister Mary I in strictly protecting her royal

prerogative. As with Mary, Elizabeth was determined

to rule England rather than letting others rule for her.

It was extremely difficult for her advisers to change her

mind. That said, she did not have as many ideological

preconceptions as Mary did. She was a moderate Protestant

but was not dogrnatic like Edward. Her own worship

included traditional elements as well as reformed ones.

The religious settlement now known as the Elizabethan

settlement was a compromise that in some ways reflected

her own religious beliefs (see page 48). Elizabeth operated

shrewdly in the field of international diplomacy. One

political weakness of Elizabeth was that she hesitated when

itnportant decisions needed to be made. This Inade life

extremely difficult för her councillors but was caused by a

cautious attitude to political and financial decisions. This

caution could on other occasions be very useful.

Elizabeth I was intelligent and hardworking. She was

educated and accomplished. She spoke French, Italian

and Spanish and read Latin. She played the virginal,

danced and hunted skilfully. Elizabeth enjoyed plays and

masques, and went on long royal progresses around her

realm. On the other hand, Elizabeth was vain and jealous

within her personal relationships. She could be sharp-

tongued and, when crossed, had an appalling temper. It

is extretnely difficult to discern Elizabeth's own ideas or

beliefs. Few writings survive that are indisputably hers,

written accounts of her by contemporaries are largely very

flattering or propagandistic and her behaviour was always

detertnined by her knowledge that she was effectively

perfortning for an audience. As such we do not know her

true attitudes on itnportant issues like that of marriage.

Elizabeth knew the power of images, and was careful to

nurture and control her own ilnage as queen of England.

2 Disputed successions?

There was only one succession in the period 1509—88

that was disputed after the death of the previous

monarch. This was the succession ofJane Grey. There

were, however, disputes about who would succeed to

the throne during the lifetime of two other monarchs.

The line of succession was changed at least three times

during the reign of Henry V Ill, as his•daughters Mary

and Elizabeth were successively bastardised and later

legitimised. Edward VI, towards the end of his short life,

also attempted to amend the succession in favour of the

Protestant Grey family. This meant removing his sisters

from the line of succession and amending the intentions of

his father Henry V Ill.

Note it downUse bullet points to take notes on this section. Think aboutthe following questions:

Why was it necessary for Henry Vlll to change the line ofsuccession?

What were Edward VI's motives for trying to change thesuccession?

How was Mary I able to triumph?

Why did Mary I not change the succession?

8 Paper 1 England, 1509—1603: authority, nation and rellglon