The Dynamics to Vegetation Mapping: An Ode to A.W. KüchlerDale Hathaway, Meghan Jones, Ross Keasling, Courtney Misich

Miami University

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Table of ContentsExecutive Summary.........................................................................................................................1Introduction and Project Definition: Meghan Jones and Courtney Misich.....................................2Literature Review............................................................................................................................3

Historical Approaches: Ross Keasling.........................................................................................5Küchler Maps Georeferencing.........................................................................................................8

Methods: Dale Hathaway.............................................................................................................8Results: Courtney Misich...........................................................................................................10

Example Uses of Georeferenced Küchler Map Collection............................................................12Discovery in the United States and Spread since 2002: Dale Hathaway...................................15Results: Dale Hathaway.............................................................................................................19Discussion: Dale Hathaway.......................................................................................................21

Urban Growth: No One Settles in the Upper Peninsula................................................................22Introduction: Meghan Jones.......................................................................................................22Development of Urban Areas in Michigan: Courtney Misich...................................................24Methods and Workflow: Courtney Misich................................................................................27Results: Meghan Jones and Courtney Misich............................................................................30Discussion: Courtney Misich and Meghan Jones......................................................................33

Historic Küchler Maps, 1830-1940: Courtney Misich...........................................................33

1966 Natural Potential Vegetation and Urban Areas: Meghan Jones....................................35

Bibliography..................................................................................................................................36Appendix........................................................................................................................................37

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Executive SummaryThe Miami University Libraries acquired a collection of over two-thousand A.W.

Küchler vegetation maps in the 1980s. They have since, scanned the collection and teamed up with the Geography 442 course to begin the georeferencing process. Many goals were set in the beginning of the project, one being to provide uses for the maps in analysis. Two concepts were created to achieve this goal; both selecting the study area of Michigan The first dedicated to analyzing the migratory and infestation patterns of the invasive, Emerald Ash Borer. The second utilizes Küchler's Potential Natural Vegetation map and various others to analyze potential loss of vegetation as a result of urban sprawl. Together, these concepts used to achieve this goal use similar methodologies in employing the use of GIS and Miami Universities Küchler map collection. In conclusion, the team has utilized their newly georeferenced maps to aid in the overall analysis of the dynamics to vegetation in Michigan.

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Introduction and Project Definition: Meghan Jones and Courtney Misich

In 1986, John Vankat, previously a Professor of Botany led Miami University in

acquiring over two-thousand vegetation maps from the Augustus W. Küchler collection

(Grabach). Since, this collection has been archived and preserved. Starting in the fall of 2015,

Miami University Libraries, specifically Eric Johnson the Numerical and Spatial Data Services

Librarian and Ken Graback the Maps Librarian, have teamed up with Robbyn Abbitt’s Advanced

Geographic Information Systems course for the purpose of placing the maps into a web interface

to ensure their survival and availability for research. They have already undergone the process of

scanning and storing onto a web-drive; now in the third semester of this continuous project,

group members, Dale Hathaway, Meghan Jones, Ross Keasling, and Courtney Misich have been

working diligently to aid in this process.

There were five goals set by the librarians, Eric and Ken, for this project. These include:

(1) recording the map’s legend into a common spreadsheet, (2) create collarless images of the

maps, (3) georectify the collarless images, (4) record bounding longitude and latitude for use by

the library catalogue, and (5) to provide uses for the maps by analyzing them in various aspects.

The team aiding Miami University Libraries this year has chosen to use the Küchler vegetation

maps to analyze two factors: how invasive species like Emerald Ash Borer have affected

vegetation, like Ash trees, and how urbanization land-use trends in have affected vegetation;

both utilize the study area of the state of Michigan.

The project report has been divided into individual chapters with sections in each for

methods and workflow, results, and discussion. This decision was made in order for the research

results to stand on their own hypotheses and data in order to provide users with a comprehensive

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and concise report for each data and analysis product. First, the group presents an overview of

the Küchler map collection and its impact on vegetation mapping. Then, the team indulges in a

literature review to address how geographic information systems can interpret the vegetation

maps in order to update the current maps and analyze historical trends and contemporary issues

facing vegetation. The Küchler map project section discusses the workflow and methods of

digitizing the vegetation map collection, which is four of the five goals, set out by the client.

Moreover, in the results and discussion section the group reflects on the completed maps as well

as how problems and setbacks were managed.

Then the team presents the final goal; finding uses for analysis involving the Küchler

collection, in separate sections describing the two factors: invasive species like Emerald Ash

Borer and urbanization trends in land-use maps. Each section will contain its own methods,

results, and discussion in order to provide a unique case study on how to utilize the Küchler

maps in contemporary research. In the conclusion, the implications of the Küchler maps are

demonstrated by connecting the digitization process with the two cases studies.

Literature Review

Vegetation Mapping: Meghan Jones

In order to discuss the goals and workflow of the Küchler collection project, there is a

need to form a better understanding of vegetation mapping and the importance in georeferencing

historical documents. Vegetation maps derive from the union of botany and geography (Küchler

and Zonneveld, 1); while they are diverse in their use and type. There are two broad categories:

physiognomy and floristic (Küchler, 160). The physiognomy approach provides information on

the description of the appearance of vegetation and the floristic approach focuses on the

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distribution of individual plant species (Küchler, 161), which is the predominant portion of

Miami’s Küchler collection. In his book, Küchler states three main uses of vegetation maps. The

first being a scientific tool for analyzing the environment and their relationships with vegetation

and their location. The second states they are valuable in measuring changes in vegetation and

the third is that maps can serve as a basis for planning future land-use (Küchler and Zonneveld,

1).

The process of georeferencing delivers spatial information to paper documents providing

the ability to align with real-world geographic features (Fleet et al.). In the case of Miami

University, the historic vegetation maps are given spatial reference points that coincide with their

real-world representations, giving them the ability to correlate with reality. Advantages to

georeferencing historic documents include: an improved retrieval mechanism, a better

understanding of early map contents and how they were constructed, combining map data (in

regards to the Küchler collection, vegetation) with other physiological aspects for further

analysis, and comparing multiple historic, georeferenced maps to understand change (Fleet et al.)

Tsioukas (1) states that creating a georeferenced digital-image file can prove beneficial for the

study and comparative analysis of historic landscapes.

One problem in mapping out vegetation, though, is that it is dynamic in the sense that it

continuously evolves. Recognizing this is important and using both, a historical and

technological approach can aid in the process of identifying change. Küchler and Zonneveld

suggests that comparing maps of the same location from different dates can shed light on, “…the

exact rate and direction of change …and, in turn, can show the nature of the processes involved

in this evolution” (321). In reference to land-use, vegetation maps are very useful in detecting

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change and can show improvement or deterioration of vegetation from anthropogenic forces

(Küchler and Zonneveld, 326).

Historical Approaches: Ross Keasling

In the era, that A.W. Küchler was performing his mapping and forest surveys, tools and

processes were much different from the modern methods of the twenty-first century. Formal

forestry mapping within the United States and more specifically the Great Lakes region started in

1922 with the Land Economic Survey Program (Chase, 2). This program was initiated in

response to the rapid depletion of natural resources, especially that of timber.

Land surveyors of this time utilized tools and instruments adequate for the job; however,

they were much more laborious and less efficient in comparison to those of today’s standards.

The primary tool of the day was a “chain”(Figure 1); these chains were ruggedly constructed but

precise measuring tools. They were calibrated often but could be dragged through rough terrain

for years (Backsight Magazine, 1). At this point in history, one important aspect of using the

chain as a form of measurement was, the chain had been the preferred unit of measure on most

prior United States land survey to date. Its use included the surveying of millions of mapped

acres charted in sections, townships and ranges. Foresters prefer using the same system and units

of measure that were originally used to survey most forest boundaries on public lands. (Nix, 1)

These chains could be

obtained in various styles and by

different names. Those used in the

forest service were called a

“Gunter” or land surveyors chain

and were sixty-six feet long

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consisting of one hundred, equal sized, oval links, each connected with two round rings. Each

link including the rings were seven and ninety-two hundredths inch long. Each chain set had

handles at each end and formed the end links. In addition, included in the Gunter style chain

were ‘tallies” marking the ten, twenty, thirty and fortieth links with the fiftieth being rounded to

distinguish it from the others (Backsight Magazine, 1). The methodology was equally lacking

advancement. In the past, land surveying results were not highly accurate, not due to the abilities

of the land surveyors themselves, but due to the inaccuracy of the tools to which they had access.

Another tool used in conjunction with the chains were a common compass (Land Surveyors.com,

un-named author)

Gifford Pinchot developed the primary method of land survey and assessment in the early

1930’s; he developed a plan of systematic inventories in which strip sampling was used. The

methodology utilized samples, which were “1-chain wide and 10-chains long”. Crews of three

persons, consisting of two measurers and one tallyman (LaBau, 14), laid out these small square

plots.

These strip methods were utilized by various surveyors of the time. Also used was a

method known as the line plot method. This was somewhat like the cruise line; however, it used

a system of following compass lines, spaced parallel, and ten miles apart. On these lines were

quarter acre plots at intervals of 660 feet (ten chains) apart. The circular, quarter acre plots had a

radius of 58.87 feet. It was later discovered that problems arose with the line plot method and in

the late 1930’s; statisticians recommended abandoning the strip and line plot methods. The

surveying methods, however, did not change much until after World War II when sampling

methods incorporated photogrammetric techniques (LaBau, 14).

Technological Approaches: Meghan Jones

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Next to the historical approach is a technological one. Introduced in Küchler and

Zonneveld’s Vegetation Mapping (1988), the use of geographic information systems (GIS) is a

beneficial way to store and analyze multiple data together (163). Pros to the use of GIS in terms

of vegetation change analysis is that the user can combine geographic and non-geographic

aspects together like time, elevation, location, and vegetation type; but can also retrieve specific

aspects for analysis. This is time and cost effective (Küchler and Zonneveld, 165-180).

Franklin et al. and Peterson et al. provide real-world case studies of the application of

GIS in regards to forest resource management and historical land-cover analysis, respectively.

From their article, Franklin et al. used vegetation maps to assess forest resources and provide a

baseline for land-cover; they stated that change in vegetation could present information like

ecosystem distribution, habitat suitability, and more (1211). Their methods include both remote

sensing and GIS aspects; processing was done at the pixel value, but all was later converted into

vector format. They used georeferenced data, Landsat images, terrain models, and other GIS data

to analyze forest health and change. Overall, the map they derived was cost efficient, and very

accurate to aid in land management decisions (Franklin et al. 1212-1213). The methods used can

relate to the analysis of invasive species effects on vegetation change, their results can similarly

be used in forest health, and management practices.

Peterson et al. uses a Küchler potential natural vegetation (PNV) map to compare to a

current (study completed in 2004) map of Kansas. This was used to reflect on change induced

from anthropogenic forces since European settlement, similar to the urbanization analysis

completed with the Miami Küchler collection on Michigan. They manually digitized the PNV

map, converted it to raster format, recoded the legend to eight classes, and completed a change

analysis based on the vegetation classes (Peterson et al. 106-107). They accounted for error with

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classification differenced but concluded that significant changes have occurred with different

vegetation types. This study and methods can be directly involved in the team’s Michigan

change analysis.

Küchler Maps Georeferencing

Workflow: Ross Keasling (Appendix A)

Methods: Dale Hathaway

The Küchler Map collection workflow (Figure 2) was broken down into multiple steps in

order to project maps within the ArcMap program and have them shown on an online database.

Through this online database, all can reference the Küchler Map collection. A portion of this

large collection was given to our group in order to digitize these maps through the semester. The

files were provided for us to use through the CIM lab computers; this was saved on a hard drive,

in order for us to use numerous computers within the lab.

The first

step in the

process

was to

collect

metadata. This process began with reading the map and recording the items that were located

within the legend. These were uploaded into a spreadsheet and labeled as a point, polygon, or

line for later software manipulation purposes. If the group was unable to find the column

corresponding to the specific vegetation type, then inserting a new column in alphabetical order

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to upload that information was necessary. The team also uploaded information involving the

scale of the map, and any other data that would be useful but not in the legend.

The next step within the workflow process was to use Adobe Photoshop in order to

prepare our collarless map data. This includes removal of the legend, and surrounding geological

data that increased file size. It is very important to try to make the data look as clean as possible,

in order to project a nice map. We used the crop tool in order to get the image to its minimal size,

and implicated tools to remove the unneeded data. The eraser tool was very useful in the

extraction of this data, along with select by polygon tool. We selected these items, moved them

to a new layer and then deleted the data. Once this is done, the next step of digitization is

performed.

Digitization is a very tricky step, in order to project a nice map, the initial points have to

be represented perfectly or it could distort the map projection. The team would place a base map

and the file in ArcMap, and then would connect them through the process of geo-referencing.

First, locate a point on the Küchler Map, and then locate that exact location on the base map. It is

important to spread out the first couple of points, before articulating into detail. Once a user

reaches 40 to 50 points, they should then choose projection, this can be in 1st, 2nd, or 3rd order

polynomial. Once the data points are collected, the group went back to the datasheet and

uploaded the map coordinates of the image.

Once all of the data has been documented and saved, the next step is to rectify. We save

the collarless rectified version of this map in order for it to be projected into the online database

accurately and with minimal hard drive space used. This final step is the most important step

within this project, it is very important that this be done correctly. The file format should be

a .PNG or a .GIF and once opened again later, will have all spatial recognition saved.

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Results: Courtney Misich

The selection of maps provided focused on the United States with the exception of a few

world maps. The group completed maps in the states of Maine Connecticut, Virginia, North

Carolina, Tennessee, Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, and Arkansas (Figure 3). Overall, the team

finished a total of forty maps that have their metadata in the spreadsheet and are collarless and

georeferenced (Appendix B). The group completed forty completed maps prepared to be entered

into a searchable database about the Küchler maps for researchers in addition to past groups

work. The database is a work in progress and is still unavailable to the public. The Metadata

contained a wide variety and combinations of land cover that were added to the spreadsheet

(Figure 4). Additionally, the legends caused issue due to the extensive items under one category

such as " but the spreadsheet was corrected to have combinations and land covers with multiple

categories to all have a standard format as the client requested. Data that was in foreign

languages was translated to English and copied in its original language as well to provide

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additional options for search ability. Overall, the group collected all the Metadata from the

maps, which prepare these maps to be placed into a database as well as being reduced down to

their study area.

The process of reducing the maps down to their study area or “collarless” proved difficult

at times due to the detailed and intricate nature of the borders of some study areas. A few maps

need clarification on where the edge of the study area is however; their Metadata was still put

into the spreadsheet. The team utilized Photoshop to limit the file down to only the study area

even in when there were difficulties with the shape of the edges and borders. Furthermore, when

the team georeferenced the maps, members researched the areas of that the map covered to

ensure that the study area would be in the correct location while accounting for changes in the

landscape. This is the more difficult aspect of digitizing the maps where an incorrect format of

file, unclear study area border, or ill placed georeferenced point can create issues in finishing

georeferencing a map. Overall, the greatest challenge in georeferencing and digitizing the maps

was a result of natural forces on the landscape such as erosion and soil deposits and the accuracy

of the hand drawn maps. Each member faced challenges in completing maps with these

difficulties but ultimately all prevailed and finished georeferencing the maps.

Ultimately, the results of the first four goals aided the group in determining which maps

and aspects of land cover to analyze in order to provide uses for the maps when the database of

the Küchler collection is completed. Ross Keasling and Dale Hathaway determined that there

was a variety of maps that covered the Midwest to analyze the Emerald Ash Borer’s progression

beginning in Michigan and the areas of migration. Meghan Jones and Courtney Misich were

interested in how the land cover had changed over the time span of the collection. They noticed

that the state of Michigan had a higher number of maps from the mid-nineteenth century to the

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1960s. Overall, the completion of forty Küchler maps not only prepared the maps for the

database while also providing King Library with examples to demonstrate the significance of this

collection.

Example Uses of Georeferenced Küchler Map Collection

Example #1: Emerald Ash Borer

Introduction: Ross Keasling

Emerald Ash Borer, an invasive species, has infested the continental United States since the

early 1990's and formally recognized in the year 2002. This exotic beetle having a short life span

maintains the ability to initiate the death of an ash tree while still in the larvae stage of its life.

Sources report countless billions of ash trees have been killed off and estimates are that ninety-

nine percent of all ash tree populations will be affected. To date, there has been no remedies

found to fight the infestation and the spread has now covered nearly half of the states within the

continental United States in addition to Canadian provinces.

Origin and Migration to U.S.: Ross Keasling

The Agrilus planipennis fairmaire, more commonly known as the Emerald Ash Borer

(EAB) is currently found in twenty-two North American States and two Canadian provinces

(McCullough) this insect is of the exotic beetle family and adult species are approximately

15mm in length and 7mm wide (Figure 5). The common name is derived from the emerald green

sheen found covering most the body coupled with the fact they bore into ash tree’s (EABinfo).

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The emerald ash borer is believed to have its origins in Asia and more specifically China

(Bray, 1). This fact was secured when researchers collected EAB samples from the countries of

Japan, South Korea and China; these were then compared to adjacent samples collected from

North America in the states of Michigan, Indiana, Ohio and Ontario in Canada. The testing

consisted of various forms of DNA (mtDNA and AFLP-fragment length polymorphisms) which

resulted in a matching of 139 scoreable bands (markers) between the Asian and North American

specimen, excepting those obtained from Japan.

Regarding this DNA testing of EAB between the Asian and North American varieties, it

was noted that due to the rarity of the emerald ash borer in Mongolia, Taiwan and Russia, no

samples have yet to be found for genetic testing (Bray, 1).

When these shiny green beetles first became apparent within the United States, specialists

at the Smithsonian Institute and London’s Museum of Natural History could not identify them.

Eventually, an entomologist in Slovakia, who intensely studied these and other beetles, could

identify the specimens. Still the species had no common name until the MSU entomologist and

their colleagues came up with “emerald ash borer” (McCullough).

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Emerald ash borers are believed to have a life cycle of one year, with a few making a full

two-year cycle. The female beetles lay their eggs in bark cracks. The tiny white larvae hatch

from eggs with one week and then bore through the bark and into the cambium layer of the tree.

Larvae feed under ash tree bark from mid-summer through the following spring. Pupation occurs

in spring and the generation of adults emerges shortly thereafter (Entomology)

Regarding the emerald ash borer migration to the United States, all sources point to some

means of un-identified cargo vessel from or passing through Asia and most likely China. The

cargo would have contained solid wood packaging material made of ash wood and could have

been crating, pallets or stabilizing boards (Entomology).

The first detected and documented emerald ash borer was in south-east Michigan near

Detroit in the year 2002; however, scientist believe they could have been within U.S. borders a

decade earlier yet undetected. A study conducted and published in the journal Diversity and

Distributions; show that EAB’s were feasting on ash trees in southeast Michigan by the early

1990’s (McCullough). This study, by utilizing slender core samples found ash trees killed as

early as 1997.

With a death loss time of two to three years from infestation to complete tree death, this

would have trees dead in 1997 infested as early as 1994. The study, which made this important

identification, consisted of a study area more than 5,800 square miles in Michigan. The study

also showed that while some of the infestation was “natural” (adult beetles moving from tree to

tree); new satellite populations were started by people transporting infested ash trees, wood and

lumber. By 2003, the EAB problem had spread beyond the six county (5800 square mile) study

area (McCullough).

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Discovery in the United States and Spread since 2002: Dale Hathaway

The Emerald Ash Borer (EAB) was possibly transported to the United States through an

international cargo plane through wood packing material. The location where this species was

first found was in Detroit, Michigan. In the summer of 2002, the first indications of EAB were

found in the area. Although they were unable to confirm, scientists believe they have been in the

area for a couple years, and detection of the species took some lapsed time. The tendencies of

EAB within the United States are much different from their original habitat within Asia. Here,

the species has heavily repopulated and migrated across over most of the Midwest, New

England, and Southern states. In Asia, the species never generates a large population and

migrates at a smaller scale.

In the year of 2002, the state of Michigan concluded that there were six counties that

have reported the species within their jurisdiction. The insufficient information on the Emerald

Ash Borer caused problems and confusion as to why the species overtook 16 new counties in

2003. Michigan State University conducted research into the Emerald Ash Borer and some of the

possible treatments that could be involved in order to help stop or prolong the pest. It was found

that many of the products that were initially implemented to fight this pest were insufficient in

maintaining the tree from infestation. It was also stated that the inability to see long-term effects

of the pesticides concluded that there was no proof if a tree could fully survive after treatment.

Their prognosis was that EAB would soon become a national crisis. The reproduction rates and

inability to stop the pest may result in massive ash tree loss. Professionals stated that we should

donate more efforts to possible treatment options in order to maximize potential to combat this

pest. Currently in 2016, there is still no cure from keeping this pest away from our ash trees.

(Roberts)

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Once Emerald Ash Borer has been reported in an area, it will soon experience total

infestation. The Michigan State University research study was correct in predicting that this was

a possible national crisis. Today, the species has evolved into becoming resistant to certain types

of pesticides, and funding to update these pesticides are just currently unavailable. We found that

there is no fight against this pest, and current pesticides and treatments used today are not

guaranteed. These pesticides are completely experimental and are designed to be applied only by

professional arborists (Herms).

What we have now is a country with over 700 counties that have documented reports of

Emerald Ash Borer. It was very hard to predict the growth of this species, and it is difficult to

believe that anyone predicted that the species would experience so much growth within a small

amount of time. All states east of the Mississippi River excluding Maine, Louisiana, and Florida

have reported instances of trees found with EAB. This infestation is nothing compared to the

EAB inhabitants of Asia, that portion of the species did not experience the same growth of those

found within the United States. In Asia, it was considered a minimal pest of the ash species;

therefore, no scientific studies were performed in order to predict biology, ecology, enemies, or

management solutions (Bauer).

The growth within the state of Michigan was consistent, and within four years over 80%

of the counties in Michigan experienced problems with ash. The national government had to

intervene, in order to combat these pests. The United States introduced three different types of

stingless wasps in order to help combat the EAB on the edges of infected areas in order to help

stop the spreading of the species. Almost one million wasps have since been generated in order

to help fight EAB and studies have shown that this is the most productive use of our money to

fight EAB since we began research. (Miller)

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The current infestation we are experiencing with EAB may regress with the introduction

of these wasps, but the results are still yet to be seen. As we have seen that these wasps are not

allowing the population to increase at its dramatic rate, but it is still increasing, and we are still

losing trees and may continue to do so. We chose to look at the Küchler Maps in the state of

Michigan, so we could correlate forestry types, with the infestation of counties. An area analysis

can show us the amount of infestation during an amount of time. This information will not only

tell us the migratory patterns of the EAB, but also an estimation of tree loss and concentration of

funding to areas slightly or not affected by EAB.

Workflow (Figure 6)

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Methods: Dale Hathaway

In order to detect ash tree loss due to Emerald Ash Borer, Küchler maps were

investigated for having depicted forestry types related to ash trees. The group conducted an

analysis that was performed within seven different steps. The first objective of the group was to

locate two maps, one map that was able to indicate forestry types in a timeframe slightly before

the introduction of Emerald Ash Borer within the United States. The next map to be used was of

indication through field records, a map that depicted forestry pre-European development. The

survey map was located within the Library special collections library. The map was configured

from field records prior to European expansion. The vegetation map was a map that belonged to

the Michigan Geographic Alliance, with resources from Central Michigan University and

produced in 1991. These images were then uploaded into Photoshop in order to create a

collarless version. Using the magic eraser, and the polygonal lasso tool, group members

produced two collarless versions of these maps. One map was produced of the entire lower

peninsula of the state of Michigan. The second map produced was a collarless version of only

ash tree forestry types.

Both of these images were then uploaded to ArcMap to undergo proper digitization. The

first image uploaded for both datasets were the maps produced including the entire lower

peninsula of Michigan. This map was digitized through 50 points and then was chosen within 2nd

order polynomial. The image depicting only forestry types that included ash was then overplayed

and polygons were recognized and were digitized in order to match original data map. This map

was also digitized with 50 points and was chosen as second order polynomial. The completion of

both maps gave ability to give spatial recognition and giving opportunity to proceed to next step.

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Using editor tool, polygons were formed with dataset involving forestry types that

involved ash trees. With the creation of a new shapefile, these polygons were drawn in order to

replicate the forestry types that included ash trees. The necessary map data for the analysis was

converted into these shapefiles in order to get spatial analysis information. The data was then to

be divided up into a yearly statistic.

Selection of counties by year was performed using the select by attributes tool. Years

2002-2006 were performed on a yearly basis, the years of 2007-2011 included a small amount of

data so they were combined and included within the same dataset. Once this county data was

divided by year it was then time to clip the shapefile using the parameters of the yearly county

detection file. All timeframes were used resulting in our complete analysis by year.

In each year, the attribute table was opened in order to add a field to calculate the area in

square miles. A new field was created named SQMiles, and the calculate geometry tool was

performed within the new field. This calculation gave us the square miles of ash included

forestry loss to EAB by year. This data was then replicated in excel in order to find sum of

values, and analysis was conducted in both datasets that involved 1 ash tree per every 60 feet of

forestry.

Results: Dale Hathaway

Results were concluded and the data related to ash tree loss was in the hundreds of

millions. Datasets were examined, ash related forestry types of 1991 and ash related forestry pre-

European development. In both instances, we saw an increase of 300% from year one to year

two. Within the pre-European settlement dataset, 92% of counties containing ash related forestry

types were infected within the first 5 years. Within ash related forestry types of 1991, we see

only 79% of ash related forestry infected within the first five years. The explanation behind this

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is directly related to the separation of ash related forestry types within the north central portion of

the peninsula. The ash species migrated up the western seaboard in order to get to the northern

part of the peninsula thus creating the high infection in later years. In addition, these forestry

types are considered secondary forestry because of these ash related forestry types did not exist

in the pre European settlement map. Both maps predicted over 100 million ash tree deaths

occurred within the state of Michigan over the span of the infestation of Emerald Ash Borer. The

loss within pre European settlement was over 118 million specimens, and the estimated loss with

1991 dataset gave us a loss of over 113 million. In-between the pre European map and the map

of 1991, primary forestry within the northern part of the peninsula was phased out and the

introduction of ash related forestry accumulated land mass.

The dataset involving 1991 was a broader area as to where the pre-European dataset was

more condensed and a larger area located specifically in the southern half of the state. The initial

introduction into the area gave the EAB the ability to move freely within the first year and

accumulate square footage of infestation. Once the species became land-locked within the

peninsula, this is when population growth began to level out, and species migrated south in order

to find new specimens of ash. Within the first ten years of the infestation, all ash populations

were infected in the state of Michigan. Now as a country we have over 700 counties infected,

this is about 1/3rd of our country infected with this species and that statistic does include counties

that do not contain ash trees. The calculation is actually much worse; the recent introduction into

Kansas has many scientists worried. On the other hand, The United States still have states east of

the Mississippi like Maine, and Florida who have yet to experience the pest. The conclusion that

can be drawn is that the population will triple within the first year of introduction to a new

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environment. When there is no confinement from spatial attributes, the population grows

dramatically until it is spatially confined.

Discussion: Dale Hathaway

The information found in this data analysis was calculated into a formula in order to

calculate total ash tree loss. The x-factor within the formula is the determination that calculated

one ash tree for 3600 square feet. The results exemplify that in a situation of the introduction to a

new environment the species will triple within the first year of inhabitance. In the discussion of

newly inhabited Kansas and Louisiana, the data used from Michigan analysis could be replicated

to approximate the intrusion of the species. This information could be relayed to the state in

order to determine the calculated area and determination of tree loss in relation to the events that

occurred within the state of Michigan. Without the use of new technology, it is to be expected

that Emerald Ash Borer will see similar growth patterns to the EAB inhabitants within the state

of Michigan. The EAB has the ability to repopulate at increasing rates as long as there is new

area to develop for future EAB. The population saw steady growth after a spike from the first

year of inhabitance until the land mass was all inhabited by EAB. There is no deterrent as to

results concluded that temperature changes to not prohibit expansion of population of EAB it

only slows the process of migration. The single deterrent of EAB population growth is the

inhabitance of all ash related forestry, thus creating competition and eventually migration or

death.

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Urban Growth: No One Settles in the Upper Peninsula

Introduction: Meghan Jones

After the process of converting map files into georeferenced, rectified images the group

was asked to complete the fifth goal of the project and find uses of the Küchler collection. Two

ideas were formed, one being the impact of invasive species on vegetation and the second being

how urbanization trends have affected potential vegetation; both analyzing within the state of

Michigan. For this section of the Küchler collection project the Michigan maps as well as

potential natural vegetation (PNV) map will be the baseline for the total change analysis. The

PNVM is based on the United States before European contact. As stated within the literature

review, there have been various methodologies in the creation of historic maps. Similarly, in

regards to Küchler’s PNV map a certain methodology was utilized to understand and then map

out the potential, climax vegetation of an area.

The term succession refers to a long-term development of plant populations and

communities that are gradually replaced by others. It is thought that without anthropogenic

forces, the plant succession would end in stable climax vegetation (Küchler and Zonneveld, 375).

This climax stage can be referred to as the ‘natural vegetation’. The phrase ‘potential natural

vegetation’ is explained as an indication of the production-potential of a habitat, being a symbol

of both, the existing and possible vegetation types of that habitat (Küchler and Zonneveld, 376).

This can produce questions on how man-made factors are removed from the process of creating

these maps, but the following steps provided from Küchler and Zonneveld’s book, Vegetation

Mapping, by the author’s, Tüxen and Trautmann offer a methodology on how to do so.

(1) Recognize and describe the near-natural plant communities of the selected area to be

mapped. (Pollen research can aid in understanding change and stability in vegetation.) (2) In

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forested areas, the shrubs and trees can provide a sense of the woody elements of the climax

stage. (When creating this type of map, one should not include instances of individual or small

patches of species since potential natural vegetation is set on a wider scale.) (3) Secondary (or

replacement) plant communities form from human impact and can be indicators on natural or

near-natural vegetation. Assessing what secondary community belongs to the different types of

natural vegetation is vital. Moreover (4) the soil profile of the location to be mapped is

important. Other geologic factors such as elevation and exposition are useful indicators as well

(Küchler and Zonneveld 379-384). Peterson et al. provide a case-study example in using

Küchler's PNV map in a forestry services analysis. Küchler (1988) states in his text that it may

be useful when creating or using a large-scale PNV map to include the actual vegetation for

analysis (385); this is what the group decided to do.

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Along with the use of Küchler's potential natural vegetation map, others from the

collection were utilized to complete a change analysis over time. There are three other maps of

the state of Michigan that range from 1830 to 1970 within the forty completed this semester

(Figure 8). Additional data was used from The National Map (their USGS land-cover maps) to

aid in representing the urbanization trends in the state. Together, all of the Michigan maps were

combined with literature to complete a change analysis.

Development of Urban Areas in Michigan: Courtney Misich

The impact of human intervention has altered the landscape and in Michigan the

difference is seen by the development of the urban areas mainly in the southern peninsula.

Kathryn Flint describe the influence of humans, “across landscapes throughout the world that

support human habitation agriculture has been a dominant form of disturbance shaping natural

communities. Many regions have experience successive changes, with phases of forest clearance

followed by agricultural abandonment and forest recovery” (Flinn et al., 440). This process of

human intervention impacts the vegetation with agriculture which is center in Michigan's

economy and how man has chosen to settle across the earth. Dr. Schaetzl’s “GEO 33: Geography

of Michigan and the Great Lakes Region” describes the development of Michigan’s vegetation

from prior to European settlement to modern day, this is significant to describe how Michigan's

developing urban and rural areas.

Michigan’s Pre-settlement vegetation types were covered by complex forest cover

conditions. The forests were described as primarily deciduous trees with maples, oaks, and beech

in the Lower Peninsula developing into mixed deciduous and coniferous trees as they move

north. The Upper Peninsula was ruled with northern hardwood forests along with large areas of

sandy plains. Most of the development occurred in the south that removed a majority of the

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forests and developed into farmlands and suburban areas. Schaetzl describes the impact of

human influence on land cover, “human intervention, such as harvesting, fire and clearing for

development, has profoundly affected the composition of Michigan’s forest base. While the area

of forest coverage has generally rebounded since the timber boom of the last century, few

regions of the State contain the same mixture of tree species that existed prior to settlement”

(Schaetzl, Flora). The estimated difference " for Michigan’s pre-European landscape are not

directly comparable on a class by class basis because of major differences in how they were

derived (satellite image classification versus interpolation of land surveyor notes), the major

changes in land cover are evident. The State of Michigan was 90% forested pre-European

settlement and is about 50% forested today" (Donovan, 6). Supporting examples are available in

Küchler and Zonneveld (379-284). Human impact on the vegetation of Michigan is the focus of

our study and Schaetzl describes why this question is so significant to understand the effects on

humans on the land.

Michigan was beginning to be populated during the 1830 with the Erie Canal. The

population began to grow during the mid-nineteenth and twentieth centuries with the waves of

people moving west. In 1830, almost all the population was in the southeast with the central

Michigan and Upper Peninsula neglected due to the poor soil and short growing season. The

census of 1850 has a quarter of the state's total area containing over 98% of the state's

population. This benefits the vegetation in the North by keeping it relatively constant without

human interaction. During the second half of the nineteenth century Michigan developed a

mining industry in the Upper Peninsula, they mine copper and iron ore, which brought new

populations into the peninsula and begin the process unsettling the Upper Peninsula. Diverse

trees throughout Michigan also created a lumber industry, which would clear much of the land.

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Lumber and mining were the main non-agricultural industries throughout Michigan and which

drove the settling of the Northern areas of the state until the early twentieth century. The wealth

from the lumber and mining industries helped build the auto industry in Detroit due to the large

fortunes made. However, the major legacy of the lumber and mining industries was the

settlement, subsequent failure of farmers, and then declining industry in the central and Upper

Peninsula. Both areas of Michigan are currently utilized for recreation and conservation.

(Schaetzl, European Settlement)

Furthermore, Michigan has historically and largely been an agricultural Society. Most of

the Farmland is in the southern part of Lower Michigan. (Schaetzl, Agriculture) While the other

major land cover is forest, Michigan has a history of active human intervention through

harvesting, fire and clearing the forest. There is actually no virgin forest left in Michigan due to

the logging industry and clearing first settlement. Traditionally in the Northern areas there are

pine and pine-oak species that flourish areas hemlock, fir and spruce. Most of the densely

forested area in Michigan is located in the Upper Peninsula where it was more difficult to gain

access and is less populated in the south. The regrowth of forest has been seen largely in the

central and Upper Peninsula where land values are lower and the demand's less for agriculture.

The increased woodlands are due to State ownership over land and were agriculture is difficult.

(Schaetzl, Forestry)

Between 1910 and 1940, Michigan three distinct areas the South central and upper

peninsula had three different population trends. The decline of the Upper Peninsula is due to the

large world population with only a handful of urban centers. As the central region’s decline

continued slowly, again due to it's a large largely rural status. The urban areas in Michigan in the

south, containing more than half of the State's population, dominant the state’s resources,

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landscape, and economy. It is easy to see this trend stem from the growing automobile industry

at the time. (Schaetzl, Change through Time) As the suburbs became the norm during the fifties

and sixties, the urban areas begin to sprawl out from the center. This caused urban sprawl with

smaller cities surrounding large centers and changing the landscape once again. (Schaetzl,

Changes in Michigan’s Cities: Urban Sprawl)

In order to summarize the impact of urban growth, the Michigan Gap Report published

their findings in 2001. They stated that before European settlement, Michigan was composed of

vast forests, grasslands, and wetlands. However, by 2004, the Southern Lower Peninsula suffered

deforestation, plowing of grasslands, and the wetlands were drained. In their place are

agricultural lands, large areas of land used for urban planning, and cities. The Northern Lower

Peninsula lost its forests to clearing and fires, been cleared for agriculture, and then abandoned.

Now the area has a large public land bases and is becoming a recreation destination. While the

Upper Peninsula lost its mining industry and most of its industrial logging. It currently has small

urban centers along the shores in contrast to its vast wetlands and forests (Donovan, 70-71).

Methods and Workflow: Courtney Misich

The initial vegetation maps derives from the Miami University Library Küchler Maps

Collection that has eight maps that utilize Michigan as its study area with the majority created in

the 1920s to the 1960s while also containing a vegetation map from the 1830s. This provides a

hundred-thirty-year period of land cover data for the state of Michigan. For more recent land

cover maps of the state, the National Land Cover Dataset run by USGS which has available land

cover for the years 2001, 2006, and 2011. Additional land cover maps utilized from Michigan

Information Center, the University of Michigan, and the Conservation Biology Institute in order

to had data between 1960 and 2000. However the maps will be examined based upon there

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different methods, scale, and land cover classification. Land cover will be referenced as the map

is and hand drawn maps will be analyzed separately from the more modern maps. The maps and

their metadata recorded into a table in order to provide a timeline for the maps. Then all maps

are projected into Web Mercator with the WGS 1984 datum from their original projections as the

preference of King Library.

Then all the data was prepared to the extent of Michigan through either clip or mask

depending on the data type. The vector data was the potential natural vegetation and historical

maps then were clipped. While the raster data was the NLCD from USGS that was masked to the

state outline. Next was to digitize the urban areas of the NLCD and historic urban maps from the

years of 1994 to 2011. Digitizing the maps requires for a new shape file to be created and the

polygon to be drawn in an edit session, the creation of new polygons makes the data subjective.

They have been created for our analysis to be understood for our bias and abilities. For the

NLCD’s polygons, the land cover described as low, medium, and high developed was selected

by attribute. Then polygons were drawn over the selected areas to best represent urban areas that

are clearly represented towns or cities. Moreover, for the historic urban maps the urban areas

were clearly defined in relation to the rural areas. For the 1999 metro areas map, the legend

defines three kinds of metropolitan areas: metropolitan statistical area consolidated metropolitan

statistical area, and primary metropolitan statistical area. The area selected to draw polygons was

the primary metropolitan statistical area since it was determined to represent the variety of urban

areas of Michigan (Figure 9). These processes are similar to Flinn, Vellend, and Mark's methods

in digitizing historical maps and aerial photographs in order to create land-use maps for central

New York (Flinn et al., 441-443).

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Next, these urban areas were summarized for total area. The urban areas were then used to

intersect the potential natural vegetation, which would be used to determine the impact of

urbanization on the potential natural vegetation (Figure10).

In order to compare either the growth or decline of

urban areas in Michigan, all of the urban areas are combined

with a union and have a total area summary for all of the

urban areas. Additionally, each urban area will have a total

area summary in order to provide quantitative evidence for

the differences between the urban areas. Then in order

address how each potential vegetation type has been affected

or impacted by the growth of urban areas, the clipped

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potential natural vegetation will be compared for each year and total area (km/sq) within the

urban polygons; this will be done using the intersect tool for each year of analysis. For each

intersected urban areas of potential natural vegetation, the vegetation types will be summarized

to show the total area for each type that will be used to compare changes over time. These

comparisons for both the urban areas and potential natural vegetation will be summarized in a

table to demonstrate how the areas have changed over the two-hundred-year period.

Results: Meghan Jones and Courtney Misich

The second portion of discovering ways to utilize the Küchler Map collection was

decided on analyzing urban sprawl’s impact on potential natural vegetation within Michigan.

One way the group decided to do this was through using the geoprocessing tool; intersect. The

potential natural vegetation map was combined with urban areas in the state of Michigan only

where they overlap. To bring the analysis out further, the group created a time sequence of urban

areas starting in 1994 with sequential steps in the years of 1999, 2001, 2006, and 2011. An

intersect was done for each of these years. The results proved interesting between the years as

well as between the upper and Lower Peninsula.

First, the team will provide visuals for a better understanding of the results. Appendix C

displays the major cities within the state of Michigan to use as reference through the results and

discussion. Visually, the difference between urban areas changes slightly within the seventeen-

year span from 1994 to 2011, Figure 11 displays each year’s urban areas individually, Appendix

D displays all urban areas together, and Appendix E displays the urban areas overlaying the

potential natural vegetation.

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In regards to the intersection of urban areas with potential natural vegetation, five tables

were created with the results (Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5). There were six

dominant vegetation categories located within the urban polygons of Michigan: Beech/Maple,

Elm/Ash, Great Lakes Pine, Tall Grass Savanna, Northern Hardwoods, Northern Hardwoods/Fir,

and Oak/Hickory (reference Appendix E). The most predominant vegetation type throughout the

span was Oak/Hickory Forests; this takes up the majority of Detroit, Flint, and Lansing, some of

the largest cities in the state. Its average total percentage of urban cover was 61.74%, much

higher than the other vegetation types. The second most occurring potential vegetation to occur

in the urban areas of Michigan was the Beech/Maple forests; their average total occurrence

within the seventeen-year span was 16.78%.

The lower occurring potential types include the Elm/Ash and Northern Hardwoods

forests; their average occurrence percentage resided at 8.56% and 2.16% respectively. There are

two potential vegetation types that had minimal to no occurrences across the time span. Those

are the Tall Grass Savanna and the Northern Hardwoods/Fir forests. The Tall Grass Savanna

occurs with less than one percent in the years of 1994, 1999, 2001, and 2011, and does not occur

in 2006. The Northern Hardwoods/Fir only occur in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, where

urban areas were not show in in the 1990 images, but are included in the NLCD images from

2001 to 2011. These are why there are no occurrences in tables 1 and 2, but have minimal

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relevance with an average of 1.61% after the year of 2001 and 0.97% throughout the seventeen-

year span.

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Discussion: Courtney Misich and Meghan Jones

Historic Küchler Maps, 1830-1940: Courtney Misich When examining these historical vegetation maps, the extent of impacted vegetation is

interesting. It is important to remember, "Michigan’s current land cover is not only the result of

past “natural factors”, such as glaciers and climate, but also 200 years of “very active

management” by humans. This history has resulted in a landscape with both seemly very

discrete, and infinitely continuous, land cover boundaries. Our land cover mapping efforts

required that we put discrete boundaries over the entire landscape. The land cover classification

system that enforces these discrete boundaries was developed by a large group of natural

resource professionals to be useful in the management of Michigan’s natural landscapes"

(Donovan, 21). While the digitizing of land cover is ultimately subjective and interpretive, the

changes within the urban areas tell a story of the economy and the needs of the community. The

1994 map shows the expected urban areas such as Detroit, Flint, and Grand Rapids with some

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smaller cities represented (Appendix C). The map for 1999 is difficult to use for urban growth

comparison because it is sourced from a consolidated Metropolitan area map, while useful for

potential vegetation rather than urban growth.

Then in 2001, we made a conscious decision to capture the urban regions outside of the

south and saw growth in the smaller cities. There are cities represented in the Upper Peninsula

and Upper Lower Peninsula. Also shown are the cities along the southern border that were not in

the 1994 map (Appendix). Furthermore, in the 2006 map, surprisingly there is an increase of

urban areas in the Upper Peninsula and Upper Lower Peninsula where the Lower Peninsula sees

its urban areas shrink and some of the cities on the border are not represented (Appendix ). Then

in 2011, Michigan sees continued growth in the Upper Peninsula and Upper Lower Peninsula.

The state appears to be recovering from an economic decline as seen from the growth of Detroit

and other Lower Peninsula cities (Appendix C).

The historic hand drawn maps created difficulty in

analyzing their land cover. The map from 1830 (Figure 12)

did not utilize color in its legend rather numbers with

indiscrete boundaries. Even without completely digitizing

this map, the different types of land cover in contemporary

urban areas can be seen through the number of different

lines and figures within the outlines. While the 1939 map

contains a more detailed perspective on the distribution of

forests. It again proved difficult to digitize due to its hand

drawn nature. However it can be concluded that the 1939

land cover for the 2001 through 2011 urban areas was primarily agricultural and Aspen brush.

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The final historic map was from 1940 and focused on the presettlement forest types of the Upper

Peninsula. This map digitized well through reclassifying the pixels into three groups; pines,

spruce-fir, and the borders on the map. During the 2001 to 2011 period, the urban areas would

have encroached heavily on the pines of the Upper Peninsula and from 2001 to 2006 the spruce-

fir populations.

1966 Natural Potential Vegetation and Urban Areas: Meghan Jones In regards to the possible natural vegetation that has been affected from the urbanization

trends through Michigan, there are a few major types were impacted. The two dominant

vegetation types within the urban areas of 1994 to 2011 were the Beech/Maple and Oak/Hickory

forests. These two forest types consume the major cities (Appendix C) of Detroit, Flint, Lansing,

and Grand Rapids predominantly. Fralish states the importance of these two forest types in his

article, The Keystone Roles of Oak and Hickory in the Central Hardwood Forest, by explaining

how Oak and Hickory species contribute largely to community richness and providing food and

support for a large number of wildlife (Fralish, 1). He also states that the absence or loss of these

species detract from biodiversity, foliage, and fruit production which then severely impacts bird

and insect populations. This can eventually cause increased soil erosion and decreased soil

nutrients (Fralish, 1). From his statements, the team can conclude that there is a potential for

serious impacts to have occurred when urbanization began to take place.

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Appendix

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A

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B

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C

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D

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E