kissing bugs

16
Kissing Bugs in the United States The Kanlal $chool Nafu,alilf Vol. r:;J No.2 Department of Biological Sciences E EMPORIA STATE UNIVERSITY Spring 2011

Upload: lyhuong

Post on 03-Jan-2017

278 views

Category:

Documents


10 download

TRANSCRIPT

Kissing Bugs in the United States

The Kanlal $chool Nafualilf Vol rJ No2

Department of Biological Sciences

E EMPORIA STATE UNIVERSITY Spring

2011

Kansas School Naturalist rSSN 0022-877X Published by EMPORIA STATE UNIVERSITY Editor JOHN RICHARD SCHROCK Editorial Comminee TOM EDDY BILL JENSEN MARSHALL SUNDBERG R BRENT THOMAS ERIC YANG Circulacion and Mailing ROGER FERGUSON Circulacion (chis issue) 10000 Press Run 15000 Media Designer John Decker Primed by McCormick Armscrong

The Kansas School Naturalist is sene free of charge and upon request ro reachers and anyone interesred in natueal history and nature educarion In-peine back issues are sem free as long as supply lasrs Our-of-prine back issues are sent for one dollar photocopy and poseagehandling charge per issue The Kansas School Naturalist is sent free upon requesr by media mail to all US zipcodes flrsr class to Mexico and Canada and surpound1cemail overseas The Kansas School Naturalist is published by Emporia Srare University Emporia Kansas Posrage paid ar Emporia Kansas Address all correspondence ro Ediror Kamas School Naturalist Department of Biological Sciences Box 4050 Emporia Srare University Emporia KS 66801-5087 Opinions and perspecrives expressed are rhose of rhe aurhors andor ediror and do not reflect the ofllcial posicion or endorsement of ES U Some issues can be viewed online at wwwemporiaedu ksn The Kansas School Naturalist is listed in Ulrichs International Periodicals Directory indexed in Wildlife Re-viewl Fisheries Review and appropriate issues are indexed in rhe Zoological Record The KSN is an irregulae publicaeion issued from one ro four rimes per year

Kissing Bugs in the INTRODUCTION

Kissing bugs are bloodsuc ing =-_

m the order Hemiptera in ( e

Reduviidae Almost all knOmiddot

reside in the New World

They are best known a5

of Chagas disease a di sease 3

by transmission of the blood shy

Trypanosoma cruzi through (heir ~~~-

Vector transmission of Chaga ~

occurs with a number of e-=- _

kissing bugs Chagas is largel ~ O - --~2

to Mexico Central America an~ ~ __ -

America

Although only a few case- 0 i _ shy

Front cover Tiiatoma gerstaeckeri common in sourhern and central Texas Phoro used with permission of Mike Quinn TexasEnronet

Justin O Schmidt has a PhD in Entomology from the University of Georgia He runs a non-profit organizarion Sourhwesrern Biological Insrirure in Tucson Arizona

Lori Stevens is Professor of Biology ar The Universiry of Vermont She received her MS and PhD degrees from rhe University of Illinois Chicago Srevens is intrigued wieh ehe generic inreractions of hosrs and parasites She enjoys visiring family in Leavenworch Kansas

Patricia Dom is a Professor of Biological Sciences ar Loyola University New Orleans She received her PhD from rhe University of Maryland and began her work on Trypanosomiais during her posr-docrora l fellowship ar Sranford Medical School

Mark Mosbacher received his doctoraee of vererinary medicine from the University of Missouri He currently practices emergency veterinary medicine in Phoenix Arizona

John K10tt has a PhD in Entomology from the Universi ty of Kansas and is an Urban Entomology Specialisr Emeritus ar the University of California Riverside and lives in Sedona Arizona

Stephen A K10tt graduared from rhe Universi ty of Kansas and is Chief of Infeceious Diseases ar rhe Universiry of Arizona

transmi ned Chagas disease hamiddote

in the US rhese bugs are corn-middot

southern southeastern and sourhmiddots- --

states

We discuss the biology 0 - ~

bugs their evolu rionary hiscof- - shy

distribution in the United Srare t

they pose for transmission of T shy

pets and other domestic animals 21 _ ~ _

control of kiSSing bugs around h --

habitarions

EVOLUTION OF KISSING BUGS

The 140 or so species of rria w i cmiddot-~

or kissing bugs evolved from a re l ~

predator or assassin bug so i

because it kills its arthropod p ~ shy

injecting potent toxins and prOte shy

that liquefy the insides of the p rhey can be sucked out How shy

~~tf~ and anyone imeresred in narural ~ 2S ~= k lam Our-of-print back issues are ~ ii School Naturalist is senr free upon

~~-- 11d surf1ce mail overseas The Kansas -g opound12~e paid ar Emporia Kansas Address

oi Sciences Box 4050 Emporia Srare bull_ lt_ ~ hrne of rhe aurhors andor ediror and

= re icwed online ar wwwemporiaedu middot=-T tc-ixL lJ a ~) indexed in Wildlife Review

~ is an irregular publicarion issued

ri

-middotnimiddotmiddotcrsinmiddot of

Biological

cil of Vermont She of Illinois

of hosts and

__~~ Lnimiry

--0-( [tcrions

- ~-Oh Lniersiry gt1 vrarvbnd

)()S-Jocrorai

~ t t Ka nsas

hmsas and is

Kissing Bugs in the United States INTRODUCTION

Kissing bugs are bloodsucking insects

in the order Hemiptera in the family

Reduviidae Almost all known species

reside in the New World

They are best known as vecrors

of Chagas disease a disease caused

by transmission of the blood parasite

Trypanosoma cruzi through their feces

Vecror transmission of Chagas disease

occurs with a number of endemic

kissing bugs Chagas is largely confined

to Mexico Central America and South

America

Although only a few cases of insectshy

transmined Chagas disease have occurred

in the US these bugs are common in

southern southeastern and southwestern

states

We discuss the biology of the

bugs their evolutionary hisrory their

distribution in the United States the risk

they pose for transmission of T cruzi ro

pets and other domestic animals and the

control of kissing bugs around human

habitations

EVOLUTION OF KISSING BUGS

The 140 or so species of rriaromines

or kissing bugs evolved from a reduviid

predaror or assassin bug so called

because it kills its arthropod prey by

injecting potent roxins and pro teases

that liquefy the insides of the prey so

they can be sucked our How many

times reduviids have forsaken their

assassin habitS ro become blood sucking

kissers has been a matter of some

controversy The fact that triaromines are

found in as diverse habitats as bird and

opossum nests (arboreal) and armadillo

burrows and rats nests as well as human

habitations (terrestrial) suggests that they

evolved from multiple different predatory

ancesrors (ie are polyphyletic) that

were already associated with arboreal or

terrestrial hosts

The twO mOSt important tribes for

human infection the Triaromini and

Rhodniini are quite divergent suggesting

distinct predatory ancestors However

a recent large study of the evolution of

the Reduviidae using multiple genes and

many morphological characters indicates

that these two tribes arose from the same

predatory ancestor (1) The remaining

three tribes still need to be examined

but so far it appears blood sucking

evolved just once ie the Triatominae are

monophyletic

Classification Hierarchy Rank Taxon

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Arthropoda

Class Insecta

Order Hemiptera

Family Reduviidae

Subfamilies Triatominae

Rhodniini

Genera Triatoma

Paratriatoma

Figure 1 Triatoma sanguisuga the most common triatomine in Kansas and

throughout central and southeastern US Photo by Harold Baquet

Figure 2 Triatoma rubida common in foo (female note pointed projection from en L bull bull

One species Triatoma rubrofosciata

is found around the world and may have

spread in association with ships rats A few other species are found in Southeast

and East Asia however most species

(-125) are found only in the Americas

The Triatomini tribe contains two genera important for human transmission of

Chagas Triatoma and Panstrongyfus the former has the most (80) species and

includes the two most important vectors

for human transmission T inftstans

in South America and T dimidiata in

Mesoamerica (Mexico Central America and northern South America) The

Rhodniini tribe includes the genera

Rhodnius and Psammoestes with Rhodnius

profixus being an important human vector

in northern South America

KISSING BUG SPECIES IN THE UNITED STATES

Ten species of Triatominae (Table

1) are native to the United States (2 3)

where their northern limit is determined

by intolerance of cold temperatures Natural infections of T cruzi have been

found in seven of these species (4) The

Triatominae in the United States belong

to two genera (Paratriatoma and Triatoma)

and include four species complexes within the Triatoma (iecticularia phyllosoma

protracta rubida) The two species

reported in Kansas T sanguisuga and

T ecticularia are in an uncertain status

and lecticularia complex respectivel (Dorn unpublished data) They have the

widest geographical distribution of the

ten species found in the United States

The most widespread species T sanguisuga (Figure 1) and T fectufaria are

mostly sylvatic however in Manhattan

Kansas T sanguisuga was reporred from poultry houses barns and houses

Although there are reports of serious

allergic reactions to their bite no T cruzi transmission to humans has been

reponed in Kansas Thatoma sanguisuga

is commonly associated with raccoons

and opossums and has been found in

large numbers around human dwellings

from Florida to Texas (4)

4

Figure 2 Triatoma rubida common in foothill regions of Phoenix and Tucson=-i ltc common triatomine in Kansas and

(female note pointed projection from end of the abdomen) ~~ _5 Photo by Harold Baquer

p rofixus being an importanr human vecror

in northern South America

- ~ I KISSING BUG SPECIES

IN THE UNITED STATES Ten species of Triarominae (Table

_imiddot~i4 1) are native ro the United States (2 3)

where their northern limit is determined

by intolerance of cold temperatures - - c ~atural infections of T cruzi have been

found in seven of these species (4) The

Triatominae in the United States belong

to twO genera (Paratriatoma and Ti-iatoma )

- 1=a and include four species complexes within

the Ti-iatoma (lecticularia phyllosoma - T- protracta rubida) The two specie

reported in Kansas T sanguisuga an ~

T fecticufaria are in an uncertain status

and lecticularia complex respectively

(Dorn unpublished data) They have the

widest geographical distribution of the

ten species found in the United States

The most widespread species T sanguisuga (Figure 1) and T fectufaria are

mostly sylvatic however in Manhattan

Kansas T sanguisuga was reported

from poultry houses barns and houses

Although there are reportS of serious

allergic reactions to their bite no T cruz i transmission ro humans has been

reported in Kansas Triatoma sanguisuga

is commonly associated with raccoons

and opossums and has been found in

large numbers around human dwellings

from Florida ro Texas (4)

The other kissing bug reported from

Kansas T fecticufaria feeds on opossums

as well as wood rats (Neotoma spp) and the

rock squirrel (Spennophilus variegatus) T indictiva is reported to feed on domestic

and peridomestic animals (See Figures

2-5 for other common triatomines in the

US) All ten species in the United States

are considered sylva tic and have differenr

ecological niches Species in the leticularia

complex prefer open shrubland

woodland and wooded grassland (2)

Wooded grassland is the preferred habitat

for members of the protracta rubida and

phyllosoma complexes The one species

in the United States not in the Ti-iatoma

genus Pamtriatoma hirsuta has a broad

Table 1 Checklist and geographic distribution ofTriatominae of the United Stares

(Not including the cosmopolitan T rubrofoseiata)

Genera Species Species In Kansas States Distribution Complex reported from

Triatoma Uncertain T sanguisuga yes 23

Lectularia Tleeticularia yes 16

T indictiva 3

T inaassata 1

Phyllo soma T recurva 6

T gerstaeckeri 2

Protracta T protroeta 7

T neatamae 1

Rubida T rubida 6

Parotriatoma P hirsuta 5

Alabama Arizona Arkansas Florid a Georgia Illinois Indiana Kansas Kentucky Louisiana MarylandMi ssiss ippi Missouri New Jersey New Mexico N Carolina Ohio Oklahoma PennsylvaniaS Carolina Tennessee Texas Virginia

Arizona California Florida Georgia Illinois Kansas Louisiana Maryland Missouri New Mexico N Carolina Oklahoma PennsylvaniaS Carolina Tennessee Texas

Arizona New MexicoTexas

Arizona

Arizona CaliforniaColorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

New Mexico Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas Utah

Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

Arizona California Colorado NevadaNew Mexico

potential niche much broader than its

current geographical distribution

BIOLOGYAND NATURAL HISTORY OF KISSING BUGS

Kissing bugs have a gradual

development with five immature instars

appearing similar to adults but without

wings They are large bugs with adults

ranging in length from about 12 to 36

mm Both sexes and all five instars feed on

blood ofvertebrates starting with the first

instars which take a blood meal as soon

as 2-3 days after hatching from the egg

They can develop from egg (Figure 5) to

adult in several months in warm tropical

areas when food is readily available In

temperate regions having extended cooler

periods of the year the bugs are typically

univoltine with only one generation per

year In these regions bugs seek refuge in

rodent burrows cavities caves and other

locations with moderate temperatures and

pass the unfavorable times as immatures

in various stages (Figure 4) Adults live

several months occasionally a yea r or

more (5) and feed throughout their

lives In captivity adults of Triatoma

rubida T protraeta or T reeurva live 4-5

months on average Mating lasts only

about 10 minutes a relatively short time

compared ro other hemipterans As with

other hemipterans females readily mate

with multiple males females can srore

sperm for use months later and over their

life span can lay up to several hundred

eggs depending upon conditions (5)

6

Active dispersal is achieved by flight in

adults and by crawling in immatures (6 )

Passive dispersal occurs in some species

by transport of attached eggs to ne

locations by birds or other animals or by

human transport of materials harboring

eggs or free-living stages Active dispersal

of immatures can occur when a shortage

of food sources stimulates bugs to crawl

toward locations potentially having new

hosts Adults typically disperse by fli gh r

around dusk Nutritional s tate and

hunger are powerful drivers of dispersal

(7) Another is the classical reproducti e

strategy in which gravid females retain

eggs for deposition after flight (8 9)

Dispersal is not a primary form of mate

seeking as in many moths and other

insects Evidence against mate seeking

is indicated by equal numbers of femal es

and males captured at lights and the

rapidity with which captured femal es

oviposit fertile eggs (8)

HABITAT AND HOST ASSOCIATION

Triatomine species inhabit a variety ot

ecological environments from generalize

to highly specialized including human

domestic environments Within these

environments they can range from

opportunists feeding on a variety of

host species to specialists feeding on a

limited number of host types Specialists

include Cavernieola pilosa which feeds

on bats Rhodnius spp living in palm

trees where they feed on inhabiting birds

and mammals and Psammolestes spp

which live in bird nests constructed of

rwigs Bird blood meals are sufficient

3 ri bution ofTriatominae of the United States - I I ) -1roiflscUlta

$tates oprtedfrom

I Distribution

Alabama Arizona Arkansas Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Kansas Kentucky louisiana Maryland Mississippi Missouri New Jersey New Mexico N Carolina Ohio Oklahoma Pennsylvania S Carolina Tennessee Texas Virginia

ArizonaCalifornia Florida Georgia Illinois Kansas louisiana Maryland Missouri New Mexico NCarolinaOklahoma Pennsylvania SCarolina TennesseeTexas

Arizona New MexicoTexas

Arizona

ArizonaGJlifornia Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

New Mexico Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas Utah

Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

ArizonaCalifornia Colorado Nevada New Mexico

periods of the year the bugs are typically

univoltine with only one generation per

year In these regions bugs seek refuge in

rodent burrows cavities caves and other

locations with moderate temperatures and

pass the unfavorable times as immatures

in various stages (Figure 4) Adults live everal months occasionally a year or

more (5) and feed throughout their

lives In captivity adults of Triatoma

rubida T protracta or T recurva live 4-5

months on average Mating lasts only

about 10 minutes a relatively short time

compared to other hemipterans As with

other hemipterans females readily mate

wi th multiple males females can stOre

sperm for use months later and over the [ ~

life span can lay up to several hundrec

eggs depending upon conditions (S

Active dispersal is achieved by flight in

adults and by crawling in immatures (6)

Passive dispersal occurs in some species

by transport of attached eggs to new

locations by birds or other animals or by

human transport of materials harboring

eggs or free-living stages Active dispersal

of immatures can occur when a shortage

of food sources stimulates bugs ro crawl

roward locations potentially having new

hosts Adults typically disperse by flight

around dusk Nutritional state and

hunger are powerful drivers of dispersal

(7) Another is the classical reproductive

strategy in which gravid females retain

eggs for deposition after flight (89)

Dispersal is not a primaly form of mate

seeking as in many moths and other

insects Evidence against mate seeking

is indicated by equal numbers of females

and males captured at lights and the

rapidity with which captured females

oviposit fertile eggs (8)

HABITAT AND HOST ASSOCIATION

TriatOmine species inhabit a variety of

ecological environmentS from generalized

ro highly specialized including human

domestic environments Within these

environments they can range from

opportunists feeding on a variety of

host species to specialists feeding on a limited number of host types Specialists

include Cavernicola piLosa which feeds

on bats Rhodnius spp living in palm

trees where they feed on inhabiting birds

and mammals and Psammofestes spp

which live in bird nests constructed of

rwigs Bird blood meals are sufficient

for the bugs to survive and reproduce

but birds are not hosts of T cruzi and

thus alter the parasite transmission cycle

Somewhat more general feeders are T rubrofasciata and members of the T

protracta complex that prefer feeding on

rodents Triatoma infestans T dimidiata

and R profixus are inhabitants of human

domestic environments where they feed

on people and their animals (6) Most

species irrespective of their preferred

habitat can become opportunistic feeders

when other species are available Species

that are generally opportunists can also

be facultative specialists preferring to feed

mainly on one group of hosts if given the

opportunity (10) The Triatoma living

in Arizona are all non-domestic species

that often feed on packrats (Neotoma

spp) yet they readily feed on a variety of

vertebrate hosts they encounter including

humans The Arizona-Sonora Desert

Museum in Tucson Arizona is a regional

educational living zoo that inadvertently

supports large populations of T rubida

and T protracta These bugs plague many

museum animals and sometimes feed

so extensively that they have caused the

death by chronic blood loss of animals

including a rare protected mountain

rattlesnake (James L Jarchow DVM

pers commun) In Kansas Triatoma

sanguisuga like the Arizona species feeds

predominantly on Neotoma raccoons and

opossums but will readily feed on a

variety of other hosts including humans

When and how some species of

triaromines became specialists on humans

is a mystery The subfamily is believed

to have originated about 5 million years

Figure 4 A fifth instar (nymphal stage) of T recurva Note the absence of figure 6 A teneral of T rubida i shy _

wings in the nymphs

8

- shy --t o-ader in California especially

middotmiddotmiddotomiddotva Note the absence of Figure 6 A reneral of T rubida ienewly emerged adult

bull 9

ago in the New World (11) Dates for

the arrival of human beings in the New

World are debated but their estimated

arrival sometime between 14000 to

20000 years ago is relatively recent

Thus shifts in some species of kissing

bugs to specializing on our species are

recent evolutionary events and might

well explain some of our vulnerability to

the T cruzi parasite the bugs transmit to

us

FEEDING BEHAVIOR Kissing bugs rely on multiple sensory

systems to locate hosts These include

gradients of carbon dioxide in the air

odors moisture heat and air flow (12)

They are exquisitely sensitive to carbon

dioxide exhaled by mammals when

breathing being able to detect 75 parts

per million above the background air

levels of 350 parts per million when

a trace of exhaled lactic acid another

attractant is present Cold blooded hosts

including reptiles generate very low levels

of carbon dioxide nevertheless kissing

bugs use many other host-generated

chemical cues including short chained

ali phatic amines and acids 7- to 9-carbon

aldehydes and alcohols and lactic acid to

locate hosts The bugs can also detect

infrared radiation enabling them to orient

toward warm blooded hosts from several

meters Finally they anemotactically

follow the movement of air currents

impregnated with host odors to locate

the host (12) Feeding by bugs in human

domiciles usually takes place at night

with bugs hiding during the day in

cracks and crevices away from the feeding

areas Much less is known about feeding

times for sylvatic (non-domestic) species

Likely they adjust their activity periods to

match the inactive periods of their host

thereby minimizing danger from host

defenses Triatoma rubida and T protracta

do not hesitate to approach and feed on

rodents during bright midday times (13)

a behavior that might well be adaptive for

bugs that often feed on rodents in their

burrows while the rodents are sleeping or

quiescent during the day

Once a host is located a hungry

bug extends its proboscis and inserts it

into the skin of the host Sometimes the

host detects the minor sensation caused

by a bugs probing and moves or shifts

posmon In response the bug usually

retracts somewhat before continuing

probing and feeding Considering that

a bug often imbibes more blood than

its own weight (3) feeding is relatively

rapid lasting on average 22 minutes

for T protracta 28 for T rubida and

between 11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

T dimidiata and R proixus (1 3 14)

Blood is mostly water and the bulkiness

of a large blood meal limits a bugs

movement To eliminate excess water

bugs often defecate during feeding at

completion of feeding or shortly after

leaving the feeding site (Figure 8) Some

species including those domestic species

that frequemly transmit Chagas disease

defecate rapidly and frequently often on

or near the host (14) while others defecate

less rapidly and less frequently often at a

distance from the host (3) Frequency

and proximity of defecation to the host

are considered to be critical factors in

transmitting T cruzi and Chagas

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are th - common cause of insect bites that - -_

in anaphylaxis in the United State --

medical emergency (also causeu - - ~

commonly by bee stings) results -ro ~- =

release of chemical signals in resP Qclt ~

proteins in the bugs saliva ina b _ _ usually causes the individual to r s the emergency room where epineF~~gt _

and other imerventions reverse th - _

blood pressure swollen ai[-as ~=shy

rashes that often accompany anapn- c

Victims usually are awakened at nig shy

shortness of breath difficulty b re-l ~- ~

or generalized itching Othe~ _c ominous allergies include hives se ~

of the eyes swelling at the site 0 - - -t

bite and persistent itching Patiem -_

experience anaphylaxis when re-bi ~-shy

and one adult woman has died ~C _-shythe condition The bite itself is pai

however swelling and inflammatior -shy

the site of the bite may last for middoteeL

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit CI ~

to humans in the United States lt =-__ shy

six such cases have been docunei

Infection with Trypanasoma en is common in several wildlife spe - j -

rare in domestic pets Reported Cd5eS __

10

~--l vluch less is known about feeding

-16 for sylva tic (non-domestic) species

~~Jd~ they adjust their activity periods to

- ch the inactive periods of their host

erltbmiddot minimizing danger from host

erenscs Triatoma rubida and T protracta

_ ~Of hesitate to approach and feed on

rienrs during bright midday times (13)

chlior that might well be adaptive for

_g [hat often feed on rodents in their

transmuting T cruzi and Chagas disease

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are the most

common cause of insect bites that result

in anaphylaxis in the United States This

medical emergency (also caused more

commonly by bee stings) results from the

domestic species

the warmer southern stares There are no

reportS of livestock horses or pigs being

infected Only one case report exists of

infection in a domestic cat in the US

The primary wildlife species in the

United Srates that serve as host reservoirs

for T cruz i are

packrats in the genus Neotoma

and opossums ~ _ -ns while the rodents are sleeping or

-e-cnt during the day

nee a host is located a hungry

extends its proboscis and inserts it

he skin of the host Sometimes the

erects the minor sensation caused

s- Sugs probing and moves or shifts

xsiion In response the bug usually

- = ~-rS somewhat before continuing

iing and feeding Considering that

t~~ often imbibes more blood than

-1 weight (3) feeding is relatively

~i c las ting on average 22 minutes

- ~ ~- porracta 28 for T rubida and

11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

-

3w i

d diara and R prolixus (13 14)

moscly water and the bulkiness

l rge blood meal limits a bugs

bull O1em To eliminate excess water

0 o tten defecate during feeding at

_ -c~E io1 of feeding or shortly after

-T-i ~ he feeding site (Figure 8) Some

~ _-~~ i1Cluding those domestic species

-~-- E~lIently transmit Chagas disease

i-_ ~ ~ rap idly and frequently often on

bullbull -~ ile hos t (14) while others defecate

_ 2-d l and less frequently often at a

_ lt~ ~ r-om the host (3) Frequency

- E - ~igtxi ni( of defecation to the hosr

_~ odered to be critical factors in

release of chemical signals in response to

proteins in the bugs saliva Anaphylaxis

usually causes the individual to rush to

the emergency room where epinephrine

and other interventions reverse the low

blood pressure swollen airways and

rashes that often accompany anaphylaxis

Victims usually are awakened at night by

shortness of breath difficulty breathing

or generalized itching Other less

ominous allergies include hives swelling

of rhe eyes swelling at the site of the

bite and persistent itching Patients may

experience anaphylaxis when re-bitten

and one adult woman has died from

the condition The bite itself is painless

however swelling and inflammation at

the site of the bite may last for weeks

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit Chagas

to humans in the United States only

six such cases have been documented

Infection with Trypanasoma cruz i is

common in several wildlife species but

rare in domestic pets Reporred cases in

are limited ro dogs in

rodents particularly

raccoons

and to a lesser degree

armadillos and skunks T cruzi has been

reporred in more than 20 different wildlife

species in the United States in at least 13 states (15) Wood rats and other rodent

species serve as reservoirs of infection

as rodent dens and nests may harbor

the insect vectors Infection dynamics of

T cruz i isolates appear to vary between

species wirh raccoons being infected wirh

a more virulent genetic strain in which

blood parasites levels peak sooner and

antibodies are more quickly derected rhan

occurs in opossums anorher primary

wildlife reservoir species Additionally

mice injecred with opossum derived T cruzi isolates appear to subsequently

clear the infection and survive whereas

injecting mice with the raccoon derived

strains resulted in a 75 mortality rate

in one study Despite differences in

virulence between the host species strains

pathologic cardiac changes induced by T cruzi have been observed at necropsy in

both raccoons and opossums

Prevalence of T cruz i in wildlife

species varies but infection rates as high

as 62 occurred in raccoons tested

in various states (16) Infection rates

appear to be generally highest in coastal

locations with the elevated rates assumed

11

T cruzi exposure in many southern

states and as far north as Minnesota

In domestic dogs as in wildlife species

infection is thought ro be primarily by

First and foremost is a thorough

inspecrion of the home both inside and

outside

During the active season (around

bull Keep window curtalins and blirci ~-

Seal potential entryways into ho es points of entry) with caulk silicone sea

Figure 7 Blood smear showing

Trypanosoma cruzi parasites among

red blood cells Phoro by Rose

Nasrazadani

ro be due ro the increased disrribution

of insect vectors secondary ro the high

humidiry and lack of a winter freeze

along the sourhern and eastern coasts

In contrast ro the Latin American

isolates that are transmitted ro humans

indirectly at the insect bite location by

fecal contamination T cruzi in wildlife

species in the US is transmitted by

oral ingestion of infected insects and ro

a lesser degree by placental transmission

in utero

In domestic pets T cruzi causing

clinical health issues has been reported

primarily 111 working dogs from

southeastern Texas and foci in Louisiana

although antibody testing has confirmed

eating infected kissing bug vecrors in

response ro skin irritation from the insect

bite and from in utero transmission from

dam ro pup

Clinical signs of infection in dogs are

primarily cardiac recognized as exercise

intolerance or generalized weakness

Diagnostic testing may reveal severe heart

arrythmias And ultimately a dilated

form of heart failure develops Treatment

rarely results in a cure and survival time

in clinically affecred dogs ranges from 0

ro GO months

Prevention of Chagas disease in

dogs depends on insect vecror control

and limiting contacr with host reservoir

species In endemic kissing bug areas

animal housing and bedding should be

treated with insecticide monthly and

kennels improved as needed ro remove

insect nesting sites

PEST MANAGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

Insecticide spraying is the cornersrone

ofvector control programs for triatomines

in South America where domestic and

peridomestic species are prevalent and

can attain high population densities in

and around homes The sylva tic species

found in the US are only occasional

invaders and thus present a different set

of problems that rely on non-chemical

measures for control such as habitat

modification and exclusion techniques

(see table below)

bull amp

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a female T rubida

Table 2 Non-chemical measure w ~c _ triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes ~ _

bedroom to reduce potentia - - ~ - - - - bull Manage vegetation around t nE - ~ ~ - =shy

firewood and debris) that n1 a -shy

Install weather stripping and tight fi insect proof dog and cat entrances a

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting a ~ - - ~

kissing bugs bull Move lights away from doors bull Replace outside white ligh 5 gt- _ _

_ - ~ ntected kissing bug vecmrs in

-~- ro sk in irriration from the insect

- ~ ~ from iii IItero transmission from

2~ __ bull gt ult

C gtal signs of infection in dogs are

- --- shy cardiac recognized as exercise

ltOk 1 or generalized weakness

J~~ -i testing may reveal severe heart

--~ --5 nd ultimately a dilated

t-he-arr failure develops Treatment

-L ~~- ~esul r5 in a cure and survival time

dir alh affected dogs ranges from 0

-1 onths

_~ecmion of Chagas disease in

It7 c epends on insect vector control

-c ~ -i(in g conract with host reservoir

- ifO In endemic kissing bug areas

~Ad fi ousing and bedding should be

lt-~1 2 - irh insecticide monthly and

D --u~-- improved as needed to remove

-51 - s ring sites

bull

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a fem ale T rubida

PEST Mfu~AGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

gt xri ide spraying is the cornersmne

middot C T io nrrol programs for triaromines

~ il merica where domestic and

- --l(1c-gt[ ic species are prevalel1( and

bull- 1il high population densities in

1d aol 1d homes The sylvatic species

~c n [he CS are only occasional

- middot~c dnd thus presel1( a differel1( set

- ~ -tiems that rely on non-chemical

- ~~=-gt fo r control such as habitat

~Cil[ion and exclusion techniques

- dow)

- and foremost is a thorough

-- - - ~ion of the home both inside and

ring the active season (around

Table 2 Non-chemical measures ro reduce risk of household infestation by

triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes piles of paper) inside homes particularly in the

bedroom to reduce potential hiding places for kiSSing bugs bull Manage vegetation around the home and eliminate clutter (eg piles of lumber

firewood and debris) that may prOvide small animal habitat

Install weather stripping and tight fitting insect screens on windows and doors insect proof dog and cat entrances and keep fireplace flues shut

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting at night to make homes less attractive to kissing bugs

bull Move lights away from doors or windows where they may attract insects bull Replace outside white lights with yellow lights bull Keep window curtains and blinds drawn in lighted rooms

I

Seal potential entryways into homes (eg foundation cracks and utility line points of entry) with caulk silicone seal or other appropriate materials

I

13

mid-spring to mid-fall) inspections

should be carried our on a regular basis to

find and destroy any stray bugs During

the day they typically hide in dark places

in cracks and crevices or under objects

For example in the bedroom they may

hide in bed sheets or blankets or under

the mattress so it is recommended that

all of these potential hiding places be

inspected especially before retmng

Outside during the day they hide in

dark sheltered places such as beneath

flowerpots or furniture emerging at night

to be seen crawling or resting on surfaces

Pay special attention to areas inside and

out where pets congregate or sleep

In addition to efforts directly aimed

at kissing bugs concrol measures may be

needed to remove their wild vertebrate

hosts sllch as packrats which are common

around homes in the Southwest Packrats

can have several dozen or more kissing

bugs inhabiting their nests Trapping the

packrats and removing their nests close

to the house can potentially reduce home

invasions However it is advisable that

only the nearest packrat nest and packrats

be removed in the hope that the kissing

bugs will move to more peripheral nests

farther from the house After the packrats

have been removed a pyrethroid dust

or spray should be applied to the old

nesting sites to eliminate any remaining

kiSSing bugs This is critical because in the

absence of their natural host the bugs will

seek out another source of blood which

might end up being the homeowner (I 7)

In the case of sensitized homeowners

who have become allergic to kissing bugs

a directed spray application of pyrethroid

insecticides in and aro und the home

may provide some added protection

Most effective indoors is a crack and

crevice application to potential harborage

sites in bedrooms and bathrooms and

outdoors a perimeter treatment along

the foundation and eaves paying close

attention to thoroughly treat entryways

such as windows and doors to prevent

their access into the home

Sensitized individuals may also elect

to sleep under a bed net (mosquito

netting) that is tucked in all around

the mattress for added protection and

using double-sided sticky tape placed

on the legs of the bed Beds should be

kept at least one foor away from walls

Sticky trap monitors placed under and

around beds may also catch wandering

bugs Finally homeowners might wish

to thoroughly vacuum the bedroom and

consider isolating their bedroom during

the active season by weather-stripping

doors and keeping doors closed

Kissing bugs are medically important

fascinating insects that likely will be

interacting with humans and their pets

wi th increasing frequency in response

to warming climates and as more homes

encroach into their habitats Learning to

recognize these bugs and to keep them

out of human habitations is an important

responsibility of homeownership

14

REFERENCES 1 Weiruch C Munro fB

phylogeny of rhe as middot3i - (Hemi prera Reduviidae shymirochondrial genes dol P~ - ~- shy

Evol 2009 53 287-299 2 Iba rra-Cerdena CN San ~le= - _~

V Townsend Pererso n A Rl middot

(2009) Ecology of -or L _

Triarominae Acra Trop 1 10 - - bull

3 Zeled6n R Beard CB Pio _ 0

Leiby DA Dorn PL R J (in press) An appraisal r ~ --=shyChagas disease in rhe L-n re-C =- ~

4 de la Rua N Srevens (201l) High generic dit _ - 1- _ ~

popularion of (Le Com e 1855) i n ter~ - ~

mirochondrial markef5 Co ~ -

and 16S ribosomal D- -co

Generics and Evolurion 5 Goda D E and C J ~ _

Popularion dynamics of Ii

under narural climaric middot0 shy

rhe Argentin e C haco -EM ~ ~ shy3 179-94

6 Schofield C J 1988 Bios [- c rhe Triarominae In Bio5middotreoi H aemarophagous Insecrs 1 - __

ed) Sys remarics Associario r _ - Volume No 37 pp 284middot31 c -~ shy

Press O xford 7 Lehane M ] P K Mch --

Whiraker and C J Schotleld ] 4 ~ _

role of remperarure and nurririofi- _ _ in flighr iniriarion by 7i-iatam 1-~ _

Acta Trop 52 27-38 8 Klorz J H P L Dorn J L _ --

L Stevens J L Pinnas J 0- ~ l-r _

and S A Klotz 2010 Ki55ill ~ - __ ~

porential disease vecrors and (~ U

anaphylaxiS Cfin In Dis ) o 6 _ - 9 McEwen P K and M ] Lehl _- shy

Relationship between Highr 2

and oviposir ion in TiaOIgtII - - - shy

(Klug) (Hem Reduviidae - shy

Entomo 117 217middot23

u~ Je5 in and around the home

--_2 rovide some added protecrion

-- efrecrin~ indoors is a crack and

_c lt application to potenrial harborage

~-olt r bedrooms and bathrooms and

-or a perimeter rreatmenr along

- -()ll1dation and eaves paying close

~(o n ro thoroughly treat enrryways

~~ - d windows and doors ro prevenr

~ laquo(e55 inro the home

S1si tized individuals may also elect

lteF under a bed net (mosquiro

- ~Jng that is rucked in all around

c -rress for added protection and

_ sect do uble-sided sticky tape placed

Ci - he legs of the bed Beds should be

r ~ least one foor away from walls

rap monirors placed under and

- - ~ -_ bds may also catch wandering

_~ _ Finally- homeowners mighr wish

-uroughh- vacuum rhe bedroom and

___id ~ iolaring rheir bedroom during

d~ 2Cl i season by wearher-srripping

nd keeping doors dosed - lis~ lg bugs are medically imporranr

is -_2ing insecrs rhar likely will be

- _~~~ i rh humans and rheir pers

_1reas ing frequency in response

-ing c1imares and as more homes

-~ h inro their habirars Learning ro

sect-izemiddot these bugs and (Q keep rhem

il-lnan habirarions is an imporranr

- bili r of homeownership

REFERENCES I Weiruch C Munro JB Molecular

phylogeny of the assassin bugs (Hemiptera Reduviidae) based on mirochondrial genes Mol Phylogenet Evo 2009 53 287-299

2 Ibarra-Cerdena CN Sanchez-Cordero

V Townsend Peterson A Ramsey JM (2009) Ecology of North American

Triarominae Acta Trop 110 178-186 3 Zeledon R Beard CB Pinro Dias JC

Leiby DA Dorn PL Rodrigues Coura J (in press) An appraisal of the sraws of Chagas disease in the United States

4 de la Rua N Stevens L Dorn PL (2011) High genetic diversity in a si ngle

population of Tiiatoma sanguisuga

(Le Conte 1855) inferred from rwo mitochondrial markers cytochrome b and 16S ribosomal DNA Infection Genetics and Evolution

5 Goda D E and C J Schofield 1989 Population dynam ics of Ti-iatoma inmans under nawral climatic conditions in

the Argentine Chaco Med Vet Entomol

3 179-94 6 Schofield C J 1988 Biosystematics of

the Triatominae In Biosystematics of Haematophagous Insects (M W Service ed) Systematics Association Special

Volume No 37 pp 284-312 Clarendon

Press Oxford 7 Lehane M J P K McEwen C J

Whitaker and C J Schofield 1992 The role of temperature and nutritional status in flight initiation by Triatoma infestans Acta Timiddotop 52 27-38

8 KJotz J H P L Dorn J L Logan L Stevens J L Pinnas J O Schmidt and S A KJotz 20 IO Kissing Bugs potential disease vectors and cause of anaphylaxis CLin In Dis 50 1629-34

9 McEwen P K and M J Lehane 1994 Relationship berween flight initiation and oviposition in Triatoma infestam (KJug) (Hem Reduviidae) j App

EntomoL 11 7 217-23

10 Gurtler R E L A Ceballos P OrdoZezshy

Krasnowski L A Lanati R Stariolo and

U Kitron 2009 Strong host-feeding

preferences of the vector Tiiatoma

infestans modified by vector density

implications for the epidemiology of

Chagas disease PLGS Neglect Trop Dis

3e447

11 Schofield C J and C Galvno 2009

Classification evolution and species

groups within the Triatominae Acta

Tropl1088-100

12 Guerenstein P G and C R Lazzari

2009 Hosr-seeking how rriatomines

acqui re and make use of information to

find blood Acta Ti-op 110148-583

13 KJotz S A P L Dorn J H KJOtz

] L Pinnas C Weirauch J R Kurtz

and J Schmidt 2009 Feeding behavior

of triaromines from the southwestern

United States an update on potential

risk for transmission of Chagas disease

Acta Trop III114-18

14 Zeled6n R R Alvarado and L F Jiron

1977 Observations on the feeding and

defecation patterns of three triatol11ine

species (Hemiptera Reduviidae) Acta

Timiddotop3465-77

15 Barr Sc Canine C hagas Disease

(American Trypanosomiasis) in North

America Vet CLin Small Animal 39

(2009) 1055-1064

16 Yabsley MJ and NobletGP Seroprevalence

of Trypanosoma cruz i in raccoo ns from

South Carolina and Georgia J WiLdl Dis

38 (2002) 75-83

17 Gouge DH Stoltman AJ Snyder

J L Olson C How to Bug Proof Your

Home http ca ls arizona edupubs

insectsaz l 3201

15

e E

MP

OR

IA S

TATE

UN

IVE

RS

ITYr

u KA

NSA

S SC

HO

OL

NAT

UR

ALIS

T B

OX

4050

12

00 C

OM

MER

CIA

L ST

E

mpo

ria

KS 6

6801

-508

7

ADDR

ESS

SERV

ICE

REQ

UEST

ED

No

np

rofi

t O

rg

US

Pos

tage

PA

ID

Em

pori

a K

ansa

s

66

80

1-5

08

7

Pe

rmit

No

203

Tri

atom

a re

curv

a t

he l

arge

st t

riat

ome

in t

he U

S (f

emal

e)

Kansas School Naturalist rSSN 0022-877X Published by EMPORIA STATE UNIVERSITY Editor JOHN RICHARD SCHROCK Editorial Comminee TOM EDDY BILL JENSEN MARSHALL SUNDBERG R BRENT THOMAS ERIC YANG Circulacion and Mailing ROGER FERGUSON Circulacion (chis issue) 10000 Press Run 15000 Media Designer John Decker Primed by McCormick Armscrong

The Kansas School Naturalist is sene free of charge and upon request ro reachers and anyone interesred in natueal history and nature educarion In-peine back issues are sem free as long as supply lasrs Our-of-prine back issues are sent for one dollar photocopy and poseagehandling charge per issue The Kansas School Naturalist is sent free upon requesr by media mail to all US zipcodes flrsr class to Mexico and Canada and surpound1cemail overseas The Kansas School Naturalist is published by Emporia Srare University Emporia Kansas Posrage paid ar Emporia Kansas Address all correspondence ro Ediror Kamas School Naturalist Department of Biological Sciences Box 4050 Emporia Srare University Emporia KS 66801-5087 Opinions and perspecrives expressed are rhose of rhe aurhors andor ediror and do not reflect the ofllcial posicion or endorsement of ES U Some issues can be viewed online at wwwemporiaedu ksn The Kansas School Naturalist is listed in Ulrichs International Periodicals Directory indexed in Wildlife Re-viewl Fisheries Review and appropriate issues are indexed in rhe Zoological Record The KSN is an irregulae publicaeion issued from one ro four rimes per year

Kissing Bugs in the INTRODUCTION

Kissing bugs are bloodsuc ing =-_

m the order Hemiptera in ( e

Reduviidae Almost all knOmiddot

reside in the New World

They are best known a5

of Chagas disease a di sease 3

by transmission of the blood shy

Trypanosoma cruzi through (heir ~~~-

Vector transmission of Chaga ~

occurs with a number of e-=- _

kissing bugs Chagas is largel ~ O - --~2

to Mexico Central America an~ ~ __ -

America

Although only a few case- 0 i _ shy

Front cover Tiiatoma gerstaeckeri common in sourhern and central Texas Phoro used with permission of Mike Quinn TexasEnronet

Justin O Schmidt has a PhD in Entomology from the University of Georgia He runs a non-profit organizarion Sourhwesrern Biological Insrirure in Tucson Arizona

Lori Stevens is Professor of Biology ar The Universiry of Vermont She received her MS and PhD degrees from rhe University of Illinois Chicago Srevens is intrigued wieh ehe generic inreractions of hosrs and parasites She enjoys visiring family in Leavenworch Kansas

Patricia Dom is a Professor of Biological Sciences ar Loyola University New Orleans She received her PhD from rhe University of Maryland and began her work on Trypanosomiais during her posr-docrora l fellowship ar Sranford Medical School

Mark Mosbacher received his doctoraee of vererinary medicine from the University of Missouri He currently practices emergency veterinary medicine in Phoenix Arizona

John K10tt has a PhD in Entomology from the Universi ty of Kansas and is an Urban Entomology Specialisr Emeritus ar the University of California Riverside and lives in Sedona Arizona

Stephen A K10tt graduared from rhe Universi ty of Kansas and is Chief of Infeceious Diseases ar rhe Universiry of Arizona

transmi ned Chagas disease hamiddote

in the US rhese bugs are corn-middot

southern southeastern and sourhmiddots- --

states

We discuss the biology 0 - ~

bugs their evolu rionary hiscof- - shy

distribution in the United Srare t

they pose for transmission of T shy

pets and other domestic animals 21 _ ~ _

control of kiSSing bugs around h --

habitarions

EVOLUTION OF KISSING BUGS

The 140 or so species of rria w i cmiddot-~

or kissing bugs evolved from a re l ~

predator or assassin bug so i

because it kills its arthropod p ~ shy

injecting potent toxins and prOte shy

that liquefy the insides of the p rhey can be sucked out How shy

~~tf~ and anyone imeresred in narural ~ 2S ~= k lam Our-of-print back issues are ~ ii School Naturalist is senr free upon

~~-- 11d surf1ce mail overseas The Kansas -g opound12~e paid ar Emporia Kansas Address

oi Sciences Box 4050 Emporia Srare bull_ lt_ ~ hrne of rhe aurhors andor ediror and

= re icwed online ar wwwemporiaedu middot=-T tc-ixL lJ a ~) indexed in Wildlife Review

~ is an irregular publicarion issued

ri

-middotnimiddotmiddotcrsinmiddot of

Biological

cil of Vermont She of Illinois

of hosts and

__~~ Lnimiry

--0-( [tcrions

- ~-Oh Lniersiry gt1 vrarvbnd

)()S-Jocrorai

~ t t Ka nsas

hmsas and is

Kissing Bugs in the United States INTRODUCTION

Kissing bugs are bloodsucking insects

in the order Hemiptera in the family

Reduviidae Almost all known species

reside in the New World

They are best known as vecrors

of Chagas disease a disease caused

by transmission of the blood parasite

Trypanosoma cruzi through their feces

Vecror transmission of Chagas disease

occurs with a number of endemic

kissing bugs Chagas is largely confined

to Mexico Central America and South

America

Although only a few cases of insectshy

transmined Chagas disease have occurred

in the US these bugs are common in

southern southeastern and southwestern

states

We discuss the biology of the

bugs their evolutionary hisrory their

distribution in the United States the risk

they pose for transmission of T cruzi ro

pets and other domestic animals and the

control of kissing bugs around human

habitations

EVOLUTION OF KISSING BUGS

The 140 or so species of rriaromines

or kissing bugs evolved from a reduviid

predaror or assassin bug so called

because it kills its arthropod prey by

injecting potent roxins and pro teases

that liquefy the insides of the prey so

they can be sucked our How many

times reduviids have forsaken their

assassin habitS ro become blood sucking

kissers has been a matter of some

controversy The fact that triaromines are

found in as diverse habitats as bird and

opossum nests (arboreal) and armadillo

burrows and rats nests as well as human

habitations (terrestrial) suggests that they

evolved from multiple different predatory

ancesrors (ie are polyphyletic) that

were already associated with arboreal or

terrestrial hosts

The twO mOSt important tribes for

human infection the Triaromini and

Rhodniini are quite divergent suggesting

distinct predatory ancestors However

a recent large study of the evolution of

the Reduviidae using multiple genes and

many morphological characters indicates

that these two tribes arose from the same

predatory ancestor (1) The remaining

three tribes still need to be examined

but so far it appears blood sucking

evolved just once ie the Triatominae are

monophyletic

Classification Hierarchy Rank Taxon

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Arthropoda

Class Insecta

Order Hemiptera

Family Reduviidae

Subfamilies Triatominae

Rhodniini

Genera Triatoma

Paratriatoma

Figure 1 Triatoma sanguisuga the most common triatomine in Kansas and

throughout central and southeastern US Photo by Harold Baquet

Figure 2 Triatoma rubida common in foo (female note pointed projection from en L bull bull

One species Triatoma rubrofosciata

is found around the world and may have

spread in association with ships rats A few other species are found in Southeast

and East Asia however most species

(-125) are found only in the Americas

The Triatomini tribe contains two genera important for human transmission of

Chagas Triatoma and Panstrongyfus the former has the most (80) species and

includes the two most important vectors

for human transmission T inftstans

in South America and T dimidiata in

Mesoamerica (Mexico Central America and northern South America) The

Rhodniini tribe includes the genera

Rhodnius and Psammoestes with Rhodnius

profixus being an important human vector

in northern South America

KISSING BUG SPECIES IN THE UNITED STATES

Ten species of Triatominae (Table

1) are native to the United States (2 3)

where their northern limit is determined

by intolerance of cold temperatures Natural infections of T cruzi have been

found in seven of these species (4) The

Triatominae in the United States belong

to two genera (Paratriatoma and Triatoma)

and include four species complexes within the Triatoma (iecticularia phyllosoma

protracta rubida) The two species

reported in Kansas T sanguisuga and

T ecticularia are in an uncertain status

and lecticularia complex respectivel (Dorn unpublished data) They have the

widest geographical distribution of the

ten species found in the United States

The most widespread species T sanguisuga (Figure 1) and T fectufaria are

mostly sylvatic however in Manhattan

Kansas T sanguisuga was reporred from poultry houses barns and houses

Although there are reports of serious

allergic reactions to their bite no T cruzi transmission to humans has been

reponed in Kansas Thatoma sanguisuga

is commonly associated with raccoons

and opossums and has been found in

large numbers around human dwellings

from Florida to Texas (4)

4

Figure 2 Triatoma rubida common in foothill regions of Phoenix and Tucson=-i ltc common triatomine in Kansas and

(female note pointed projection from end of the abdomen) ~~ _5 Photo by Harold Baquer

p rofixus being an importanr human vecror

in northern South America

- ~ I KISSING BUG SPECIES

IN THE UNITED STATES Ten species of Triarominae (Table

_imiddot~i4 1) are native ro the United States (2 3)

where their northern limit is determined

by intolerance of cold temperatures - - c ~atural infections of T cruzi have been

found in seven of these species (4) The

Triatominae in the United States belong

to twO genera (Paratriatoma and Ti-iatoma )

- 1=a and include four species complexes within

the Ti-iatoma (lecticularia phyllosoma - T- protracta rubida) The two specie

reported in Kansas T sanguisuga an ~

T fecticufaria are in an uncertain status

and lecticularia complex respectively

(Dorn unpublished data) They have the

widest geographical distribution of the

ten species found in the United States

The most widespread species T sanguisuga (Figure 1) and T fectufaria are

mostly sylvatic however in Manhattan

Kansas T sanguisuga was reported

from poultry houses barns and houses

Although there are reportS of serious

allergic reactions to their bite no T cruz i transmission ro humans has been

reported in Kansas Triatoma sanguisuga

is commonly associated with raccoons

and opossums and has been found in

large numbers around human dwellings

from Florida ro Texas (4)

The other kissing bug reported from

Kansas T fecticufaria feeds on opossums

as well as wood rats (Neotoma spp) and the

rock squirrel (Spennophilus variegatus) T indictiva is reported to feed on domestic

and peridomestic animals (See Figures

2-5 for other common triatomines in the

US) All ten species in the United States

are considered sylva tic and have differenr

ecological niches Species in the leticularia

complex prefer open shrubland

woodland and wooded grassland (2)

Wooded grassland is the preferred habitat

for members of the protracta rubida and

phyllosoma complexes The one species

in the United States not in the Ti-iatoma

genus Pamtriatoma hirsuta has a broad

Table 1 Checklist and geographic distribution ofTriatominae of the United Stares

(Not including the cosmopolitan T rubrofoseiata)

Genera Species Species In Kansas States Distribution Complex reported from

Triatoma Uncertain T sanguisuga yes 23

Lectularia Tleeticularia yes 16

T indictiva 3

T inaassata 1

Phyllo soma T recurva 6

T gerstaeckeri 2

Protracta T protroeta 7

T neatamae 1

Rubida T rubida 6

Parotriatoma P hirsuta 5

Alabama Arizona Arkansas Florid a Georgia Illinois Indiana Kansas Kentucky Louisiana MarylandMi ssiss ippi Missouri New Jersey New Mexico N Carolina Ohio Oklahoma PennsylvaniaS Carolina Tennessee Texas Virginia

Arizona California Florida Georgia Illinois Kansas Louisiana Maryland Missouri New Mexico N Carolina Oklahoma PennsylvaniaS Carolina Tennessee Texas

Arizona New MexicoTexas

Arizona

Arizona CaliforniaColorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

New Mexico Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas Utah

Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

Arizona California Colorado NevadaNew Mexico

potential niche much broader than its

current geographical distribution

BIOLOGYAND NATURAL HISTORY OF KISSING BUGS

Kissing bugs have a gradual

development with five immature instars

appearing similar to adults but without

wings They are large bugs with adults

ranging in length from about 12 to 36

mm Both sexes and all five instars feed on

blood ofvertebrates starting with the first

instars which take a blood meal as soon

as 2-3 days after hatching from the egg

They can develop from egg (Figure 5) to

adult in several months in warm tropical

areas when food is readily available In

temperate regions having extended cooler

periods of the year the bugs are typically

univoltine with only one generation per

year In these regions bugs seek refuge in

rodent burrows cavities caves and other

locations with moderate temperatures and

pass the unfavorable times as immatures

in various stages (Figure 4) Adults live

several months occasionally a yea r or

more (5) and feed throughout their

lives In captivity adults of Triatoma

rubida T protraeta or T reeurva live 4-5

months on average Mating lasts only

about 10 minutes a relatively short time

compared ro other hemipterans As with

other hemipterans females readily mate

with multiple males females can srore

sperm for use months later and over their

life span can lay up to several hundred

eggs depending upon conditions (5)

6

Active dispersal is achieved by flight in

adults and by crawling in immatures (6 )

Passive dispersal occurs in some species

by transport of attached eggs to ne

locations by birds or other animals or by

human transport of materials harboring

eggs or free-living stages Active dispersal

of immatures can occur when a shortage

of food sources stimulates bugs to crawl

toward locations potentially having new

hosts Adults typically disperse by fli gh r

around dusk Nutritional s tate and

hunger are powerful drivers of dispersal

(7) Another is the classical reproducti e

strategy in which gravid females retain

eggs for deposition after flight (8 9)

Dispersal is not a primary form of mate

seeking as in many moths and other

insects Evidence against mate seeking

is indicated by equal numbers of femal es

and males captured at lights and the

rapidity with which captured femal es

oviposit fertile eggs (8)

HABITAT AND HOST ASSOCIATION

Triatomine species inhabit a variety ot

ecological environments from generalize

to highly specialized including human

domestic environments Within these

environments they can range from

opportunists feeding on a variety of

host species to specialists feeding on a

limited number of host types Specialists

include Cavernieola pilosa which feeds

on bats Rhodnius spp living in palm

trees where they feed on inhabiting birds

and mammals and Psammolestes spp

which live in bird nests constructed of

rwigs Bird blood meals are sufficient

3 ri bution ofTriatominae of the United States - I I ) -1roiflscUlta

$tates oprtedfrom

I Distribution

Alabama Arizona Arkansas Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Kansas Kentucky louisiana Maryland Mississippi Missouri New Jersey New Mexico N Carolina Ohio Oklahoma Pennsylvania S Carolina Tennessee Texas Virginia

ArizonaCalifornia Florida Georgia Illinois Kansas louisiana Maryland Missouri New Mexico NCarolinaOklahoma Pennsylvania SCarolina TennesseeTexas

Arizona New MexicoTexas

Arizona

ArizonaGJlifornia Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

New Mexico Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas Utah

Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

ArizonaCalifornia Colorado Nevada New Mexico

periods of the year the bugs are typically

univoltine with only one generation per

year In these regions bugs seek refuge in

rodent burrows cavities caves and other

locations with moderate temperatures and

pass the unfavorable times as immatures

in various stages (Figure 4) Adults live everal months occasionally a year or

more (5) and feed throughout their

lives In captivity adults of Triatoma

rubida T protracta or T recurva live 4-5

months on average Mating lasts only

about 10 minutes a relatively short time

compared to other hemipterans As with

other hemipterans females readily mate

wi th multiple males females can stOre

sperm for use months later and over the [ ~

life span can lay up to several hundrec

eggs depending upon conditions (S

Active dispersal is achieved by flight in

adults and by crawling in immatures (6)

Passive dispersal occurs in some species

by transport of attached eggs to new

locations by birds or other animals or by

human transport of materials harboring

eggs or free-living stages Active dispersal

of immatures can occur when a shortage

of food sources stimulates bugs ro crawl

roward locations potentially having new

hosts Adults typically disperse by flight

around dusk Nutritional state and

hunger are powerful drivers of dispersal

(7) Another is the classical reproductive

strategy in which gravid females retain

eggs for deposition after flight (89)

Dispersal is not a primaly form of mate

seeking as in many moths and other

insects Evidence against mate seeking

is indicated by equal numbers of females

and males captured at lights and the

rapidity with which captured females

oviposit fertile eggs (8)

HABITAT AND HOST ASSOCIATION

TriatOmine species inhabit a variety of

ecological environmentS from generalized

ro highly specialized including human

domestic environments Within these

environments they can range from

opportunists feeding on a variety of

host species to specialists feeding on a limited number of host types Specialists

include Cavernicola piLosa which feeds

on bats Rhodnius spp living in palm

trees where they feed on inhabiting birds

and mammals and Psammofestes spp

which live in bird nests constructed of

rwigs Bird blood meals are sufficient

for the bugs to survive and reproduce

but birds are not hosts of T cruzi and

thus alter the parasite transmission cycle

Somewhat more general feeders are T rubrofasciata and members of the T

protracta complex that prefer feeding on

rodents Triatoma infestans T dimidiata

and R profixus are inhabitants of human

domestic environments where they feed

on people and their animals (6) Most

species irrespective of their preferred

habitat can become opportunistic feeders

when other species are available Species

that are generally opportunists can also

be facultative specialists preferring to feed

mainly on one group of hosts if given the

opportunity (10) The Triatoma living

in Arizona are all non-domestic species

that often feed on packrats (Neotoma

spp) yet they readily feed on a variety of

vertebrate hosts they encounter including

humans The Arizona-Sonora Desert

Museum in Tucson Arizona is a regional

educational living zoo that inadvertently

supports large populations of T rubida

and T protracta These bugs plague many

museum animals and sometimes feed

so extensively that they have caused the

death by chronic blood loss of animals

including a rare protected mountain

rattlesnake (James L Jarchow DVM

pers commun) In Kansas Triatoma

sanguisuga like the Arizona species feeds

predominantly on Neotoma raccoons and

opossums but will readily feed on a

variety of other hosts including humans

When and how some species of

triaromines became specialists on humans

is a mystery The subfamily is believed

to have originated about 5 million years

Figure 4 A fifth instar (nymphal stage) of T recurva Note the absence of figure 6 A teneral of T rubida i shy _

wings in the nymphs

8

- shy --t o-ader in California especially

middotmiddotmiddotomiddotva Note the absence of Figure 6 A reneral of T rubida ienewly emerged adult

bull 9

ago in the New World (11) Dates for

the arrival of human beings in the New

World are debated but their estimated

arrival sometime between 14000 to

20000 years ago is relatively recent

Thus shifts in some species of kissing

bugs to specializing on our species are

recent evolutionary events and might

well explain some of our vulnerability to

the T cruzi parasite the bugs transmit to

us

FEEDING BEHAVIOR Kissing bugs rely on multiple sensory

systems to locate hosts These include

gradients of carbon dioxide in the air

odors moisture heat and air flow (12)

They are exquisitely sensitive to carbon

dioxide exhaled by mammals when

breathing being able to detect 75 parts

per million above the background air

levels of 350 parts per million when

a trace of exhaled lactic acid another

attractant is present Cold blooded hosts

including reptiles generate very low levels

of carbon dioxide nevertheless kissing

bugs use many other host-generated

chemical cues including short chained

ali phatic amines and acids 7- to 9-carbon

aldehydes and alcohols and lactic acid to

locate hosts The bugs can also detect

infrared radiation enabling them to orient

toward warm blooded hosts from several

meters Finally they anemotactically

follow the movement of air currents

impregnated with host odors to locate

the host (12) Feeding by bugs in human

domiciles usually takes place at night

with bugs hiding during the day in

cracks and crevices away from the feeding

areas Much less is known about feeding

times for sylvatic (non-domestic) species

Likely they adjust their activity periods to

match the inactive periods of their host

thereby minimizing danger from host

defenses Triatoma rubida and T protracta

do not hesitate to approach and feed on

rodents during bright midday times (13)

a behavior that might well be adaptive for

bugs that often feed on rodents in their

burrows while the rodents are sleeping or

quiescent during the day

Once a host is located a hungry

bug extends its proboscis and inserts it

into the skin of the host Sometimes the

host detects the minor sensation caused

by a bugs probing and moves or shifts

posmon In response the bug usually

retracts somewhat before continuing

probing and feeding Considering that

a bug often imbibes more blood than

its own weight (3) feeding is relatively

rapid lasting on average 22 minutes

for T protracta 28 for T rubida and

between 11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

T dimidiata and R proixus (1 3 14)

Blood is mostly water and the bulkiness

of a large blood meal limits a bugs

movement To eliminate excess water

bugs often defecate during feeding at

completion of feeding or shortly after

leaving the feeding site (Figure 8) Some

species including those domestic species

that frequemly transmit Chagas disease

defecate rapidly and frequently often on

or near the host (14) while others defecate

less rapidly and less frequently often at a

distance from the host (3) Frequency

and proximity of defecation to the host

are considered to be critical factors in

transmitting T cruzi and Chagas

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are th - common cause of insect bites that - -_

in anaphylaxis in the United State --

medical emergency (also causeu - - ~

commonly by bee stings) results -ro ~- =

release of chemical signals in resP Qclt ~

proteins in the bugs saliva ina b _ _ usually causes the individual to r s the emergency room where epineF~~gt _

and other imerventions reverse th - _

blood pressure swollen ai[-as ~=shy

rashes that often accompany anapn- c

Victims usually are awakened at nig shy

shortness of breath difficulty b re-l ~- ~

or generalized itching Othe~ _c ominous allergies include hives se ~

of the eyes swelling at the site 0 - - -t

bite and persistent itching Patiem -_

experience anaphylaxis when re-bi ~-shy

and one adult woman has died ~C _-shythe condition The bite itself is pai

however swelling and inflammatior -shy

the site of the bite may last for middoteeL

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit CI ~

to humans in the United States lt =-__ shy

six such cases have been docunei

Infection with Trypanasoma en is common in several wildlife spe - j -

rare in domestic pets Reported Cd5eS __

10

~--l vluch less is known about feeding

-16 for sylva tic (non-domestic) species

~~Jd~ they adjust their activity periods to

- ch the inactive periods of their host

erltbmiddot minimizing danger from host

erenscs Triatoma rubida and T protracta

_ ~Of hesitate to approach and feed on

rienrs during bright midday times (13)

chlior that might well be adaptive for

_g [hat often feed on rodents in their

transmuting T cruzi and Chagas disease

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are the most

common cause of insect bites that result

in anaphylaxis in the United States This

medical emergency (also caused more

commonly by bee stings) results from the

domestic species

the warmer southern stares There are no

reportS of livestock horses or pigs being

infected Only one case report exists of

infection in a domestic cat in the US

The primary wildlife species in the

United Srates that serve as host reservoirs

for T cruz i are

packrats in the genus Neotoma

and opossums ~ _ -ns while the rodents are sleeping or

-e-cnt during the day

nee a host is located a hungry

extends its proboscis and inserts it

he skin of the host Sometimes the

erects the minor sensation caused

s- Sugs probing and moves or shifts

xsiion In response the bug usually

- = ~-rS somewhat before continuing

iing and feeding Considering that

t~~ often imbibes more blood than

-1 weight (3) feeding is relatively

~i c las ting on average 22 minutes

- ~ ~- porracta 28 for T rubida and

11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

-

3w i

d diara and R prolixus (13 14)

moscly water and the bulkiness

l rge blood meal limits a bugs

bull O1em To eliminate excess water

0 o tten defecate during feeding at

_ -c~E io1 of feeding or shortly after

-T-i ~ he feeding site (Figure 8) Some

~ _-~~ i1Cluding those domestic species

-~-- E~lIently transmit Chagas disease

i-_ ~ ~ rap idly and frequently often on

bullbull -~ ile hos t (14) while others defecate

_ 2-d l and less frequently often at a

_ lt~ ~ r-om the host (3) Frequency

- E - ~igtxi ni( of defecation to the hosr

_~ odered to be critical factors in

release of chemical signals in response to

proteins in the bugs saliva Anaphylaxis

usually causes the individual to rush to

the emergency room where epinephrine

and other interventions reverse the low

blood pressure swollen airways and

rashes that often accompany anaphylaxis

Victims usually are awakened at night by

shortness of breath difficulty breathing

or generalized itching Other less

ominous allergies include hives swelling

of rhe eyes swelling at the site of the

bite and persistent itching Patients may

experience anaphylaxis when re-bitten

and one adult woman has died from

the condition The bite itself is painless

however swelling and inflammation at

the site of the bite may last for weeks

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit Chagas

to humans in the United States only

six such cases have been documented

Infection with Trypanasoma cruz i is

common in several wildlife species but

rare in domestic pets Reporred cases in

are limited ro dogs in

rodents particularly

raccoons

and to a lesser degree

armadillos and skunks T cruzi has been

reporred in more than 20 different wildlife

species in the United States in at least 13 states (15) Wood rats and other rodent

species serve as reservoirs of infection

as rodent dens and nests may harbor

the insect vectors Infection dynamics of

T cruz i isolates appear to vary between

species wirh raccoons being infected wirh

a more virulent genetic strain in which

blood parasites levels peak sooner and

antibodies are more quickly derected rhan

occurs in opossums anorher primary

wildlife reservoir species Additionally

mice injecred with opossum derived T cruzi isolates appear to subsequently

clear the infection and survive whereas

injecting mice with the raccoon derived

strains resulted in a 75 mortality rate

in one study Despite differences in

virulence between the host species strains

pathologic cardiac changes induced by T cruzi have been observed at necropsy in

both raccoons and opossums

Prevalence of T cruz i in wildlife

species varies but infection rates as high

as 62 occurred in raccoons tested

in various states (16) Infection rates

appear to be generally highest in coastal

locations with the elevated rates assumed

11

T cruzi exposure in many southern

states and as far north as Minnesota

In domestic dogs as in wildlife species

infection is thought ro be primarily by

First and foremost is a thorough

inspecrion of the home both inside and

outside

During the active season (around

bull Keep window curtalins and blirci ~-

Seal potential entryways into ho es points of entry) with caulk silicone sea

Figure 7 Blood smear showing

Trypanosoma cruzi parasites among

red blood cells Phoro by Rose

Nasrazadani

ro be due ro the increased disrribution

of insect vectors secondary ro the high

humidiry and lack of a winter freeze

along the sourhern and eastern coasts

In contrast ro the Latin American

isolates that are transmitted ro humans

indirectly at the insect bite location by

fecal contamination T cruzi in wildlife

species in the US is transmitted by

oral ingestion of infected insects and ro

a lesser degree by placental transmission

in utero

In domestic pets T cruzi causing

clinical health issues has been reported

primarily 111 working dogs from

southeastern Texas and foci in Louisiana

although antibody testing has confirmed

eating infected kissing bug vecrors in

response ro skin irritation from the insect

bite and from in utero transmission from

dam ro pup

Clinical signs of infection in dogs are

primarily cardiac recognized as exercise

intolerance or generalized weakness

Diagnostic testing may reveal severe heart

arrythmias And ultimately a dilated

form of heart failure develops Treatment

rarely results in a cure and survival time

in clinically affecred dogs ranges from 0

ro GO months

Prevention of Chagas disease in

dogs depends on insect vecror control

and limiting contacr with host reservoir

species In endemic kissing bug areas

animal housing and bedding should be

treated with insecticide monthly and

kennels improved as needed ro remove

insect nesting sites

PEST MANAGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

Insecticide spraying is the cornersrone

ofvector control programs for triatomines

in South America where domestic and

peridomestic species are prevalent and

can attain high population densities in

and around homes The sylva tic species

found in the US are only occasional

invaders and thus present a different set

of problems that rely on non-chemical

measures for control such as habitat

modification and exclusion techniques

(see table below)

bull amp

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a female T rubida

Table 2 Non-chemical measure w ~c _ triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes ~ _

bedroom to reduce potentia - - ~ - - - - bull Manage vegetation around t nE - ~ ~ - =shy

firewood and debris) that n1 a -shy

Install weather stripping and tight fi insect proof dog and cat entrances a

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting a ~ - - ~

kissing bugs bull Move lights away from doors bull Replace outside white ligh 5 gt- _ _

_ - ~ ntected kissing bug vecmrs in

-~- ro sk in irriration from the insect

- ~ ~ from iii IItero transmission from

2~ __ bull gt ult

C gtal signs of infection in dogs are

- --- shy cardiac recognized as exercise

ltOk 1 or generalized weakness

J~~ -i testing may reveal severe heart

--~ --5 nd ultimately a dilated

t-he-arr failure develops Treatment

-L ~~- ~esul r5 in a cure and survival time

dir alh affected dogs ranges from 0

-1 onths

_~ecmion of Chagas disease in

It7 c epends on insect vector control

-c ~ -i(in g conract with host reservoir

- ifO In endemic kissing bug areas

~Ad fi ousing and bedding should be

lt-~1 2 - irh insecticide monthly and

D --u~-- improved as needed to remove

-51 - s ring sites

bull

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a fem ale T rubida

PEST Mfu~AGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

gt xri ide spraying is the cornersmne

middot C T io nrrol programs for triaromines

~ il merica where domestic and

- --l(1c-gt[ ic species are prevalel1( and

bull- 1il high population densities in

1d aol 1d homes The sylvatic species

~c n [he CS are only occasional

- middot~c dnd thus presel1( a differel1( set

- ~ -tiems that rely on non-chemical

- ~~=-gt fo r control such as habitat

~Cil[ion and exclusion techniques

- dow)

- and foremost is a thorough

-- - - ~ion of the home both inside and

ring the active season (around

Table 2 Non-chemical measures ro reduce risk of household infestation by

triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes piles of paper) inside homes particularly in the

bedroom to reduce potential hiding places for kiSSing bugs bull Manage vegetation around the home and eliminate clutter (eg piles of lumber

firewood and debris) that may prOvide small animal habitat

Install weather stripping and tight fitting insect screens on windows and doors insect proof dog and cat entrances and keep fireplace flues shut

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting at night to make homes less attractive to kissing bugs

bull Move lights away from doors or windows where they may attract insects bull Replace outside white lights with yellow lights bull Keep window curtains and blinds drawn in lighted rooms

I

Seal potential entryways into homes (eg foundation cracks and utility line points of entry) with caulk silicone seal or other appropriate materials

I

13

mid-spring to mid-fall) inspections

should be carried our on a regular basis to

find and destroy any stray bugs During

the day they typically hide in dark places

in cracks and crevices or under objects

For example in the bedroom they may

hide in bed sheets or blankets or under

the mattress so it is recommended that

all of these potential hiding places be

inspected especially before retmng

Outside during the day they hide in

dark sheltered places such as beneath

flowerpots or furniture emerging at night

to be seen crawling or resting on surfaces

Pay special attention to areas inside and

out where pets congregate or sleep

In addition to efforts directly aimed

at kissing bugs concrol measures may be

needed to remove their wild vertebrate

hosts sllch as packrats which are common

around homes in the Southwest Packrats

can have several dozen or more kissing

bugs inhabiting their nests Trapping the

packrats and removing their nests close

to the house can potentially reduce home

invasions However it is advisable that

only the nearest packrat nest and packrats

be removed in the hope that the kissing

bugs will move to more peripheral nests

farther from the house After the packrats

have been removed a pyrethroid dust

or spray should be applied to the old

nesting sites to eliminate any remaining

kiSSing bugs This is critical because in the

absence of their natural host the bugs will

seek out another source of blood which

might end up being the homeowner (I 7)

In the case of sensitized homeowners

who have become allergic to kissing bugs

a directed spray application of pyrethroid

insecticides in and aro und the home

may provide some added protection

Most effective indoors is a crack and

crevice application to potential harborage

sites in bedrooms and bathrooms and

outdoors a perimeter treatment along

the foundation and eaves paying close

attention to thoroughly treat entryways

such as windows and doors to prevent

their access into the home

Sensitized individuals may also elect

to sleep under a bed net (mosquito

netting) that is tucked in all around

the mattress for added protection and

using double-sided sticky tape placed

on the legs of the bed Beds should be

kept at least one foor away from walls

Sticky trap monitors placed under and

around beds may also catch wandering

bugs Finally homeowners might wish

to thoroughly vacuum the bedroom and

consider isolating their bedroom during

the active season by weather-stripping

doors and keeping doors closed

Kissing bugs are medically important

fascinating insects that likely will be

interacting with humans and their pets

wi th increasing frequency in response

to warming climates and as more homes

encroach into their habitats Learning to

recognize these bugs and to keep them

out of human habitations is an important

responsibility of homeownership

14

REFERENCES 1 Weiruch C Munro fB

phylogeny of rhe as middot3i - (Hemi prera Reduviidae shymirochondrial genes dol P~ - ~- shy

Evol 2009 53 287-299 2 Iba rra-Cerdena CN San ~le= - _~

V Townsend Pererso n A Rl middot

(2009) Ecology of -or L _

Triarominae Acra Trop 1 10 - - bull

3 Zeled6n R Beard CB Pio _ 0

Leiby DA Dorn PL R J (in press) An appraisal r ~ --=shyChagas disease in rhe L-n re-C =- ~

4 de la Rua N Srevens (201l) High generic dit _ - 1- _ ~

popularion of (Le Com e 1855) i n ter~ - ~

mirochondrial markef5 Co ~ -

and 16S ribosomal D- -co

Generics and Evolurion 5 Goda D E and C J ~ _

Popularion dynamics of Ii

under narural climaric middot0 shy

rhe Argentin e C haco -EM ~ ~ shy3 179-94

6 Schofield C J 1988 Bios [- c rhe Triarominae In Bio5middotreoi H aemarophagous Insecrs 1 - __

ed) Sys remarics Associario r _ - Volume No 37 pp 284middot31 c -~ shy

Press O xford 7 Lehane M ] P K Mch --

Whiraker and C J Schotleld ] 4 ~ _

role of remperarure and nurririofi- _ _ in flighr iniriarion by 7i-iatam 1-~ _

Acta Trop 52 27-38 8 Klorz J H P L Dorn J L _ --

L Stevens J L Pinnas J 0- ~ l-r _

and S A Klotz 2010 Ki55ill ~ - __ ~

porential disease vecrors and (~ U

anaphylaxiS Cfin In Dis ) o 6 _ - 9 McEwen P K and M ] Lehl _- shy

Relationship between Highr 2

and oviposir ion in TiaOIgtII - - - shy

(Klug) (Hem Reduviidae - shy

Entomo 117 217middot23

u~ Je5 in and around the home

--_2 rovide some added protecrion

-- efrecrin~ indoors is a crack and

_c lt application to potenrial harborage

~-olt r bedrooms and bathrooms and

-or a perimeter rreatmenr along

- -()ll1dation and eaves paying close

~(o n ro thoroughly treat enrryways

~~ - d windows and doors ro prevenr

~ laquo(e55 inro the home

S1si tized individuals may also elect

lteF under a bed net (mosquiro

- ~Jng that is rucked in all around

c -rress for added protection and

_ sect do uble-sided sticky tape placed

Ci - he legs of the bed Beds should be

r ~ least one foor away from walls

rap monirors placed under and

- - ~ -_ bds may also catch wandering

_~ _ Finally- homeowners mighr wish

-uroughh- vacuum rhe bedroom and

___id ~ iolaring rheir bedroom during

d~ 2Cl i season by wearher-srripping

nd keeping doors dosed - lis~ lg bugs are medically imporranr

is -_2ing insecrs rhar likely will be

- _~~~ i rh humans and rheir pers

_1reas ing frequency in response

-ing c1imares and as more homes

-~ h inro their habirars Learning ro

sect-izemiddot these bugs and (Q keep rhem

il-lnan habirarions is an imporranr

- bili r of homeownership

REFERENCES I Weiruch C Munro JB Molecular

phylogeny of the assassin bugs (Hemiptera Reduviidae) based on mirochondrial genes Mol Phylogenet Evo 2009 53 287-299

2 Ibarra-Cerdena CN Sanchez-Cordero

V Townsend Peterson A Ramsey JM (2009) Ecology of North American

Triarominae Acta Trop 110 178-186 3 Zeledon R Beard CB Pinro Dias JC

Leiby DA Dorn PL Rodrigues Coura J (in press) An appraisal of the sraws of Chagas disease in the United States

4 de la Rua N Stevens L Dorn PL (2011) High genetic diversity in a si ngle

population of Tiiatoma sanguisuga

(Le Conte 1855) inferred from rwo mitochondrial markers cytochrome b and 16S ribosomal DNA Infection Genetics and Evolution

5 Goda D E and C J Schofield 1989 Population dynam ics of Ti-iatoma inmans under nawral climatic conditions in

the Argentine Chaco Med Vet Entomol

3 179-94 6 Schofield C J 1988 Biosystematics of

the Triatominae In Biosystematics of Haematophagous Insects (M W Service ed) Systematics Association Special

Volume No 37 pp 284-312 Clarendon

Press Oxford 7 Lehane M J P K McEwen C J

Whitaker and C J Schofield 1992 The role of temperature and nutritional status in flight initiation by Triatoma infestans Acta Timiddotop 52 27-38

8 KJotz J H P L Dorn J L Logan L Stevens J L Pinnas J O Schmidt and S A KJotz 20 IO Kissing Bugs potential disease vectors and cause of anaphylaxis CLin In Dis 50 1629-34

9 McEwen P K and M J Lehane 1994 Relationship berween flight initiation and oviposition in Triatoma infestam (KJug) (Hem Reduviidae) j App

EntomoL 11 7 217-23

10 Gurtler R E L A Ceballos P OrdoZezshy

Krasnowski L A Lanati R Stariolo and

U Kitron 2009 Strong host-feeding

preferences of the vector Tiiatoma

infestans modified by vector density

implications for the epidemiology of

Chagas disease PLGS Neglect Trop Dis

3e447

11 Schofield C J and C Galvno 2009

Classification evolution and species

groups within the Triatominae Acta

Tropl1088-100

12 Guerenstein P G and C R Lazzari

2009 Hosr-seeking how rriatomines

acqui re and make use of information to

find blood Acta Ti-op 110148-583

13 KJotz S A P L Dorn J H KJOtz

] L Pinnas C Weirauch J R Kurtz

and J Schmidt 2009 Feeding behavior

of triaromines from the southwestern

United States an update on potential

risk for transmission of Chagas disease

Acta Trop III114-18

14 Zeled6n R R Alvarado and L F Jiron

1977 Observations on the feeding and

defecation patterns of three triatol11ine

species (Hemiptera Reduviidae) Acta

Timiddotop3465-77

15 Barr Sc Canine C hagas Disease

(American Trypanosomiasis) in North

America Vet CLin Small Animal 39

(2009) 1055-1064

16 Yabsley MJ and NobletGP Seroprevalence

of Trypanosoma cruz i in raccoo ns from

South Carolina and Georgia J WiLdl Dis

38 (2002) 75-83

17 Gouge DH Stoltman AJ Snyder

J L Olson C How to Bug Proof Your

Home http ca ls arizona edupubs

insectsaz l 3201

15

e E

MP

OR

IA S

TATE

UN

IVE

RS

ITYr

u KA

NSA

S SC

HO

OL

NAT

UR

ALIS

T B

OX

4050

12

00 C

OM

MER

CIA

L ST

E

mpo

ria

KS 6

6801

-508

7

ADDR

ESS

SERV

ICE

REQ

UEST

ED

No

np

rofi

t O

rg

US

Pos

tage

PA

ID

Em

pori

a K

ansa

s

66

80

1-5

08

7

Pe

rmit

No

203

Tri

atom

a re

curv

a t

he l

arge

st t

riat

ome

in t

he U

S (f

emal

e)

~~tf~ and anyone imeresred in narural ~ 2S ~= k lam Our-of-print back issues are ~ ii School Naturalist is senr free upon

~~-- 11d surf1ce mail overseas The Kansas -g opound12~e paid ar Emporia Kansas Address

oi Sciences Box 4050 Emporia Srare bull_ lt_ ~ hrne of rhe aurhors andor ediror and

= re icwed online ar wwwemporiaedu middot=-T tc-ixL lJ a ~) indexed in Wildlife Review

~ is an irregular publicarion issued

ri

-middotnimiddotmiddotcrsinmiddot of

Biological

cil of Vermont She of Illinois

of hosts and

__~~ Lnimiry

--0-( [tcrions

- ~-Oh Lniersiry gt1 vrarvbnd

)()S-Jocrorai

~ t t Ka nsas

hmsas and is

Kissing Bugs in the United States INTRODUCTION

Kissing bugs are bloodsucking insects

in the order Hemiptera in the family

Reduviidae Almost all known species

reside in the New World

They are best known as vecrors

of Chagas disease a disease caused

by transmission of the blood parasite

Trypanosoma cruzi through their feces

Vecror transmission of Chagas disease

occurs with a number of endemic

kissing bugs Chagas is largely confined

to Mexico Central America and South

America

Although only a few cases of insectshy

transmined Chagas disease have occurred

in the US these bugs are common in

southern southeastern and southwestern

states

We discuss the biology of the

bugs their evolutionary hisrory their

distribution in the United States the risk

they pose for transmission of T cruzi ro

pets and other domestic animals and the

control of kissing bugs around human

habitations

EVOLUTION OF KISSING BUGS

The 140 or so species of rriaromines

or kissing bugs evolved from a reduviid

predaror or assassin bug so called

because it kills its arthropod prey by

injecting potent roxins and pro teases

that liquefy the insides of the prey so

they can be sucked our How many

times reduviids have forsaken their

assassin habitS ro become blood sucking

kissers has been a matter of some

controversy The fact that triaromines are

found in as diverse habitats as bird and

opossum nests (arboreal) and armadillo

burrows and rats nests as well as human

habitations (terrestrial) suggests that they

evolved from multiple different predatory

ancesrors (ie are polyphyletic) that

were already associated with arboreal or

terrestrial hosts

The twO mOSt important tribes for

human infection the Triaromini and

Rhodniini are quite divergent suggesting

distinct predatory ancestors However

a recent large study of the evolution of

the Reduviidae using multiple genes and

many morphological characters indicates

that these two tribes arose from the same

predatory ancestor (1) The remaining

three tribes still need to be examined

but so far it appears blood sucking

evolved just once ie the Triatominae are

monophyletic

Classification Hierarchy Rank Taxon

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Arthropoda

Class Insecta

Order Hemiptera

Family Reduviidae

Subfamilies Triatominae

Rhodniini

Genera Triatoma

Paratriatoma

Figure 1 Triatoma sanguisuga the most common triatomine in Kansas and

throughout central and southeastern US Photo by Harold Baquet

Figure 2 Triatoma rubida common in foo (female note pointed projection from en L bull bull

One species Triatoma rubrofosciata

is found around the world and may have

spread in association with ships rats A few other species are found in Southeast

and East Asia however most species

(-125) are found only in the Americas

The Triatomini tribe contains two genera important for human transmission of

Chagas Triatoma and Panstrongyfus the former has the most (80) species and

includes the two most important vectors

for human transmission T inftstans

in South America and T dimidiata in

Mesoamerica (Mexico Central America and northern South America) The

Rhodniini tribe includes the genera

Rhodnius and Psammoestes with Rhodnius

profixus being an important human vector

in northern South America

KISSING BUG SPECIES IN THE UNITED STATES

Ten species of Triatominae (Table

1) are native to the United States (2 3)

where their northern limit is determined

by intolerance of cold temperatures Natural infections of T cruzi have been

found in seven of these species (4) The

Triatominae in the United States belong

to two genera (Paratriatoma and Triatoma)

and include four species complexes within the Triatoma (iecticularia phyllosoma

protracta rubida) The two species

reported in Kansas T sanguisuga and

T ecticularia are in an uncertain status

and lecticularia complex respectivel (Dorn unpublished data) They have the

widest geographical distribution of the

ten species found in the United States

The most widespread species T sanguisuga (Figure 1) and T fectufaria are

mostly sylvatic however in Manhattan

Kansas T sanguisuga was reporred from poultry houses barns and houses

Although there are reports of serious

allergic reactions to their bite no T cruzi transmission to humans has been

reponed in Kansas Thatoma sanguisuga

is commonly associated with raccoons

and opossums and has been found in

large numbers around human dwellings

from Florida to Texas (4)

4

Figure 2 Triatoma rubida common in foothill regions of Phoenix and Tucson=-i ltc common triatomine in Kansas and

(female note pointed projection from end of the abdomen) ~~ _5 Photo by Harold Baquer

p rofixus being an importanr human vecror

in northern South America

- ~ I KISSING BUG SPECIES

IN THE UNITED STATES Ten species of Triarominae (Table

_imiddot~i4 1) are native ro the United States (2 3)

where their northern limit is determined

by intolerance of cold temperatures - - c ~atural infections of T cruzi have been

found in seven of these species (4) The

Triatominae in the United States belong

to twO genera (Paratriatoma and Ti-iatoma )

- 1=a and include four species complexes within

the Ti-iatoma (lecticularia phyllosoma - T- protracta rubida) The two specie

reported in Kansas T sanguisuga an ~

T fecticufaria are in an uncertain status

and lecticularia complex respectively

(Dorn unpublished data) They have the

widest geographical distribution of the

ten species found in the United States

The most widespread species T sanguisuga (Figure 1) and T fectufaria are

mostly sylvatic however in Manhattan

Kansas T sanguisuga was reported

from poultry houses barns and houses

Although there are reportS of serious

allergic reactions to their bite no T cruz i transmission ro humans has been

reported in Kansas Triatoma sanguisuga

is commonly associated with raccoons

and opossums and has been found in

large numbers around human dwellings

from Florida ro Texas (4)

The other kissing bug reported from

Kansas T fecticufaria feeds on opossums

as well as wood rats (Neotoma spp) and the

rock squirrel (Spennophilus variegatus) T indictiva is reported to feed on domestic

and peridomestic animals (See Figures

2-5 for other common triatomines in the

US) All ten species in the United States

are considered sylva tic and have differenr

ecological niches Species in the leticularia

complex prefer open shrubland

woodland and wooded grassland (2)

Wooded grassland is the preferred habitat

for members of the protracta rubida and

phyllosoma complexes The one species

in the United States not in the Ti-iatoma

genus Pamtriatoma hirsuta has a broad

Table 1 Checklist and geographic distribution ofTriatominae of the United Stares

(Not including the cosmopolitan T rubrofoseiata)

Genera Species Species In Kansas States Distribution Complex reported from

Triatoma Uncertain T sanguisuga yes 23

Lectularia Tleeticularia yes 16

T indictiva 3

T inaassata 1

Phyllo soma T recurva 6

T gerstaeckeri 2

Protracta T protroeta 7

T neatamae 1

Rubida T rubida 6

Parotriatoma P hirsuta 5

Alabama Arizona Arkansas Florid a Georgia Illinois Indiana Kansas Kentucky Louisiana MarylandMi ssiss ippi Missouri New Jersey New Mexico N Carolina Ohio Oklahoma PennsylvaniaS Carolina Tennessee Texas Virginia

Arizona California Florida Georgia Illinois Kansas Louisiana Maryland Missouri New Mexico N Carolina Oklahoma PennsylvaniaS Carolina Tennessee Texas

Arizona New MexicoTexas

Arizona

Arizona CaliforniaColorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

New Mexico Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas Utah

Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

Arizona California Colorado NevadaNew Mexico

potential niche much broader than its

current geographical distribution

BIOLOGYAND NATURAL HISTORY OF KISSING BUGS

Kissing bugs have a gradual

development with five immature instars

appearing similar to adults but without

wings They are large bugs with adults

ranging in length from about 12 to 36

mm Both sexes and all five instars feed on

blood ofvertebrates starting with the first

instars which take a blood meal as soon

as 2-3 days after hatching from the egg

They can develop from egg (Figure 5) to

adult in several months in warm tropical

areas when food is readily available In

temperate regions having extended cooler

periods of the year the bugs are typically

univoltine with only one generation per

year In these regions bugs seek refuge in

rodent burrows cavities caves and other

locations with moderate temperatures and

pass the unfavorable times as immatures

in various stages (Figure 4) Adults live

several months occasionally a yea r or

more (5) and feed throughout their

lives In captivity adults of Triatoma

rubida T protraeta or T reeurva live 4-5

months on average Mating lasts only

about 10 minutes a relatively short time

compared ro other hemipterans As with

other hemipterans females readily mate

with multiple males females can srore

sperm for use months later and over their

life span can lay up to several hundred

eggs depending upon conditions (5)

6

Active dispersal is achieved by flight in

adults and by crawling in immatures (6 )

Passive dispersal occurs in some species

by transport of attached eggs to ne

locations by birds or other animals or by

human transport of materials harboring

eggs or free-living stages Active dispersal

of immatures can occur when a shortage

of food sources stimulates bugs to crawl

toward locations potentially having new

hosts Adults typically disperse by fli gh r

around dusk Nutritional s tate and

hunger are powerful drivers of dispersal

(7) Another is the classical reproducti e

strategy in which gravid females retain

eggs for deposition after flight (8 9)

Dispersal is not a primary form of mate

seeking as in many moths and other

insects Evidence against mate seeking

is indicated by equal numbers of femal es

and males captured at lights and the

rapidity with which captured femal es

oviposit fertile eggs (8)

HABITAT AND HOST ASSOCIATION

Triatomine species inhabit a variety ot

ecological environments from generalize

to highly specialized including human

domestic environments Within these

environments they can range from

opportunists feeding on a variety of

host species to specialists feeding on a

limited number of host types Specialists

include Cavernieola pilosa which feeds

on bats Rhodnius spp living in palm

trees where they feed on inhabiting birds

and mammals and Psammolestes spp

which live in bird nests constructed of

rwigs Bird blood meals are sufficient

3 ri bution ofTriatominae of the United States - I I ) -1roiflscUlta

$tates oprtedfrom

I Distribution

Alabama Arizona Arkansas Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Kansas Kentucky louisiana Maryland Mississippi Missouri New Jersey New Mexico N Carolina Ohio Oklahoma Pennsylvania S Carolina Tennessee Texas Virginia

ArizonaCalifornia Florida Georgia Illinois Kansas louisiana Maryland Missouri New Mexico NCarolinaOklahoma Pennsylvania SCarolina TennesseeTexas

Arizona New MexicoTexas

Arizona

ArizonaGJlifornia Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

New Mexico Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas Utah

Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

ArizonaCalifornia Colorado Nevada New Mexico

periods of the year the bugs are typically

univoltine with only one generation per

year In these regions bugs seek refuge in

rodent burrows cavities caves and other

locations with moderate temperatures and

pass the unfavorable times as immatures

in various stages (Figure 4) Adults live everal months occasionally a year or

more (5) and feed throughout their

lives In captivity adults of Triatoma

rubida T protracta or T recurva live 4-5

months on average Mating lasts only

about 10 minutes a relatively short time

compared to other hemipterans As with

other hemipterans females readily mate

wi th multiple males females can stOre

sperm for use months later and over the [ ~

life span can lay up to several hundrec

eggs depending upon conditions (S

Active dispersal is achieved by flight in

adults and by crawling in immatures (6)

Passive dispersal occurs in some species

by transport of attached eggs to new

locations by birds or other animals or by

human transport of materials harboring

eggs or free-living stages Active dispersal

of immatures can occur when a shortage

of food sources stimulates bugs ro crawl

roward locations potentially having new

hosts Adults typically disperse by flight

around dusk Nutritional state and

hunger are powerful drivers of dispersal

(7) Another is the classical reproductive

strategy in which gravid females retain

eggs for deposition after flight (89)

Dispersal is not a primaly form of mate

seeking as in many moths and other

insects Evidence against mate seeking

is indicated by equal numbers of females

and males captured at lights and the

rapidity with which captured females

oviposit fertile eggs (8)

HABITAT AND HOST ASSOCIATION

TriatOmine species inhabit a variety of

ecological environmentS from generalized

ro highly specialized including human

domestic environments Within these

environments they can range from

opportunists feeding on a variety of

host species to specialists feeding on a limited number of host types Specialists

include Cavernicola piLosa which feeds

on bats Rhodnius spp living in palm

trees where they feed on inhabiting birds

and mammals and Psammofestes spp

which live in bird nests constructed of

rwigs Bird blood meals are sufficient

for the bugs to survive and reproduce

but birds are not hosts of T cruzi and

thus alter the parasite transmission cycle

Somewhat more general feeders are T rubrofasciata and members of the T

protracta complex that prefer feeding on

rodents Triatoma infestans T dimidiata

and R profixus are inhabitants of human

domestic environments where they feed

on people and their animals (6) Most

species irrespective of their preferred

habitat can become opportunistic feeders

when other species are available Species

that are generally opportunists can also

be facultative specialists preferring to feed

mainly on one group of hosts if given the

opportunity (10) The Triatoma living

in Arizona are all non-domestic species

that often feed on packrats (Neotoma

spp) yet they readily feed on a variety of

vertebrate hosts they encounter including

humans The Arizona-Sonora Desert

Museum in Tucson Arizona is a regional

educational living zoo that inadvertently

supports large populations of T rubida

and T protracta These bugs plague many

museum animals and sometimes feed

so extensively that they have caused the

death by chronic blood loss of animals

including a rare protected mountain

rattlesnake (James L Jarchow DVM

pers commun) In Kansas Triatoma

sanguisuga like the Arizona species feeds

predominantly on Neotoma raccoons and

opossums but will readily feed on a

variety of other hosts including humans

When and how some species of

triaromines became specialists on humans

is a mystery The subfamily is believed

to have originated about 5 million years

Figure 4 A fifth instar (nymphal stage) of T recurva Note the absence of figure 6 A teneral of T rubida i shy _

wings in the nymphs

8

- shy --t o-ader in California especially

middotmiddotmiddotomiddotva Note the absence of Figure 6 A reneral of T rubida ienewly emerged adult

bull 9

ago in the New World (11) Dates for

the arrival of human beings in the New

World are debated but their estimated

arrival sometime between 14000 to

20000 years ago is relatively recent

Thus shifts in some species of kissing

bugs to specializing on our species are

recent evolutionary events and might

well explain some of our vulnerability to

the T cruzi parasite the bugs transmit to

us

FEEDING BEHAVIOR Kissing bugs rely on multiple sensory

systems to locate hosts These include

gradients of carbon dioxide in the air

odors moisture heat and air flow (12)

They are exquisitely sensitive to carbon

dioxide exhaled by mammals when

breathing being able to detect 75 parts

per million above the background air

levels of 350 parts per million when

a trace of exhaled lactic acid another

attractant is present Cold blooded hosts

including reptiles generate very low levels

of carbon dioxide nevertheless kissing

bugs use many other host-generated

chemical cues including short chained

ali phatic amines and acids 7- to 9-carbon

aldehydes and alcohols and lactic acid to

locate hosts The bugs can also detect

infrared radiation enabling them to orient

toward warm blooded hosts from several

meters Finally they anemotactically

follow the movement of air currents

impregnated with host odors to locate

the host (12) Feeding by bugs in human

domiciles usually takes place at night

with bugs hiding during the day in

cracks and crevices away from the feeding

areas Much less is known about feeding

times for sylvatic (non-domestic) species

Likely they adjust their activity periods to

match the inactive periods of their host

thereby minimizing danger from host

defenses Triatoma rubida and T protracta

do not hesitate to approach and feed on

rodents during bright midday times (13)

a behavior that might well be adaptive for

bugs that often feed on rodents in their

burrows while the rodents are sleeping or

quiescent during the day

Once a host is located a hungry

bug extends its proboscis and inserts it

into the skin of the host Sometimes the

host detects the minor sensation caused

by a bugs probing and moves or shifts

posmon In response the bug usually

retracts somewhat before continuing

probing and feeding Considering that

a bug often imbibes more blood than

its own weight (3) feeding is relatively

rapid lasting on average 22 minutes

for T protracta 28 for T rubida and

between 11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

T dimidiata and R proixus (1 3 14)

Blood is mostly water and the bulkiness

of a large blood meal limits a bugs

movement To eliminate excess water

bugs often defecate during feeding at

completion of feeding or shortly after

leaving the feeding site (Figure 8) Some

species including those domestic species

that frequemly transmit Chagas disease

defecate rapidly and frequently often on

or near the host (14) while others defecate

less rapidly and less frequently often at a

distance from the host (3) Frequency

and proximity of defecation to the host

are considered to be critical factors in

transmitting T cruzi and Chagas

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are th - common cause of insect bites that - -_

in anaphylaxis in the United State --

medical emergency (also causeu - - ~

commonly by bee stings) results -ro ~- =

release of chemical signals in resP Qclt ~

proteins in the bugs saliva ina b _ _ usually causes the individual to r s the emergency room where epineF~~gt _

and other imerventions reverse th - _

blood pressure swollen ai[-as ~=shy

rashes that often accompany anapn- c

Victims usually are awakened at nig shy

shortness of breath difficulty b re-l ~- ~

or generalized itching Othe~ _c ominous allergies include hives se ~

of the eyes swelling at the site 0 - - -t

bite and persistent itching Patiem -_

experience anaphylaxis when re-bi ~-shy

and one adult woman has died ~C _-shythe condition The bite itself is pai

however swelling and inflammatior -shy

the site of the bite may last for middoteeL

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit CI ~

to humans in the United States lt =-__ shy

six such cases have been docunei

Infection with Trypanasoma en is common in several wildlife spe - j -

rare in domestic pets Reported Cd5eS __

10

~--l vluch less is known about feeding

-16 for sylva tic (non-domestic) species

~~Jd~ they adjust their activity periods to

- ch the inactive periods of their host

erltbmiddot minimizing danger from host

erenscs Triatoma rubida and T protracta

_ ~Of hesitate to approach and feed on

rienrs during bright midday times (13)

chlior that might well be adaptive for

_g [hat often feed on rodents in their

transmuting T cruzi and Chagas disease

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are the most

common cause of insect bites that result

in anaphylaxis in the United States This

medical emergency (also caused more

commonly by bee stings) results from the

domestic species

the warmer southern stares There are no

reportS of livestock horses or pigs being

infected Only one case report exists of

infection in a domestic cat in the US

The primary wildlife species in the

United Srates that serve as host reservoirs

for T cruz i are

packrats in the genus Neotoma

and opossums ~ _ -ns while the rodents are sleeping or

-e-cnt during the day

nee a host is located a hungry

extends its proboscis and inserts it

he skin of the host Sometimes the

erects the minor sensation caused

s- Sugs probing and moves or shifts

xsiion In response the bug usually

- = ~-rS somewhat before continuing

iing and feeding Considering that

t~~ often imbibes more blood than

-1 weight (3) feeding is relatively

~i c las ting on average 22 minutes

- ~ ~- porracta 28 for T rubida and

11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

-

3w i

d diara and R prolixus (13 14)

moscly water and the bulkiness

l rge blood meal limits a bugs

bull O1em To eliminate excess water

0 o tten defecate during feeding at

_ -c~E io1 of feeding or shortly after

-T-i ~ he feeding site (Figure 8) Some

~ _-~~ i1Cluding those domestic species

-~-- E~lIently transmit Chagas disease

i-_ ~ ~ rap idly and frequently often on

bullbull -~ ile hos t (14) while others defecate

_ 2-d l and less frequently often at a

_ lt~ ~ r-om the host (3) Frequency

- E - ~igtxi ni( of defecation to the hosr

_~ odered to be critical factors in

release of chemical signals in response to

proteins in the bugs saliva Anaphylaxis

usually causes the individual to rush to

the emergency room where epinephrine

and other interventions reverse the low

blood pressure swollen airways and

rashes that often accompany anaphylaxis

Victims usually are awakened at night by

shortness of breath difficulty breathing

or generalized itching Other less

ominous allergies include hives swelling

of rhe eyes swelling at the site of the

bite and persistent itching Patients may

experience anaphylaxis when re-bitten

and one adult woman has died from

the condition The bite itself is painless

however swelling and inflammation at

the site of the bite may last for weeks

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit Chagas

to humans in the United States only

six such cases have been documented

Infection with Trypanasoma cruz i is

common in several wildlife species but

rare in domestic pets Reporred cases in

are limited ro dogs in

rodents particularly

raccoons

and to a lesser degree

armadillos and skunks T cruzi has been

reporred in more than 20 different wildlife

species in the United States in at least 13 states (15) Wood rats and other rodent

species serve as reservoirs of infection

as rodent dens and nests may harbor

the insect vectors Infection dynamics of

T cruz i isolates appear to vary between

species wirh raccoons being infected wirh

a more virulent genetic strain in which

blood parasites levels peak sooner and

antibodies are more quickly derected rhan

occurs in opossums anorher primary

wildlife reservoir species Additionally

mice injecred with opossum derived T cruzi isolates appear to subsequently

clear the infection and survive whereas

injecting mice with the raccoon derived

strains resulted in a 75 mortality rate

in one study Despite differences in

virulence between the host species strains

pathologic cardiac changes induced by T cruzi have been observed at necropsy in

both raccoons and opossums

Prevalence of T cruz i in wildlife

species varies but infection rates as high

as 62 occurred in raccoons tested

in various states (16) Infection rates

appear to be generally highest in coastal

locations with the elevated rates assumed

11

T cruzi exposure in many southern

states and as far north as Minnesota

In domestic dogs as in wildlife species

infection is thought ro be primarily by

First and foremost is a thorough

inspecrion of the home both inside and

outside

During the active season (around

bull Keep window curtalins and blirci ~-

Seal potential entryways into ho es points of entry) with caulk silicone sea

Figure 7 Blood smear showing

Trypanosoma cruzi parasites among

red blood cells Phoro by Rose

Nasrazadani

ro be due ro the increased disrribution

of insect vectors secondary ro the high

humidiry and lack of a winter freeze

along the sourhern and eastern coasts

In contrast ro the Latin American

isolates that are transmitted ro humans

indirectly at the insect bite location by

fecal contamination T cruzi in wildlife

species in the US is transmitted by

oral ingestion of infected insects and ro

a lesser degree by placental transmission

in utero

In domestic pets T cruzi causing

clinical health issues has been reported

primarily 111 working dogs from

southeastern Texas and foci in Louisiana

although antibody testing has confirmed

eating infected kissing bug vecrors in

response ro skin irritation from the insect

bite and from in utero transmission from

dam ro pup

Clinical signs of infection in dogs are

primarily cardiac recognized as exercise

intolerance or generalized weakness

Diagnostic testing may reveal severe heart

arrythmias And ultimately a dilated

form of heart failure develops Treatment

rarely results in a cure and survival time

in clinically affecred dogs ranges from 0

ro GO months

Prevention of Chagas disease in

dogs depends on insect vecror control

and limiting contacr with host reservoir

species In endemic kissing bug areas

animal housing and bedding should be

treated with insecticide monthly and

kennels improved as needed ro remove

insect nesting sites

PEST MANAGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

Insecticide spraying is the cornersrone

ofvector control programs for triatomines

in South America where domestic and

peridomestic species are prevalent and

can attain high population densities in

and around homes The sylva tic species

found in the US are only occasional

invaders and thus present a different set

of problems that rely on non-chemical

measures for control such as habitat

modification and exclusion techniques

(see table below)

bull amp

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a female T rubida

Table 2 Non-chemical measure w ~c _ triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes ~ _

bedroom to reduce potentia - - ~ - - - - bull Manage vegetation around t nE - ~ ~ - =shy

firewood and debris) that n1 a -shy

Install weather stripping and tight fi insect proof dog and cat entrances a

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting a ~ - - ~

kissing bugs bull Move lights away from doors bull Replace outside white ligh 5 gt- _ _

_ - ~ ntected kissing bug vecmrs in

-~- ro sk in irriration from the insect

- ~ ~ from iii IItero transmission from

2~ __ bull gt ult

C gtal signs of infection in dogs are

- --- shy cardiac recognized as exercise

ltOk 1 or generalized weakness

J~~ -i testing may reveal severe heart

--~ --5 nd ultimately a dilated

t-he-arr failure develops Treatment

-L ~~- ~esul r5 in a cure and survival time

dir alh affected dogs ranges from 0

-1 onths

_~ecmion of Chagas disease in

It7 c epends on insect vector control

-c ~ -i(in g conract with host reservoir

- ifO In endemic kissing bug areas

~Ad fi ousing and bedding should be

lt-~1 2 - irh insecticide monthly and

D --u~-- improved as needed to remove

-51 - s ring sites

bull

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a fem ale T rubida

PEST Mfu~AGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

gt xri ide spraying is the cornersmne

middot C T io nrrol programs for triaromines

~ il merica where domestic and

- --l(1c-gt[ ic species are prevalel1( and

bull- 1il high population densities in

1d aol 1d homes The sylvatic species

~c n [he CS are only occasional

- middot~c dnd thus presel1( a differel1( set

- ~ -tiems that rely on non-chemical

- ~~=-gt fo r control such as habitat

~Cil[ion and exclusion techniques

- dow)

- and foremost is a thorough

-- - - ~ion of the home both inside and

ring the active season (around

Table 2 Non-chemical measures ro reduce risk of household infestation by

triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes piles of paper) inside homes particularly in the

bedroom to reduce potential hiding places for kiSSing bugs bull Manage vegetation around the home and eliminate clutter (eg piles of lumber

firewood and debris) that may prOvide small animal habitat

Install weather stripping and tight fitting insect screens on windows and doors insect proof dog and cat entrances and keep fireplace flues shut

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting at night to make homes less attractive to kissing bugs

bull Move lights away from doors or windows where they may attract insects bull Replace outside white lights with yellow lights bull Keep window curtains and blinds drawn in lighted rooms

I

Seal potential entryways into homes (eg foundation cracks and utility line points of entry) with caulk silicone seal or other appropriate materials

I

13

mid-spring to mid-fall) inspections

should be carried our on a regular basis to

find and destroy any stray bugs During

the day they typically hide in dark places

in cracks and crevices or under objects

For example in the bedroom they may

hide in bed sheets or blankets or under

the mattress so it is recommended that

all of these potential hiding places be

inspected especially before retmng

Outside during the day they hide in

dark sheltered places such as beneath

flowerpots or furniture emerging at night

to be seen crawling or resting on surfaces

Pay special attention to areas inside and

out where pets congregate or sleep

In addition to efforts directly aimed

at kissing bugs concrol measures may be

needed to remove their wild vertebrate

hosts sllch as packrats which are common

around homes in the Southwest Packrats

can have several dozen or more kissing

bugs inhabiting their nests Trapping the

packrats and removing their nests close

to the house can potentially reduce home

invasions However it is advisable that

only the nearest packrat nest and packrats

be removed in the hope that the kissing

bugs will move to more peripheral nests

farther from the house After the packrats

have been removed a pyrethroid dust

or spray should be applied to the old

nesting sites to eliminate any remaining

kiSSing bugs This is critical because in the

absence of their natural host the bugs will

seek out another source of blood which

might end up being the homeowner (I 7)

In the case of sensitized homeowners

who have become allergic to kissing bugs

a directed spray application of pyrethroid

insecticides in and aro und the home

may provide some added protection

Most effective indoors is a crack and

crevice application to potential harborage

sites in bedrooms and bathrooms and

outdoors a perimeter treatment along

the foundation and eaves paying close

attention to thoroughly treat entryways

such as windows and doors to prevent

their access into the home

Sensitized individuals may also elect

to sleep under a bed net (mosquito

netting) that is tucked in all around

the mattress for added protection and

using double-sided sticky tape placed

on the legs of the bed Beds should be

kept at least one foor away from walls

Sticky trap monitors placed under and

around beds may also catch wandering

bugs Finally homeowners might wish

to thoroughly vacuum the bedroom and

consider isolating their bedroom during

the active season by weather-stripping

doors and keeping doors closed

Kissing bugs are medically important

fascinating insects that likely will be

interacting with humans and their pets

wi th increasing frequency in response

to warming climates and as more homes

encroach into their habitats Learning to

recognize these bugs and to keep them

out of human habitations is an important

responsibility of homeownership

14

REFERENCES 1 Weiruch C Munro fB

phylogeny of rhe as middot3i - (Hemi prera Reduviidae shymirochondrial genes dol P~ - ~- shy

Evol 2009 53 287-299 2 Iba rra-Cerdena CN San ~le= - _~

V Townsend Pererso n A Rl middot

(2009) Ecology of -or L _

Triarominae Acra Trop 1 10 - - bull

3 Zeled6n R Beard CB Pio _ 0

Leiby DA Dorn PL R J (in press) An appraisal r ~ --=shyChagas disease in rhe L-n re-C =- ~

4 de la Rua N Srevens (201l) High generic dit _ - 1- _ ~

popularion of (Le Com e 1855) i n ter~ - ~

mirochondrial markef5 Co ~ -

and 16S ribosomal D- -co

Generics and Evolurion 5 Goda D E and C J ~ _

Popularion dynamics of Ii

under narural climaric middot0 shy

rhe Argentin e C haco -EM ~ ~ shy3 179-94

6 Schofield C J 1988 Bios [- c rhe Triarominae In Bio5middotreoi H aemarophagous Insecrs 1 - __

ed) Sys remarics Associario r _ - Volume No 37 pp 284middot31 c -~ shy

Press O xford 7 Lehane M ] P K Mch --

Whiraker and C J Schotleld ] 4 ~ _

role of remperarure and nurririofi- _ _ in flighr iniriarion by 7i-iatam 1-~ _

Acta Trop 52 27-38 8 Klorz J H P L Dorn J L _ --

L Stevens J L Pinnas J 0- ~ l-r _

and S A Klotz 2010 Ki55ill ~ - __ ~

porential disease vecrors and (~ U

anaphylaxiS Cfin In Dis ) o 6 _ - 9 McEwen P K and M ] Lehl _- shy

Relationship between Highr 2

and oviposir ion in TiaOIgtII - - - shy

(Klug) (Hem Reduviidae - shy

Entomo 117 217middot23

u~ Je5 in and around the home

--_2 rovide some added protecrion

-- efrecrin~ indoors is a crack and

_c lt application to potenrial harborage

~-olt r bedrooms and bathrooms and

-or a perimeter rreatmenr along

- -()ll1dation and eaves paying close

~(o n ro thoroughly treat enrryways

~~ - d windows and doors ro prevenr

~ laquo(e55 inro the home

S1si tized individuals may also elect

lteF under a bed net (mosquiro

- ~Jng that is rucked in all around

c -rress for added protection and

_ sect do uble-sided sticky tape placed

Ci - he legs of the bed Beds should be

r ~ least one foor away from walls

rap monirors placed under and

- - ~ -_ bds may also catch wandering

_~ _ Finally- homeowners mighr wish

-uroughh- vacuum rhe bedroom and

___id ~ iolaring rheir bedroom during

d~ 2Cl i season by wearher-srripping

nd keeping doors dosed - lis~ lg bugs are medically imporranr

is -_2ing insecrs rhar likely will be

- _~~~ i rh humans and rheir pers

_1reas ing frequency in response

-ing c1imares and as more homes

-~ h inro their habirars Learning ro

sect-izemiddot these bugs and (Q keep rhem

il-lnan habirarions is an imporranr

- bili r of homeownership

REFERENCES I Weiruch C Munro JB Molecular

phylogeny of the assassin bugs (Hemiptera Reduviidae) based on mirochondrial genes Mol Phylogenet Evo 2009 53 287-299

2 Ibarra-Cerdena CN Sanchez-Cordero

V Townsend Peterson A Ramsey JM (2009) Ecology of North American

Triarominae Acta Trop 110 178-186 3 Zeledon R Beard CB Pinro Dias JC

Leiby DA Dorn PL Rodrigues Coura J (in press) An appraisal of the sraws of Chagas disease in the United States

4 de la Rua N Stevens L Dorn PL (2011) High genetic diversity in a si ngle

population of Tiiatoma sanguisuga

(Le Conte 1855) inferred from rwo mitochondrial markers cytochrome b and 16S ribosomal DNA Infection Genetics and Evolution

5 Goda D E and C J Schofield 1989 Population dynam ics of Ti-iatoma inmans under nawral climatic conditions in

the Argentine Chaco Med Vet Entomol

3 179-94 6 Schofield C J 1988 Biosystematics of

the Triatominae In Biosystematics of Haematophagous Insects (M W Service ed) Systematics Association Special

Volume No 37 pp 284-312 Clarendon

Press Oxford 7 Lehane M J P K McEwen C J

Whitaker and C J Schofield 1992 The role of temperature and nutritional status in flight initiation by Triatoma infestans Acta Timiddotop 52 27-38

8 KJotz J H P L Dorn J L Logan L Stevens J L Pinnas J O Schmidt and S A KJotz 20 IO Kissing Bugs potential disease vectors and cause of anaphylaxis CLin In Dis 50 1629-34

9 McEwen P K and M J Lehane 1994 Relationship berween flight initiation and oviposition in Triatoma infestam (KJug) (Hem Reduviidae) j App

EntomoL 11 7 217-23

10 Gurtler R E L A Ceballos P OrdoZezshy

Krasnowski L A Lanati R Stariolo and

U Kitron 2009 Strong host-feeding

preferences of the vector Tiiatoma

infestans modified by vector density

implications for the epidemiology of

Chagas disease PLGS Neglect Trop Dis

3e447

11 Schofield C J and C Galvno 2009

Classification evolution and species

groups within the Triatominae Acta

Tropl1088-100

12 Guerenstein P G and C R Lazzari

2009 Hosr-seeking how rriatomines

acqui re and make use of information to

find blood Acta Ti-op 110148-583

13 KJotz S A P L Dorn J H KJOtz

] L Pinnas C Weirauch J R Kurtz

and J Schmidt 2009 Feeding behavior

of triaromines from the southwestern

United States an update on potential

risk for transmission of Chagas disease

Acta Trop III114-18

14 Zeled6n R R Alvarado and L F Jiron

1977 Observations on the feeding and

defecation patterns of three triatol11ine

species (Hemiptera Reduviidae) Acta

Timiddotop3465-77

15 Barr Sc Canine C hagas Disease

(American Trypanosomiasis) in North

America Vet CLin Small Animal 39

(2009) 1055-1064

16 Yabsley MJ and NobletGP Seroprevalence

of Trypanosoma cruz i in raccoo ns from

South Carolina and Georgia J WiLdl Dis

38 (2002) 75-83

17 Gouge DH Stoltman AJ Snyder

J L Olson C How to Bug Proof Your

Home http ca ls arizona edupubs

insectsaz l 3201

15

e E

MP

OR

IA S

TATE

UN

IVE

RS

ITYr

u KA

NSA

S SC

HO

OL

NAT

UR

ALIS

T B

OX

4050

12

00 C

OM

MER

CIA

L ST

E

mpo

ria

KS 6

6801

-508

7

ADDR

ESS

SERV

ICE

REQ

UEST

ED

No

np

rofi

t O

rg

US

Pos

tage

PA

ID

Em

pori

a K

ansa

s

66

80

1-5

08

7

Pe

rmit

No

203

Tri

atom

a re

curv

a t

he l

arge

st t

riat

ome

in t

he U

S (f

emal

e)

Figure 1 Triatoma sanguisuga the most common triatomine in Kansas and

throughout central and southeastern US Photo by Harold Baquet

Figure 2 Triatoma rubida common in foo (female note pointed projection from en L bull bull

One species Triatoma rubrofosciata

is found around the world and may have

spread in association with ships rats A few other species are found in Southeast

and East Asia however most species

(-125) are found only in the Americas

The Triatomini tribe contains two genera important for human transmission of

Chagas Triatoma and Panstrongyfus the former has the most (80) species and

includes the two most important vectors

for human transmission T inftstans

in South America and T dimidiata in

Mesoamerica (Mexico Central America and northern South America) The

Rhodniini tribe includes the genera

Rhodnius and Psammoestes with Rhodnius

profixus being an important human vector

in northern South America

KISSING BUG SPECIES IN THE UNITED STATES

Ten species of Triatominae (Table

1) are native to the United States (2 3)

where their northern limit is determined

by intolerance of cold temperatures Natural infections of T cruzi have been

found in seven of these species (4) The

Triatominae in the United States belong

to two genera (Paratriatoma and Triatoma)

and include four species complexes within the Triatoma (iecticularia phyllosoma

protracta rubida) The two species

reported in Kansas T sanguisuga and

T ecticularia are in an uncertain status

and lecticularia complex respectivel (Dorn unpublished data) They have the

widest geographical distribution of the

ten species found in the United States

The most widespread species T sanguisuga (Figure 1) and T fectufaria are

mostly sylvatic however in Manhattan

Kansas T sanguisuga was reporred from poultry houses barns and houses

Although there are reports of serious

allergic reactions to their bite no T cruzi transmission to humans has been

reponed in Kansas Thatoma sanguisuga

is commonly associated with raccoons

and opossums and has been found in

large numbers around human dwellings

from Florida to Texas (4)

4

Figure 2 Triatoma rubida common in foothill regions of Phoenix and Tucson=-i ltc common triatomine in Kansas and

(female note pointed projection from end of the abdomen) ~~ _5 Photo by Harold Baquer

p rofixus being an importanr human vecror

in northern South America

- ~ I KISSING BUG SPECIES

IN THE UNITED STATES Ten species of Triarominae (Table

_imiddot~i4 1) are native ro the United States (2 3)

where their northern limit is determined

by intolerance of cold temperatures - - c ~atural infections of T cruzi have been

found in seven of these species (4) The

Triatominae in the United States belong

to twO genera (Paratriatoma and Ti-iatoma )

- 1=a and include four species complexes within

the Ti-iatoma (lecticularia phyllosoma - T- protracta rubida) The two specie

reported in Kansas T sanguisuga an ~

T fecticufaria are in an uncertain status

and lecticularia complex respectively

(Dorn unpublished data) They have the

widest geographical distribution of the

ten species found in the United States

The most widespread species T sanguisuga (Figure 1) and T fectufaria are

mostly sylvatic however in Manhattan

Kansas T sanguisuga was reported

from poultry houses barns and houses

Although there are reportS of serious

allergic reactions to their bite no T cruz i transmission ro humans has been

reported in Kansas Triatoma sanguisuga

is commonly associated with raccoons

and opossums and has been found in

large numbers around human dwellings

from Florida ro Texas (4)

The other kissing bug reported from

Kansas T fecticufaria feeds on opossums

as well as wood rats (Neotoma spp) and the

rock squirrel (Spennophilus variegatus) T indictiva is reported to feed on domestic

and peridomestic animals (See Figures

2-5 for other common triatomines in the

US) All ten species in the United States

are considered sylva tic and have differenr

ecological niches Species in the leticularia

complex prefer open shrubland

woodland and wooded grassland (2)

Wooded grassland is the preferred habitat

for members of the protracta rubida and

phyllosoma complexes The one species

in the United States not in the Ti-iatoma

genus Pamtriatoma hirsuta has a broad

Table 1 Checklist and geographic distribution ofTriatominae of the United Stares

(Not including the cosmopolitan T rubrofoseiata)

Genera Species Species In Kansas States Distribution Complex reported from

Triatoma Uncertain T sanguisuga yes 23

Lectularia Tleeticularia yes 16

T indictiva 3

T inaassata 1

Phyllo soma T recurva 6

T gerstaeckeri 2

Protracta T protroeta 7

T neatamae 1

Rubida T rubida 6

Parotriatoma P hirsuta 5

Alabama Arizona Arkansas Florid a Georgia Illinois Indiana Kansas Kentucky Louisiana MarylandMi ssiss ippi Missouri New Jersey New Mexico N Carolina Ohio Oklahoma PennsylvaniaS Carolina Tennessee Texas Virginia

Arizona California Florida Georgia Illinois Kansas Louisiana Maryland Missouri New Mexico N Carolina Oklahoma PennsylvaniaS Carolina Tennessee Texas

Arizona New MexicoTexas

Arizona

Arizona CaliforniaColorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

New Mexico Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas Utah

Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

Arizona California Colorado NevadaNew Mexico

potential niche much broader than its

current geographical distribution

BIOLOGYAND NATURAL HISTORY OF KISSING BUGS

Kissing bugs have a gradual

development with five immature instars

appearing similar to adults but without

wings They are large bugs with adults

ranging in length from about 12 to 36

mm Both sexes and all five instars feed on

blood ofvertebrates starting with the first

instars which take a blood meal as soon

as 2-3 days after hatching from the egg

They can develop from egg (Figure 5) to

adult in several months in warm tropical

areas when food is readily available In

temperate regions having extended cooler

periods of the year the bugs are typically

univoltine with only one generation per

year In these regions bugs seek refuge in

rodent burrows cavities caves and other

locations with moderate temperatures and

pass the unfavorable times as immatures

in various stages (Figure 4) Adults live

several months occasionally a yea r or

more (5) and feed throughout their

lives In captivity adults of Triatoma

rubida T protraeta or T reeurva live 4-5

months on average Mating lasts only

about 10 minutes a relatively short time

compared ro other hemipterans As with

other hemipterans females readily mate

with multiple males females can srore

sperm for use months later and over their

life span can lay up to several hundred

eggs depending upon conditions (5)

6

Active dispersal is achieved by flight in

adults and by crawling in immatures (6 )

Passive dispersal occurs in some species

by transport of attached eggs to ne

locations by birds or other animals or by

human transport of materials harboring

eggs or free-living stages Active dispersal

of immatures can occur when a shortage

of food sources stimulates bugs to crawl

toward locations potentially having new

hosts Adults typically disperse by fli gh r

around dusk Nutritional s tate and

hunger are powerful drivers of dispersal

(7) Another is the classical reproducti e

strategy in which gravid females retain

eggs for deposition after flight (8 9)

Dispersal is not a primary form of mate

seeking as in many moths and other

insects Evidence against mate seeking

is indicated by equal numbers of femal es

and males captured at lights and the

rapidity with which captured femal es

oviposit fertile eggs (8)

HABITAT AND HOST ASSOCIATION

Triatomine species inhabit a variety ot

ecological environments from generalize

to highly specialized including human

domestic environments Within these

environments they can range from

opportunists feeding on a variety of

host species to specialists feeding on a

limited number of host types Specialists

include Cavernieola pilosa which feeds

on bats Rhodnius spp living in palm

trees where they feed on inhabiting birds

and mammals and Psammolestes spp

which live in bird nests constructed of

rwigs Bird blood meals are sufficient

3 ri bution ofTriatominae of the United States - I I ) -1roiflscUlta

$tates oprtedfrom

I Distribution

Alabama Arizona Arkansas Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Kansas Kentucky louisiana Maryland Mississippi Missouri New Jersey New Mexico N Carolina Ohio Oklahoma Pennsylvania S Carolina Tennessee Texas Virginia

ArizonaCalifornia Florida Georgia Illinois Kansas louisiana Maryland Missouri New Mexico NCarolinaOklahoma Pennsylvania SCarolina TennesseeTexas

Arizona New MexicoTexas

Arizona

ArizonaGJlifornia Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

New Mexico Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas Utah

Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

ArizonaCalifornia Colorado Nevada New Mexico

periods of the year the bugs are typically

univoltine with only one generation per

year In these regions bugs seek refuge in

rodent burrows cavities caves and other

locations with moderate temperatures and

pass the unfavorable times as immatures

in various stages (Figure 4) Adults live everal months occasionally a year or

more (5) and feed throughout their

lives In captivity adults of Triatoma

rubida T protracta or T recurva live 4-5

months on average Mating lasts only

about 10 minutes a relatively short time

compared to other hemipterans As with

other hemipterans females readily mate

wi th multiple males females can stOre

sperm for use months later and over the [ ~

life span can lay up to several hundrec

eggs depending upon conditions (S

Active dispersal is achieved by flight in

adults and by crawling in immatures (6)

Passive dispersal occurs in some species

by transport of attached eggs to new

locations by birds or other animals or by

human transport of materials harboring

eggs or free-living stages Active dispersal

of immatures can occur when a shortage

of food sources stimulates bugs ro crawl

roward locations potentially having new

hosts Adults typically disperse by flight

around dusk Nutritional state and

hunger are powerful drivers of dispersal

(7) Another is the classical reproductive

strategy in which gravid females retain

eggs for deposition after flight (89)

Dispersal is not a primaly form of mate

seeking as in many moths and other

insects Evidence against mate seeking

is indicated by equal numbers of females

and males captured at lights and the

rapidity with which captured females

oviposit fertile eggs (8)

HABITAT AND HOST ASSOCIATION

TriatOmine species inhabit a variety of

ecological environmentS from generalized

ro highly specialized including human

domestic environments Within these

environments they can range from

opportunists feeding on a variety of

host species to specialists feeding on a limited number of host types Specialists

include Cavernicola piLosa which feeds

on bats Rhodnius spp living in palm

trees where they feed on inhabiting birds

and mammals and Psammofestes spp

which live in bird nests constructed of

rwigs Bird blood meals are sufficient

for the bugs to survive and reproduce

but birds are not hosts of T cruzi and

thus alter the parasite transmission cycle

Somewhat more general feeders are T rubrofasciata and members of the T

protracta complex that prefer feeding on

rodents Triatoma infestans T dimidiata

and R profixus are inhabitants of human

domestic environments where they feed

on people and their animals (6) Most

species irrespective of their preferred

habitat can become opportunistic feeders

when other species are available Species

that are generally opportunists can also

be facultative specialists preferring to feed

mainly on one group of hosts if given the

opportunity (10) The Triatoma living

in Arizona are all non-domestic species

that often feed on packrats (Neotoma

spp) yet they readily feed on a variety of

vertebrate hosts they encounter including

humans The Arizona-Sonora Desert

Museum in Tucson Arizona is a regional

educational living zoo that inadvertently

supports large populations of T rubida

and T protracta These bugs plague many

museum animals and sometimes feed

so extensively that they have caused the

death by chronic blood loss of animals

including a rare protected mountain

rattlesnake (James L Jarchow DVM

pers commun) In Kansas Triatoma

sanguisuga like the Arizona species feeds

predominantly on Neotoma raccoons and

opossums but will readily feed on a

variety of other hosts including humans

When and how some species of

triaromines became specialists on humans

is a mystery The subfamily is believed

to have originated about 5 million years

Figure 4 A fifth instar (nymphal stage) of T recurva Note the absence of figure 6 A teneral of T rubida i shy _

wings in the nymphs

8

- shy --t o-ader in California especially

middotmiddotmiddotomiddotva Note the absence of Figure 6 A reneral of T rubida ienewly emerged adult

bull 9

ago in the New World (11) Dates for

the arrival of human beings in the New

World are debated but their estimated

arrival sometime between 14000 to

20000 years ago is relatively recent

Thus shifts in some species of kissing

bugs to specializing on our species are

recent evolutionary events and might

well explain some of our vulnerability to

the T cruzi parasite the bugs transmit to

us

FEEDING BEHAVIOR Kissing bugs rely on multiple sensory

systems to locate hosts These include

gradients of carbon dioxide in the air

odors moisture heat and air flow (12)

They are exquisitely sensitive to carbon

dioxide exhaled by mammals when

breathing being able to detect 75 parts

per million above the background air

levels of 350 parts per million when

a trace of exhaled lactic acid another

attractant is present Cold blooded hosts

including reptiles generate very low levels

of carbon dioxide nevertheless kissing

bugs use many other host-generated

chemical cues including short chained

ali phatic amines and acids 7- to 9-carbon

aldehydes and alcohols and lactic acid to

locate hosts The bugs can also detect

infrared radiation enabling them to orient

toward warm blooded hosts from several

meters Finally they anemotactically

follow the movement of air currents

impregnated with host odors to locate

the host (12) Feeding by bugs in human

domiciles usually takes place at night

with bugs hiding during the day in

cracks and crevices away from the feeding

areas Much less is known about feeding

times for sylvatic (non-domestic) species

Likely they adjust their activity periods to

match the inactive periods of their host

thereby minimizing danger from host

defenses Triatoma rubida and T protracta

do not hesitate to approach and feed on

rodents during bright midday times (13)

a behavior that might well be adaptive for

bugs that often feed on rodents in their

burrows while the rodents are sleeping or

quiescent during the day

Once a host is located a hungry

bug extends its proboscis and inserts it

into the skin of the host Sometimes the

host detects the minor sensation caused

by a bugs probing and moves or shifts

posmon In response the bug usually

retracts somewhat before continuing

probing and feeding Considering that

a bug often imbibes more blood than

its own weight (3) feeding is relatively

rapid lasting on average 22 minutes

for T protracta 28 for T rubida and

between 11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

T dimidiata and R proixus (1 3 14)

Blood is mostly water and the bulkiness

of a large blood meal limits a bugs

movement To eliminate excess water

bugs often defecate during feeding at

completion of feeding or shortly after

leaving the feeding site (Figure 8) Some

species including those domestic species

that frequemly transmit Chagas disease

defecate rapidly and frequently often on

or near the host (14) while others defecate

less rapidly and less frequently often at a

distance from the host (3) Frequency

and proximity of defecation to the host

are considered to be critical factors in

transmitting T cruzi and Chagas

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are th - common cause of insect bites that - -_

in anaphylaxis in the United State --

medical emergency (also causeu - - ~

commonly by bee stings) results -ro ~- =

release of chemical signals in resP Qclt ~

proteins in the bugs saliva ina b _ _ usually causes the individual to r s the emergency room where epineF~~gt _

and other imerventions reverse th - _

blood pressure swollen ai[-as ~=shy

rashes that often accompany anapn- c

Victims usually are awakened at nig shy

shortness of breath difficulty b re-l ~- ~

or generalized itching Othe~ _c ominous allergies include hives se ~

of the eyes swelling at the site 0 - - -t

bite and persistent itching Patiem -_

experience anaphylaxis when re-bi ~-shy

and one adult woman has died ~C _-shythe condition The bite itself is pai

however swelling and inflammatior -shy

the site of the bite may last for middoteeL

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit CI ~

to humans in the United States lt =-__ shy

six such cases have been docunei

Infection with Trypanasoma en is common in several wildlife spe - j -

rare in domestic pets Reported Cd5eS __

10

~--l vluch less is known about feeding

-16 for sylva tic (non-domestic) species

~~Jd~ they adjust their activity periods to

- ch the inactive periods of their host

erltbmiddot minimizing danger from host

erenscs Triatoma rubida and T protracta

_ ~Of hesitate to approach and feed on

rienrs during bright midday times (13)

chlior that might well be adaptive for

_g [hat often feed on rodents in their

transmuting T cruzi and Chagas disease

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are the most

common cause of insect bites that result

in anaphylaxis in the United States This

medical emergency (also caused more

commonly by bee stings) results from the

domestic species

the warmer southern stares There are no

reportS of livestock horses or pigs being

infected Only one case report exists of

infection in a domestic cat in the US

The primary wildlife species in the

United Srates that serve as host reservoirs

for T cruz i are

packrats in the genus Neotoma

and opossums ~ _ -ns while the rodents are sleeping or

-e-cnt during the day

nee a host is located a hungry

extends its proboscis and inserts it

he skin of the host Sometimes the

erects the minor sensation caused

s- Sugs probing and moves or shifts

xsiion In response the bug usually

- = ~-rS somewhat before continuing

iing and feeding Considering that

t~~ often imbibes more blood than

-1 weight (3) feeding is relatively

~i c las ting on average 22 minutes

- ~ ~- porracta 28 for T rubida and

11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

-

3w i

d diara and R prolixus (13 14)

moscly water and the bulkiness

l rge blood meal limits a bugs

bull O1em To eliminate excess water

0 o tten defecate during feeding at

_ -c~E io1 of feeding or shortly after

-T-i ~ he feeding site (Figure 8) Some

~ _-~~ i1Cluding those domestic species

-~-- E~lIently transmit Chagas disease

i-_ ~ ~ rap idly and frequently often on

bullbull -~ ile hos t (14) while others defecate

_ 2-d l and less frequently often at a

_ lt~ ~ r-om the host (3) Frequency

- E - ~igtxi ni( of defecation to the hosr

_~ odered to be critical factors in

release of chemical signals in response to

proteins in the bugs saliva Anaphylaxis

usually causes the individual to rush to

the emergency room where epinephrine

and other interventions reverse the low

blood pressure swollen airways and

rashes that often accompany anaphylaxis

Victims usually are awakened at night by

shortness of breath difficulty breathing

or generalized itching Other less

ominous allergies include hives swelling

of rhe eyes swelling at the site of the

bite and persistent itching Patients may

experience anaphylaxis when re-bitten

and one adult woman has died from

the condition The bite itself is painless

however swelling and inflammation at

the site of the bite may last for weeks

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit Chagas

to humans in the United States only

six such cases have been documented

Infection with Trypanasoma cruz i is

common in several wildlife species but

rare in domestic pets Reporred cases in

are limited ro dogs in

rodents particularly

raccoons

and to a lesser degree

armadillos and skunks T cruzi has been

reporred in more than 20 different wildlife

species in the United States in at least 13 states (15) Wood rats and other rodent

species serve as reservoirs of infection

as rodent dens and nests may harbor

the insect vectors Infection dynamics of

T cruz i isolates appear to vary between

species wirh raccoons being infected wirh

a more virulent genetic strain in which

blood parasites levels peak sooner and

antibodies are more quickly derected rhan

occurs in opossums anorher primary

wildlife reservoir species Additionally

mice injecred with opossum derived T cruzi isolates appear to subsequently

clear the infection and survive whereas

injecting mice with the raccoon derived

strains resulted in a 75 mortality rate

in one study Despite differences in

virulence between the host species strains

pathologic cardiac changes induced by T cruzi have been observed at necropsy in

both raccoons and opossums

Prevalence of T cruz i in wildlife

species varies but infection rates as high

as 62 occurred in raccoons tested

in various states (16) Infection rates

appear to be generally highest in coastal

locations with the elevated rates assumed

11

T cruzi exposure in many southern

states and as far north as Minnesota

In domestic dogs as in wildlife species

infection is thought ro be primarily by

First and foremost is a thorough

inspecrion of the home both inside and

outside

During the active season (around

bull Keep window curtalins and blirci ~-

Seal potential entryways into ho es points of entry) with caulk silicone sea

Figure 7 Blood smear showing

Trypanosoma cruzi parasites among

red blood cells Phoro by Rose

Nasrazadani

ro be due ro the increased disrribution

of insect vectors secondary ro the high

humidiry and lack of a winter freeze

along the sourhern and eastern coasts

In contrast ro the Latin American

isolates that are transmitted ro humans

indirectly at the insect bite location by

fecal contamination T cruzi in wildlife

species in the US is transmitted by

oral ingestion of infected insects and ro

a lesser degree by placental transmission

in utero

In domestic pets T cruzi causing

clinical health issues has been reported

primarily 111 working dogs from

southeastern Texas and foci in Louisiana

although antibody testing has confirmed

eating infected kissing bug vecrors in

response ro skin irritation from the insect

bite and from in utero transmission from

dam ro pup

Clinical signs of infection in dogs are

primarily cardiac recognized as exercise

intolerance or generalized weakness

Diagnostic testing may reveal severe heart

arrythmias And ultimately a dilated

form of heart failure develops Treatment

rarely results in a cure and survival time

in clinically affecred dogs ranges from 0

ro GO months

Prevention of Chagas disease in

dogs depends on insect vecror control

and limiting contacr with host reservoir

species In endemic kissing bug areas

animal housing and bedding should be

treated with insecticide monthly and

kennels improved as needed ro remove

insect nesting sites

PEST MANAGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

Insecticide spraying is the cornersrone

ofvector control programs for triatomines

in South America where domestic and

peridomestic species are prevalent and

can attain high population densities in

and around homes The sylva tic species

found in the US are only occasional

invaders and thus present a different set

of problems that rely on non-chemical

measures for control such as habitat

modification and exclusion techniques

(see table below)

bull amp

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a female T rubida

Table 2 Non-chemical measure w ~c _ triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes ~ _

bedroom to reduce potentia - - ~ - - - - bull Manage vegetation around t nE - ~ ~ - =shy

firewood and debris) that n1 a -shy

Install weather stripping and tight fi insect proof dog and cat entrances a

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting a ~ - - ~

kissing bugs bull Move lights away from doors bull Replace outside white ligh 5 gt- _ _

_ - ~ ntected kissing bug vecmrs in

-~- ro sk in irriration from the insect

- ~ ~ from iii IItero transmission from

2~ __ bull gt ult

C gtal signs of infection in dogs are

- --- shy cardiac recognized as exercise

ltOk 1 or generalized weakness

J~~ -i testing may reveal severe heart

--~ --5 nd ultimately a dilated

t-he-arr failure develops Treatment

-L ~~- ~esul r5 in a cure and survival time

dir alh affected dogs ranges from 0

-1 onths

_~ecmion of Chagas disease in

It7 c epends on insect vector control

-c ~ -i(in g conract with host reservoir

- ifO In endemic kissing bug areas

~Ad fi ousing and bedding should be

lt-~1 2 - irh insecticide monthly and

D --u~-- improved as needed to remove

-51 - s ring sites

bull

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a fem ale T rubida

PEST Mfu~AGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

gt xri ide spraying is the cornersmne

middot C T io nrrol programs for triaromines

~ il merica where domestic and

- --l(1c-gt[ ic species are prevalel1( and

bull- 1il high population densities in

1d aol 1d homes The sylvatic species

~c n [he CS are only occasional

- middot~c dnd thus presel1( a differel1( set

- ~ -tiems that rely on non-chemical

- ~~=-gt fo r control such as habitat

~Cil[ion and exclusion techniques

- dow)

- and foremost is a thorough

-- - - ~ion of the home both inside and

ring the active season (around

Table 2 Non-chemical measures ro reduce risk of household infestation by

triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes piles of paper) inside homes particularly in the

bedroom to reduce potential hiding places for kiSSing bugs bull Manage vegetation around the home and eliminate clutter (eg piles of lumber

firewood and debris) that may prOvide small animal habitat

Install weather stripping and tight fitting insect screens on windows and doors insect proof dog and cat entrances and keep fireplace flues shut

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting at night to make homes less attractive to kissing bugs

bull Move lights away from doors or windows where they may attract insects bull Replace outside white lights with yellow lights bull Keep window curtains and blinds drawn in lighted rooms

I

Seal potential entryways into homes (eg foundation cracks and utility line points of entry) with caulk silicone seal or other appropriate materials

I

13

mid-spring to mid-fall) inspections

should be carried our on a regular basis to

find and destroy any stray bugs During

the day they typically hide in dark places

in cracks and crevices or under objects

For example in the bedroom they may

hide in bed sheets or blankets or under

the mattress so it is recommended that

all of these potential hiding places be

inspected especially before retmng

Outside during the day they hide in

dark sheltered places such as beneath

flowerpots or furniture emerging at night

to be seen crawling or resting on surfaces

Pay special attention to areas inside and

out where pets congregate or sleep

In addition to efforts directly aimed

at kissing bugs concrol measures may be

needed to remove their wild vertebrate

hosts sllch as packrats which are common

around homes in the Southwest Packrats

can have several dozen or more kissing

bugs inhabiting their nests Trapping the

packrats and removing their nests close

to the house can potentially reduce home

invasions However it is advisable that

only the nearest packrat nest and packrats

be removed in the hope that the kissing

bugs will move to more peripheral nests

farther from the house After the packrats

have been removed a pyrethroid dust

or spray should be applied to the old

nesting sites to eliminate any remaining

kiSSing bugs This is critical because in the

absence of their natural host the bugs will

seek out another source of blood which

might end up being the homeowner (I 7)

In the case of sensitized homeowners

who have become allergic to kissing bugs

a directed spray application of pyrethroid

insecticides in and aro und the home

may provide some added protection

Most effective indoors is a crack and

crevice application to potential harborage

sites in bedrooms and bathrooms and

outdoors a perimeter treatment along

the foundation and eaves paying close

attention to thoroughly treat entryways

such as windows and doors to prevent

their access into the home

Sensitized individuals may also elect

to sleep under a bed net (mosquito

netting) that is tucked in all around

the mattress for added protection and

using double-sided sticky tape placed

on the legs of the bed Beds should be

kept at least one foor away from walls

Sticky trap monitors placed under and

around beds may also catch wandering

bugs Finally homeowners might wish

to thoroughly vacuum the bedroom and

consider isolating their bedroom during

the active season by weather-stripping

doors and keeping doors closed

Kissing bugs are medically important

fascinating insects that likely will be

interacting with humans and their pets

wi th increasing frequency in response

to warming climates and as more homes

encroach into their habitats Learning to

recognize these bugs and to keep them

out of human habitations is an important

responsibility of homeownership

14

REFERENCES 1 Weiruch C Munro fB

phylogeny of rhe as middot3i - (Hemi prera Reduviidae shymirochondrial genes dol P~ - ~- shy

Evol 2009 53 287-299 2 Iba rra-Cerdena CN San ~le= - _~

V Townsend Pererso n A Rl middot

(2009) Ecology of -or L _

Triarominae Acra Trop 1 10 - - bull

3 Zeled6n R Beard CB Pio _ 0

Leiby DA Dorn PL R J (in press) An appraisal r ~ --=shyChagas disease in rhe L-n re-C =- ~

4 de la Rua N Srevens (201l) High generic dit _ - 1- _ ~

popularion of (Le Com e 1855) i n ter~ - ~

mirochondrial markef5 Co ~ -

and 16S ribosomal D- -co

Generics and Evolurion 5 Goda D E and C J ~ _

Popularion dynamics of Ii

under narural climaric middot0 shy

rhe Argentin e C haco -EM ~ ~ shy3 179-94

6 Schofield C J 1988 Bios [- c rhe Triarominae In Bio5middotreoi H aemarophagous Insecrs 1 - __

ed) Sys remarics Associario r _ - Volume No 37 pp 284middot31 c -~ shy

Press O xford 7 Lehane M ] P K Mch --

Whiraker and C J Schotleld ] 4 ~ _

role of remperarure and nurririofi- _ _ in flighr iniriarion by 7i-iatam 1-~ _

Acta Trop 52 27-38 8 Klorz J H P L Dorn J L _ --

L Stevens J L Pinnas J 0- ~ l-r _

and S A Klotz 2010 Ki55ill ~ - __ ~

porential disease vecrors and (~ U

anaphylaxiS Cfin In Dis ) o 6 _ - 9 McEwen P K and M ] Lehl _- shy

Relationship between Highr 2

and oviposir ion in TiaOIgtII - - - shy

(Klug) (Hem Reduviidae - shy

Entomo 117 217middot23

u~ Je5 in and around the home

--_2 rovide some added protecrion

-- efrecrin~ indoors is a crack and

_c lt application to potenrial harborage

~-olt r bedrooms and bathrooms and

-or a perimeter rreatmenr along

- -()ll1dation and eaves paying close

~(o n ro thoroughly treat enrryways

~~ - d windows and doors ro prevenr

~ laquo(e55 inro the home

S1si tized individuals may also elect

lteF under a bed net (mosquiro

- ~Jng that is rucked in all around

c -rress for added protection and

_ sect do uble-sided sticky tape placed

Ci - he legs of the bed Beds should be

r ~ least one foor away from walls

rap monirors placed under and

- - ~ -_ bds may also catch wandering

_~ _ Finally- homeowners mighr wish

-uroughh- vacuum rhe bedroom and

___id ~ iolaring rheir bedroom during

d~ 2Cl i season by wearher-srripping

nd keeping doors dosed - lis~ lg bugs are medically imporranr

is -_2ing insecrs rhar likely will be

- _~~~ i rh humans and rheir pers

_1reas ing frequency in response

-ing c1imares and as more homes

-~ h inro their habirars Learning ro

sect-izemiddot these bugs and (Q keep rhem

il-lnan habirarions is an imporranr

- bili r of homeownership

REFERENCES I Weiruch C Munro JB Molecular

phylogeny of the assassin bugs (Hemiptera Reduviidae) based on mirochondrial genes Mol Phylogenet Evo 2009 53 287-299

2 Ibarra-Cerdena CN Sanchez-Cordero

V Townsend Peterson A Ramsey JM (2009) Ecology of North American

Triarominae Acta Trop 110 178-186 3 Zeledon R Beard CB Pinro Dias JC

Leiby DA Dorn PL Rodrigues Coura J (in press) An appraisal of the sraws of Chagas disease in the United States

4 de la Rua N Stevens L Dorn PL (2011) High genetic diversity in a si ngle

population of Tiiatoma sanguisuga

(Le Conte 1855) inferred from rwo mitochondrial markers cytochrome b and 16S ribosomal DNA Infection Genetics and Evolution

5 Goda D E and C J Schofield 1989 Population dynam ics of Ti-iatoma inmans under nawral climatic conditions in

the Argentine Chaco Med Vet Entomol

3 179-94 6 Schofield C J 1988 Biosystematics of

the Triatominae In Biosystematics of Haematophagous Insects (M W Service ed) Systematics Association Special

Volume No 37 pp 284-312 Clarendon

Press Oxford 7 Lehane M J P K McEwen C J

Whitaker and C J Schofield 1992 The role of temperature and nutritional status in flight initiation by Triatoma infestans Acta Timiddotop 52 27-38

8 KJotz J H P L Dorn J L Logan L Stevens J L Pinnas J O Schmidt and S A KJotz 20 IO Kissing Bugs potential disease vectors and cause of anaphylaxis CLin In Dis 50 1629-34

9 McEwen P K and M J Lehane 1994 Relationship berween flight initiation and oviposition in Triatoma infestam (KJug) (Hem Reduviidae) j App

EntomoL 11 7 217-23

10 Gurtler R E L A Ceballos P OrdoZezshy

Krasnowski L A Lanati R Stariolo and

U Kitron 2009 Strong host-feeding

preferences of the vector Tiiatoma

infestans modified by vector density

implications for the epidemiology of

Chagas disease PLGS Neglect Trop Dis

3e447

11 Schofield C J and C Galvno 2009

Classification evolution and species

groups within the Triatominae Acta

Tropl1088-100

12 Guerenstein P G and C R Lazzari

2009 Hosr-seeking how rriatomines

acqui re and make use of information to

find blood Acta Ti-op 110148-583

13 KJotz S A P L Dorn J H KJOtz

] L Pinnas C Weirauch J R Kurtz

and J Schmidt 2009 Feeding behavior

of triaromines from the southwestern

United States an update on potential

risk for transmission of Chagas disease

Acta Trop III114-18

14 Zeled6n R R Alvarado and L F Jiron

1977 Observations on the feeding and

defecation patterns of three triatol11ine

species (Hemiptera Reduviidae) Acta

Timiddotop3465-77

15 Barr Sc Canine C hagas Disease

(American Trypanosomiasis) in North

America Vet CLin Small Animal 39

(2009) 1055-1064

16 Yabsley MJ and NobletGP Seroprevalence

of Trypanosoma cruz i in raccoo ns from

South Carolina and Georgia J WiLdl Dis

38 (2002) 75-83

17 Gouge DH Stoltman AJ Snyder

J L Olson C How to Bug Proof Your

Home http ca ls arizona edupubs

insectsaz l 3201

15

e E

MP

OR

IA S

TATE

UN

IVE

RS

ITYr

u KA

NSA

S SC

HO

OL

NAT

UR

ALIS

T B

OX

4050

12

00 C

OM

MER

CIA

L ST

E

mpo

ria

KS 6

6801

-508

7

ADDR

ESS

SERV

ICE

REQ

UEST

ED

No

np

rofi

t O

rg

US

Pos

tage

PA

ID

Em

pori

a K

ansa

s

66

80

1-5

08

7

Pe

rmit

No

203

Tri

atom

a re

curv

a t

he l

arge

st t

riat

ome

in t

he U

S (f

emal

e)

Figure 2 Triatoma rubida common in foothill regions of Phoenix and Tucson=-i ltc common triatomine in Kansas and

(female note pointed projection from end of the abdomen) ~~ _5 Photo by Harold Baquer

p rofixus being an importanr human vecror

in northern South America

- ~ I KISSING BUG SPECIES

IN THE UNITED STATES Ten species of Triarominae (Table

_imiddot~i4 1) are native ro the United States (2 3)

where their northern limit is determined

by intolerance of cold temperatures - - c ~atural infections of T cruzi have been

found in seven of these species (4) The

Triatominae in the United States belong

to twO genera (Paratriatoma and Ti-iatoma )

- 1=a and include four species complexes within

the Ti-iatoma (lecticularia phyllosoma - T- protracta rubida) The two specie

reported in Kansas T sanguisuga an ~

T fecticufaria are in an uncertain status

and lecticularia complex respectively

(Dorn unpublished data) They have the

widest geographical distribution of the

ten species found in the United States

The most widespread species T sanguisuga (Figure 1) and T fectufaria are

mostly sylvatic however in Manhattan

Kansas T sanguisuga was reported

from poultry houses barns and houses

Although there are reportS of serious

allergic reactions to their bite no T cruz i transmission ro humans has been

reported in Kansas Triatoma sanguisuga

is commonly associated with raccoons

and opossums and has been found in

large numbers around human dwellings

from Florida ro Texas (4)

The other kissing bug reported from

Kansas T fecticufaria feeds on opossums

as well as wood rats (Neotoma spp) and the

rock squirrel (Spennophilus variegatus) T indictiva is reported to feed on domestic

and peridomestic animals (See Figures

2-5 for other common triatomines in the

US) All ten species in the United States

are considered sylva tic and have differenr

ecological niches Species in the leticularia

complex prefer open shrubland

woodland and wooded grassland (2)

Wooded grassland is the preferred habitat

for members of the protracta rubida and

phyllosoma complexes The one species

in the United States not in the Ti-iatoma

genus Pamtriatoma hirsuta has a broad

Table 1 Checklist and geographic distribution ofTriatominae of the United Stares

(Not including the cosmopolitan T rubrofoseiata)

Genera Species Species In Kansas States Distribution Complex reported from

Triatoma Uncertain T sanguisuga yes 23

Lectularia Tleeticularia yes 16

T indictiva 3

T inaassata 1

Phyllo soma T recurva 6

T gerstaeckeri 2

Protracta T protroeta 7

T neatamae 1

Rubida T rubida 6

Parotriatoma P hirsuta 5

Alabama Arizona Arkansas Florid a Georgia Illinois Indiana Kansas Kentucky Louisiana MarylandMi ssiss ippi Missouri New Jersey New Mexico N Carolina Ohio Oklahoma PennsylvaniaS Carolina Tennessee Texas Virginia

Arizona California Florida Georgia Illinois Kansas Louisiana Maryland Missouri New Mexico N Carolina Oklahoma PennsylvaniaS Carolina Tennessee Texas

Arizona New MexicoTexas

Arizona

Arizona CaliforniaColorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

New Mexico Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas Utah

Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

Arizona California Colorado NevadaNew Mexico

potential niche much broader than its

current geographical distribution

BIOLOGYAND NATURAL HISTORY OF KISSING BUGS

Kissing bugs have a gradual

development with five immature instars

appearing similar to adults but without

wings They are large bugs with adults

ranging in length from about 12 to 36

mm Both sexes and all five instars feed on

blood ofvertebrates starting with the first

instars which take a blood meal as soon

as 2-3 days after hatching from the egg

They can develop from egg (Figure 5) to

adult in several months in warm tropical

areas when food is readily available In

temperate regions having extended cooler

periods of the year the bugs are typically

univoltine with only one generation per

year In these regions bugs seek refuge in

rodent burrows cavities caves and other

locations with moderate temperatures and

pass the unfavorable times as immatures

in various stages (Figure 4) Adults live

several months occasionally a yea r or

more (5) and feed throughout their

lives In captivity adults of Triatoma

rubida T protraeta or T reeurva live 4-5

months on average Mating lasts only

about 10 minutes a relatively short time

compared ro other hemipterans As with

other hemipterans females readily mate

with multiple males females can srore

sperm for use months later and over their

life span can lay up to several hundred

eggs depending upon conditions (5)

6

Active dispersal is achieved by flight in

adults and by crawling in immatures (6 )

Passive dispersal occurs in some species

by transport of attached eggs to ne

locations by birds or other animals or by

human transport of materials harboring

eggs or free-living stages Active dispersal

of immatures can occur when a shortage

of food sources stimulates bugs to crawl

toward locations potentially having new

hosts Adults typically disperse by fli gh r

around dusk Nutritional s tate and

hunger are powerful drivers of dispersal

(7) Another is the classical reproducti e

strategy in which gravid females retain

eggs for deposition after flight (8 9)

Dispersal is not a primary form of mate

seeking as in many moths and other

insects Evidence against mate seeking

is indicated by equal numbers of femal es

and males captured at lights and the

rapidity with which captured femal es

oviposit fertile eggs (8)

HABITAT AND HOST ASSOCIATION

Triatomine species inhabit a variety ot

ecological environments from generalize

to highly specialized including human

domestic environments Within these

environments they can range from

opportunists feeding on a variety of

host species to specialists feeding on a

limited number of host types Specialists

include Cavernieola pilosa which feeds

on bats Rhodnius spp living in palm

trees where they feed on inhabiting birds

and mammals and Psammolestes spp

which live in bird nests constructed of

rwigs Bird blood meals are sufficient

3 ri bution ofTriatominae of the United States - I I ) -1roiflscUlta

$tates oprtedfrom

I Distribution

Alabama Arizona Arkansas Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Kansas Kentucky louisiana Maryland Mississippi Missouri New Jersey New Mexico N Carolina Ohio Oklahoma Pennsylvania S Carolina Tennessee Texas Virginia

ArizonaCalifornia Florida Georgia Illinois Kansas louisiana Maryland Missouri New Mexico NCarolinaOklahoma Pennsylvania SCarolina TennesseeTexas

Arizona New MexicoTexas

Arizona

ArizonaGJlifornia Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

New Mexico Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas Utah

Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

ArizonaCalifornia Colorado Nevada New Mexico

periods of the year the bugs are typically

univoltine with only one generation per

year In these regions bugs seek refuge in

rodent burrows cavities caves and other

locations with moderate temperatures and

pass the unfavorable times as immatures

in various stages (Figure 4) Adults live everal months occasionally a year or

more (5) and feed throughout their

lives In captivity adults of Triatoma

rubida T protracta or T recurva live 4-5

months on average Mating lasts only

about 10 minutes a relatively short time

compared to other hemipterans As with

other hemipterans females readily mate

wi th multiple males females can stOre

sperm for use months later and over the [ ~

life span can lay up to several hundrec

eggs depending upon conditions (S

Active dispersal is achieved by flight in

adults and by crawling in immatures (6)

Passive dispersal occurs in some species

by transport of attached eggs to new

locations by birds or other animals or by

human transport of materials harboring

eggs or free-living stages Active dispersal

of immatures can occur when a shortage

of food sources stimulates bugs ro crawl

roward locations potentially having new

hosts Adults typically disperse by flight

around dusk Nutritional state and

hunger are powerful drivers of dispersal

(7) Another is the classical reproductive

strategy in which gravid females retain

eggs for deposition after flight (89)

Dispersal is not a primaly form of mate

seeking as in many moths and other

insects Evidence against mate seeking

is indicated by equal numbers of females

and males captured at lights and the

rapidity with which captured females

oviposit fertile eggs (8)

HABITAT AND HOST ASSOCIATION

TriatOmine species inhabit a variety of

ecological environmentS from generalized

ro highly specialized including human

domestic environments Within these

environments they can range from

opportunists feeding on a variety of

host species to specialists feeding on a limited number of host types Specialists

include Cavernicola piLosa which feeds

on bats Rhodnius spp living in palm

trees where they feed on inhabiting birds

and mammals and Psammofestes spp

which live in bird nests constructed of

rwigs Bird blood meals are sufficient

for the bugs to survive and reproduce

but birds are not hosts of T cruzi and

thus alter the parasite transmission cycle

Somewhat more general feeders are T rubrofasciata and members of the T

protracta complex that prefer feeding on

rodents Triatoma infestans T dimidiata

and R profixus are inhabitants of human

domestic environments where they feed

on people and their animals (6) Most

species irrespective of their preferred

habitat can become opportunistic feeders

when other species are available Species

that are generally opportunists can also

be facultative specialists preferring to feed

mainly on one group of hosts if given the

opportunity (10) The Triatoma living

in Arizona are all non-domestic species

that often feed on packrats (Neotoma

spp) yet they readily feed on a variety of

vertebrate hosts they encounter including

humans The Arizona-Sonora Desert

Museum in Tucson Arizona is a regional

educational living zoo that inadvertently

supports large populations of T rubida

and T protracta These bugs plague many

museum animals and sometimes feed

so extensively that they have caused the

death by chronic blood loss of animals

including a rare protected mountain

rattlesnake (James L Jarchow DVM

pers commun) In Kansas Triatoma

sanguisuga like the Arizona species feeds

predominantly on Neotoma raccoons and

opossums but will readily feed on a

variety of other hosts including humans

When and how some species of

triaromines became specialists on humans

is a mystery The subfamily is believed

to have originated about 5 million years

Figure 4 A fifth instar (nymphal stage) of T recurva Note the absence of figure 6 A teneral of T rubida i shy _

wings in the nymphs

8

- shy --t o-ader in California especially

middotmiddotmiddotomiddotva Note the absence of Figure 6 A reneral of T rubida ienewly emerged adult

bull 9

ago in the New World (11) Dates for

the arrival of human beings in the New

World are debated but their estimated

arrival sometime between 14000 to

20000 years ago is relatively recent

Thus shifts in some species of kissing

bugs to specializing on our species are

recent evolutionary events and might

well explain some of our vulnerability to

the T cruzi parasite the bugs transmit to

us

FEEDING BEHAVIOR Kissing bugs rely on multiple sensory

systems to locate hosts These include

gradients of carbon dioxide in the air

odors moisture heat and air flow (12)

They are exquisitely sensitive to carbon

dioxide exhaled by mammals when

breathing being able to detect 75 parts

per million above the background air

levels of 350 parts per million when

a trace of exhaled lactic acid another

attractant is present Cold blooded hosts

including reptiles generate very low levels

of carbon dioxide nevertheless kissing

bugs use many other host-generated

chemical cues including short chained

ali phatic amines and acids 7- to 9-carbon

aldehydes and alcohols and lactic acid to

locate hosts The bugs can also detect

infrared radiation enabling them to orient

toward warm blooded hosts from several

meters Finally they anemotactically

follow the movement of air currents

impregnated with host odors to locate

the host (12) Feeding by bugs in human

domiciles usually takes place at night

with bugs hiding during the day in

cracks and crevices away from the feeding

areas Much less is known about feeding

times for sylvatic (non-domestic) species

Likely they adjust their activity periods to

match the inactive periods of their host

thereby minimizing danger from host

defenses Triatoma rubida and T protracta

do not hesitate to approach and feed on

rodents during bright midday times (13)

a behavior that might well be adaptive for

bugs that often feed on rodents in their

burrows while the rodents are sleeping or

quiescent during the day

Once a host is located a hungry

bug extends its proboscis and inserts it

into the skin of the host Sometimes the

host detects the minor sensation caused

by a bugs probing and moves or shifts

posmon In response the bug usually

retracts somewhat before continuing

probing and feeding Considering that

a bug often imbibes more blood than

its own weight (3) feeding is relatively

rapid lasting on average 22 minutes

for T protracta 28 for T rubida and

between 11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

T dimidiata and R proixus (1 3 14)

Blood is mostly water and the bulkiness

of a large blood meal limits a bugs

movement To eliminate excess water

bugs often defecate during feeding at

completion of feeding or shortly after

leaving the feeding site (Figure 8) Some

species including those domestic species

that frequemly transmit Chagas disease

defecate rapidly and frequently often on

or near the host (14) while others defecate

less rapidly and less frequently often at a

distance from the host (3) Frequency

and proximity of defecation to the host

are considered to be critical factors in

transmitting T cruzi and Chagas

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are th - common cause of insect bites that - -_

in anaphylaxis in the United State --

medical emergency (also causeu - - ~

commonly by bee stings) results -ro ~- =

release of chemical signals in resP Qclt ~

proteins in the bugs saliva ina b _ _ usually causes the individual to r s the emergency room where epineF~~gt _

and other imerventions reverse th - _

blood pressure swollen ai[-as ~=shy

rashes that often accompany anapn- c

Victims usually are awakened at nig shy

shortness of breath difficulty b re-l ~- ~

or generalized itching Othe~ _c ominous allergies include hives se ~

of the eyes swelling at the site 0 - - -t

bite and persistent itching Patiem -_

experience anaphylaxis when re-bi ~-shy

and one adult woman has died ~C _-shythe condition The bite itself is pai

however swelling and inflammatior -shy

the site of the bite may last for middoteeL

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit CI ~

to humans in the United States lt =-__ shy

six such cases have been docunei

Infection with Trypanasoma en is common in several wildlife spe - j -

rare in domestic pets Reported Cd5eS __

10

~--l vluch less is known about feeding

-16 for sylva tic (non-domestic) species

~~Jd~ they adjust their activity periods to

- ch the inactive periods of their host

erltbmiddot minimizing danger from host

erenscs Triatoma rubida and T protracta

_ ~Of hesitate to approach and feed on

rienrs during bright midday times (13)

chlior that might well be adaptive for

_g [hat often feed on rodents in their

transmuting T cruzi and Chagas disease

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are the most

common cause of insect bites that result

in anaphylaxis in the United States This

medical emergency (also caused more

commonly by bee stings) results from the

domestic species

the warmer southern stares There are no

reportS of livestock horses or pigs being

infected Only one case report exists of

infection in a domestic cat in the US

The primary wildlife species in the

United Srates that serve as host reservoirs

for T cruz i are

packrats in the genus Neotoma

and opossums ~ _ -ns while the rodents are sleeping or

-e-cnt during the day

nee a host is located a hungry

extends its proboscis and inserts it

he skin of the host Sometimes the

erects the minor sensation caused

s- Sugs probing and moves or shifts

xsiion In response the bug usually

- = ~-rS somewhat before continuing

iing and feeding Considering that

t~~ often imbibes more blood than

-1 weight (3) feeding is relatively

~i c las ting on average 22 minutes

- ~ ~- porracta 28 for T rubida and

11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

-

3w i

d diara and R prolixus (13 14)

moscly water and the bulkiness

l rge blood meal limits a bugs

bull O1em To eliminate excess water

0 o tten defecate during feeding at

_ -c~E io1 of feeding or shortly after

-T-i ~ he feeding site (Figure 8) Some

~ _-~~ i1Cluding those domestic species

-~-- E~lIently transmit Chagas disease

i-_ ~ ~ rap idly and frequently often on

bullbull -~ ile hos t (14) while others defecate

_ 2-d l and less frequently often at a

_ lt~ ~ r-om the host (3) Frequency

- E - ~igtxi ni( of defecation to the hosr

_~ odered to be critical factors in

release of chemical signals in response to

proteins in the bugs saliva Anaphylaxis

usually causes the individual to rush to

the emergency room where epinephrine

and other interventions reverse the low

blood pressure swollen airways and

rashes that often accompany anaphylaxis

Victims usually are awakened at night by

shortness of breath difficulty breathing

or generalized itching Other less

ominous allergies include hives swelling

of rhe eyes swelling at the site of the

bite and persistent itching Patients may

experience anaphylaxis when re-bitten

and one adult woman has died from

the condition The bite itself is painless

however swelling and inflammation at

the site of the bite may last for weeks

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit Chagas

to humans in the United States only

six such cases have been documented

Infection with Trypanasoma cruz i is

common in several wildlife species but

rare in domestic pets Reporred cases in

are limited ro dogs in

rodents particularly

raccoons

and to a lesser degree

armadillos and skunks T cruzi has been

reporred in more than 20 different wildlife

species in the United States in at least 13 states (15) Wood rats and other rodent

species serve as reservoirs of infection

as rodent dens and nests may harbor

the insect vectors Infection dynamics of

T cruz i isolates appear to vary between

species wirh raccoons being infected wirh

a more virulent genetic strain in which

blood parasites levels peak sooner and

antibodies are more quickly derected rhan

occurs in opossums anorher primary

wildlife reservoir species Additionally

mice injecred with opossum derived T cruzi isolates appear to subsequently

clear the infection and survive whereas

injecting mice with the raccoon derived

strains resulted in a 75 mortality rate

in one study Despite differences in

virulence between the host species strains

pathologic cardiac changes induced by T cruzi have been observed at necropsy in

both raccoons and opossums

Prevalence of T cruz i in wildlife

species varies but infection rates as high

as 62 occurred in raccoons tested

in various states (16) Infection rates

appear to be generally highest in coastal

locations with the elevated rates assumed

11

T cruzi exposure in many southern

states and as far north as Minnesota

In domestic dogs as in wildlife species

infection is thought ro be primarily by

First and foremost is a thorough

inspecrion of the home both inside and

outside

During the active season (around

bull Keep window curtalins and blirci ~-

Seal potential entryways into ho es points of entry) with caulk silicone sea

Figure 7 Blood smear showing

Trypanosoma cruzi parasites among

red blood cells Phoro by Rose

Nasrazadani

ro be due ro the increased disrribution

of insect vectors secondary ro the high

humidiry and lack of a winter freeze

along the sourhern and eastern coasts

In contrast ro the Latin American

isolates that are transmitted ro humans

indirectly at the insect bite location by

fecal contamination T cruzi in wildlife

species in the US is transmitted by

oral ingestion of infected insects and ro

a lesser degree by placental transmission

in utero

In domestic pets T cruzi causing

clinical health issues has been reported

primarily 111 working dogs from

southeastern Texas and foci in Louisiana

although antibody testing has confirmed

eating infected kissing bug vecrors in

response ro skin irritation from the insect

bite and from in utero transmission from

dam ro pup

Clinical signs of infection in dogs are

primarily cardiac recognized as exercise

intolerance or generalized weakness

Diagnostic testing may reveal severe heart

arrythmias And ultimately a dilated

form of heart failure develops Treatment

rarely results in a cure and survival time

in clinically affecred dogs ranges from 0

ro GO months

Prevention of Chagas disease in

dogs depends on insect vecror control

and limiting contacr with host reservoir

species In endemic kissing bug areas

animal housing and bedding should be

treated with insecticide monthly and

kennels improved as needed ro remove

insect nesting sites

PEST MANAGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

Insecticide spraying is the cornersrone

ofvector control programs for triatomines

in South America where domestic and

peridomestic species are prevalent and

can attain high population densities in

and around homes The sylva tic species

found in the US are only occasional

invaders and thus present a different set

of problems that rely on non-chemical

measures for control such as habitat

modification and exclusion techniques

(see table below)

bull amp

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a female T rubida

Table 2 Non-chemical measure w ~c _ triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes ~ _

bedroom to reduce potentia - - ~ - - - - bull Manage vegetation around t nE - ~ ~ - =shy

firewood and debris) that n1 a -shy

Install weather stripping and tight fi insect proof dog and cat entrances a

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting a ~ - - ~

kissing bugs bull Move lights away from doors bull Replace outside white ligh 5 gt- _ _

_ - ~ ntected kissing bug vecmrs in

-~- ro sk in irriration from the insect

- ~ ~ from iii IItero transmission from

2~ __ bull gt ult

C gtal signs of infection in dogs are

- --- shy cardiac recognized as exercise

ltOk 1 or generalized weakness

J~~ -i testing may reveal severe heart

--~ --5 nd ultimately a dilated

t-he-arr failure develops Treatment

-L ~~- ~esul r5 in a cure and survival time

dir alh affected dogs ranges from 0

-1 onths

_~ecmion of Chagas disease in

It7 c epends on insect vector control

-c ~ -i(in g conract with host reservoir

- ifO In endemic kissing bug areas

~Ad fi ousing and bedding should be

lt-~1 2 - irh insecticide monthly and

D --u~-- improved as needed to remove

-51 - s ring sites

bull

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a fem ale T rubida

PEST Mfu~AGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

gt xri ide spraying is the cornersmne

middot C T io nrrol programs for triaromines

~ il merica where domestic and

- --l(1c-gt[ ic species are prevalel1( and

bull- 1il high population densities in

1d aol 1d homes The sylvatic species

~c n [he CS are only occasional

- middot~c dnd thus presel1( a differel1( set

- ~ -tiems that rely on non-chemical

- ~~=-gt fo r control such as habitat

~Cil[ion and exclusion techniques

- dow)

- and foremost is a thorough

-- - - ~ion of the home both inside and

ring the active season (around

Table 2 Non-chemical measures ro reduce risk of household infestation by

triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes piles of paper) inside homes particularly in the

bedroom to reduce potential hiding places for kiSSing bugs bull Manage vegetation around the home and eliminate clutter (eg piles of lumber

firewood and debris) that may prOvide small animal habitat

Install weather stripping and tight fitting insect screens on windows and doors insect proof dog and cat entrances and keep fireplace flues shut

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting at night to make homes less attractive to kissing bugs

bull Move lights away from doors or windows where they may attract insects bull Replace outside white lights with yellow lights bull Keep window curtains and blinds drawn in lighted rooms

I

Seal potential entryways into homes (eg foundation cracks and utility line points of entry) with caulk silicone seal or other appropriate materials

I

13

mid-spring to mid-fall) inspections

should be carried our on a regular basis to

find and destroy any stray bugs During

the day they typically hide in dark places

in cracks and crevices or under objects

For example in the bedroom they may

hide in bed sheets or blankets or under

the mattress so it is recommended that

all of these potential hiding places be

inspected especially before retmng

Outside during the day they hide in

dark sheltered places such as beneath

flowerpots or furniture emerging at night

to be seen crawling or resting on surfaces

Pay special attention to areas inside and

out where pets congregate or sleep

In addition to efforts directly aimed

at kissing bugs concrol measures may be

needed to remove their wild vertebrate

hosts sllch as packrats which are common

around homes in the Southwest Packrats

can have several dozen or more kissing

bugs inhabiting their nests Trapping the

packrats and removing their nests close

to the house can potentially reduce home

invasions However it is advisable that

only the nearest packrat nest and packrats

be removed in the hope that the kissing

bugs will move to more peripheral nests

farther from the house After the packrats

have been removed a pyrethroid dust

or spray should be applied to the old

nesting sites to eliminate any remaining

kiSSing bugs This is critical because in the

absence of their natural host the bugs will

seek out another source of blood which

might end up being the homeowner (I 7)

In the case of sensitized homeowners

who have become allergic to kissing bugs

a directed spray application of pyrethroid

insecticides in and aro und the home

may provide some added protection

Most effective indoors is a crack and

crevice application to potential harborage

sites in bedrooms and bathrooms and

outdoors a perimeter treatment along

the foundation and eaves paying close

attention to thoroughly treat entryways

such as windows and doors to prevent

their access into the home

Sensitized individuals may also elect

to sleep under a bed net (mosquito

netting) that is tucked in all around

the mattress for added protection and

using double-sided sticky tape placed

on the legs of the bed Beds should be

kept at least one foor away from walls

Sticky trap monitors placed under and

around beds may also catch wandering

bugs Finally homeowners might wish

to thoroughly vacuum the bedroom and

consider isolating their bedroom during

the active season by weather-stripping

doors and keeping doors closed

Kissing bugs are medically important

fascinating insects that likely will be

interacting with humans and their pets

wi th increasing frequency in response

to warming climates and as more homes

encroach into their habitats Learning to

recognize these bugs and to keep them

out of human habitations is an important

responsibility of homeownership

14

REFERENCES 1 Weiruch C Munro fB

phylogeny of rhe as middot3i - (Hemi prera Reduviidae shymirochondrial genes dol P~ - ~- shy

Evol 2009 53 287-299 2 Iba rra-Cerdena CN San ~le= - _~

V Townsend Pererso n A Rl middot

(2009) Ecology of -or L _

Triarominae Acra Trop 1 10 - - bull

3 Zeled6n R Beard CB Pio _ 0

Leiby DA Dorn PL R J (in press) An appraisal r ~ --=shyChagas disease in rhe L-n re-C =- ~

4 de la Rua N Srevens (201l) High generic dit _ - 1- _ ~

popularion of (Le Com e 1855) i n ter~ - ~

mirochondrial markef5 Co ~ -

and 16S ribosomal D- -co

Generics and Evolurion 5 Goda D E and C J ~ _

Popularion dynamics of Ii

under narural climaric middot0 shy

rhe Argentin e C haco -EM ~ ~ shy3 179-94

6 Schofield C J 1988 Bios [- c rhe Triarominae In Bio5middotreoi H aemarophagous Insecrs 1 - __

ed) Sys remarics Associario r _ - Volume No 37 pp 284middot31 c -~ shy

Press O xford 7 Lehane M ] P K Mch --

Whiraker and C J Schotleld ] 4 ~ _

role of remperarure and nurririofi- _ _ in flighr iniriarion by 7i-iatam 1-~ _

Acta Trop 52 27-38 8 Klorz J H P L Dorn J L _ --

L Stevens J L Pinnas J 0- ~ l-r _

and S A Klotz 2010 Ki55ill ~ - __ ~

porential disease vecrors and (~ U

anaphylaxiS Cfin In Dis ) o 6 _ - 9 McEwen P K and M ] Lehl _- shy

Relationship between Highr 2

and oviposir ion in TiaOIgtII - - - shy

(Klug) (Hem Reduviidae - shy

Entomo 117 217middot23

u~ Je5 in and around the home

--_2 rovide some added protecrion

-- efrecrin~ indoors is a crack and

_c lt application to potenrial harborage

~-olt r bedrooms and bathrooms and

-or a perimeter rreatmenr along

- -()ll1dation and eaves paying close

~(o n ro thoroughly treat enrryways

~~ - d windows and doors ro prevenr

~ laquo(e55 inro the home

S1si tized individuals may also elect

lteF under a bed net (mosquiro

- ~Jng that is rucked in all around

c -rress for added protection and

_ sect do uble-sided sticky tape placed

Ci - he legs of the bed Beds should be

r ~ least one foor away from walls

rap monirors placed under and

- - ~ -_ bds may also catch wandering

_~ _ Finally- homeowners mighr wish

-uroughh- vacuum rhe bedroom and

___id ~ iolaring rheir bedroom during

d~ 2Cl i season by wearher-srripping

nd keeping doors dosed - lis~ lg bugs are medically imporranr

is -_2ing insecrs rhar likely will be

- _~~~ i rh humans and rheir pers

_1reas ing frequency in response

-ing c1imares and as more homes

-~ h inro their habirars Learning ro

sect-izemiddot these bugs and (Q keep rhem

il-lnan habirarions is an imporranr

- bili r of homeownership

REFERENCES I Weiruch C Munro JB Molecular

phylogeny of the assassin bugs (Hemiptera Reduviidae) based on mirochondrial genes Mol Phylogenet Evo 2009 53 287-299

2 Ibarra-Cerdena CN Sanchez-Cordero

V Townsend Peterson A Ramsey JM (2009) Ecology of North American

Triarominae Acta Trop 110 178-186 3 Zeledon R Beard CB Pinro Dias JC

Leiby DA Dorn PL Rodrigues Coura J (in press) An appraisal of the sraws of Chagas disease in the United States

4 de la Rua N Stevens L Dorn PL (2011) High genetic diversity in a si ngle

population of Tiiatoma sanguisuga

(Le Conte 1855) inferred from rwo mitochondrial markers cytochrome b and 16S ribosomal DNA Infection Genetics and Evolution

5 Goda D E and C J Schofield 1989 Population dynam ics of Ti-iatoma inmans under nawral climatic conditions in

the Argentine Chaco Med Vet Entomol

3 179-94 6 Schofield C J 1988 Biosystematics of

the Triatominae In Biosystematics of Haematophagous Insects (M W Service ed) Systematics Association Special

Volume No 37 pp 284-312 Clarendon

Press Oxford 7 Lehane M J P K McEwen C J

Whitaker and C J Schofield 1992 The role of temperature and nutritional status in flight initiation by Triatoma infestans Acta Timiddotop 52 27-38

8 KJotz J H P L Dorn J L Logan L Stevens J L Pinnas J O Schmidt and S A KJotz 20 IO Kissing Bugs potential disease vectors and cause of anaphylaxis CLin In Dis 50 1629-34

9 McEwen P K and M J Lehane 1994 Relationship berween flight initiation and oviposition in Triatoma infestam (KJug) (Hem Reduviidae) j App

EntomoL 11 7 217-23

10 Gurtler R E L A Ceballos P OrdoZezshy

Krasnowski L A Lanati R Stariolo and

U Kitron 2009 Strong host-feeding

preferences of the vector Tiiatoma

infestans modified by vector density

implications for the epidemiology of

Chagas disease PLGS Neglect Trop Dis

3e447

11 Schofield C J and C Galvno 2009

Classification evolution and species

groups within the Triatominae Acta

Tropl1088-100

12 Guerenstein P G and C R Lazzari

2009 Hosr-seeking how rriatomines

acqui re and make use of information to

find blood Acta Ti-op 110148-583

13 KJotz S A P L Dorn J H KJOtz

] L Pinnas C Weirauch J R Kurtz

and J Schmidt 2009 Feeding behavior

of triaromines from the southwestern

United States an update on potential

risk for transmission of Chagas disease

Acta Trop III114-18

14 Zeled6n R R Alvarado and L F Jiron

1977 Observations on the feeding and

defecation patterns of three triatol11ine

species (Hemiptera Reduviidae) Acta

Timiddotop3465-77

15 Barr Sc Canine C hagas Disease

(American Trypanosomiasis) in North

America Vet CLin Small Animal 39

(2009) 1055-1064

16 Yabsley MJ and NobletGP Seroprevalence

of Trypanosoma cruz i in raccoo ns from

South Carolina and Georgia J WiLdl Dis

38 (2002) 75-83

17 Gouge DH Stoltman AJ Snyder

J L Olson C How to Bug Proof Your

Home http ca ls arizona edupubs

insectsaz l 3201

15

e E

MP

OR

IA S

TATE

UN

IVE

RS

ITYr

u KA

NSA

S SC

HO

OL

NAT

UR

ALIS

T B

OX

4050

12

00 C

OM

MER

CIA

L ST

E

mpo

ria

KS 6

6801

-508

7

ADDR

ESS

SERV

ICE

REQ

UEST

ED

No

np

rofi

t O

rg

US

Pos

tage

PA

ID

Em

pori

a K

ansa

s

66

80

1-5

08

7

Pe

rmit

No

203

Tri

atom

a re

curv

a t

he l

arge

st t

riat

ome

in t

he U

S (f

emal

e)

Table 1 Checklist and geographic distribution ofTriatominae of the United Stares

(Not including the cosmopolitan T rubrofoseiata)

Genera Species Species In Kansas States Distribution Complex reported from

Triatoma Uncertain T sanguisuga yes 23

Lectularia Tleeticularia yes 16

T indictiva 3

T inaassata 1

Phyllo soma T recurva 6

T gerstaeckeri 2

Protracta T protroeta 7

T neatamae 1

Rubida T rubida 6

Parotriatoma P hirsuta 5

Alabama Arizona Arkansas Florid a Georgia Illinois Indiana Kansas Kentucky Louisiana MarylandMi ssiss ippi Missouri New Jersey New Mexico N Carolina Ohio Oklahoma PennsylvaniaS Carolina Tennessee Texas Virginia

Arizona California Florida Georgia Illinois Kansas Louisiana Maryland Missouri New Mexico N Carolina Oklahoma PennsylvaniaS Carolina Tennessee Texas

Arizona New MexicoTexas

Arizona

Arizona CaliforniaColorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

New Mexico Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas Utah

Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

Arizona California Colorado NevadaNew Mexico

potential niche much broader than its

current geographical distribution

BIOLOGYAND NATURAL HISTORY OF KISSING BUGS

Kissing bugs have a gradual

development with five immature instars

appearing similar to adults but without

wings They are large bugs with adults

ranging in length from about 12 to 36

mm Both sexes and all five instars feed on

blood ofvertebrates starting with the first

instars which take a blood meal as soon

as 2-3 days after hatching from the egg

They can develop from egg (Figure 5) to

adult in several months in warm tropical

areas when food is readily available In

temperate regions having extended cooler

periods of the year the bugs are typically

univoltine with only one generation per

year In these regions bugs seek refuge in

rodent burrows cavities caves and other

locations with moderate temperatures and

pass the unfavorable times as immatures

in various stages (Figure 4) Adults live

several months occasionally a yea r or

more (5) and feed throughout their

lives In captivity adults of Triatoma

rubida T protraeta or T reeurva live 4-5

months on average Mating lasts only

about 10 minutes a relatively short time

compared ro other hemipterans As with

other hemipterans females readily mate

with multiple males females can srore

sperm for use months later and over their

life span can lay up to several hundred

eggs depending upon conditions (5)

6

Active dispersal is achieved by flight in

adults and by crawling in immatures (6 )

Passive dispersal occurs in some species

by transport of attached eggs to ne

locations by birds or other animals or by

human transport of materials harboring

eggs or free-living stages Active dispersal

of immatures can occur when a shortage

of food sources stimulates bugs to crawl

toward locations potentially having new

hosts Adults typically disperse by fli gh r

around dusk Nutritional s tate and

hunger are powerful drivers of dispersal

(7) Another is the classical reproducti e

strategy in which gravid females retain

eggs for deposition after flight (8 9)

Dispersal is not a primary form of mate

seeking as in many moths and other

insects Evidence against mate seeking

is indicated by equal numbers of femal es

and males captured at lights and the

rapidity with which captured femal es

oviposit fertile eggs (8)

HABITAT AND HOST ASSOCIATION

Triatomine species inhabit a variety ot

ecological environments from generalize

to highly specialized including human

domestic environments Within these

environments they can range from

opportunists feeding on a variety of

host species to specialists feeding on a

limited number of host types Specialists

include Cavernieola pilosa which feeds

on bats Rhodnius spp living in palm

trees where they feed on inhabiting birds

and mammals and Psammolestes spp

which live in bird nests constructed of

rwigs Bird blood meals are sufficient

3 ri bution ofTriatominae of the United States - I I ) -1roiflscUlta

$tates oprtedfrom

I Distribution

Alabama Arizona Arkansas Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Kansas Kentucky louisiana Maryland Mississippi Missouri New Jersey New Mexico N Carolina Ohio Oklahoma Pennsylvania S Carolina Tennessee Texas Virginia

ArizonaCalifornia Florida Georgia Illinois Kansas louisiana Maryland Missouri New Mexico NCarolinaOklahoma Pennsylvania SCarolina TennesseeTexas

Arizona New MexicoTexas

Arizona

ArizonaGJlifornia Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

New Mexico Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas Utah

Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

ArizonaCalifornia Colorado Nevada New Mexico

periods of the year the bugs are typically

univoltine with only one generation per

year In these regions bugs seek refuge in

rodent burrows cavities caves and other

locations with moderate temperatures and

pass the unfavorable times as immatures

in various stages (Figure 4) Adults live everal months occasionally a year or

more (5) and feed throughout their

lives In captivity adults of Triatoma

rubida T protracta or T recurva live 4-5

months on average Mating lasts only

about 10 minutes a relatively short time

compared to other hemipterans As with

other hemipterans females readily mate

wi th multiple males females can stOre

sperm for use months later and over the [ ~

life span can lay up to several hundrec

eggs depending upon conditions (S

Active dispersal is achieved by flight in

adults and by crawling in immatures (6)

Passive dispersal occurs in some species

by transport of attached eggs to new

locations by birds or other animals or by

human transport of materials harboring

eggs or free-living stages Active dispersal

of immatures can occur when a shortage

of food sources stimulates bugs ro crawl

roward locations potentially having new

hosts Adults typically disperse by flight

around dusk Nutritional state and

hunger are powerful drivers of dispersal

(7) Another is the classical reproductive

strategy in which gravid females retain

eggs for deposition after flight (89)

Dispersal is not a primaly form of mate

seeking as in many moths and other

insects Evidence against mate seeking

is indicated by equal numbers of females

and males captured at lights and the

rapidity with which captured females

oviposit fertile eggs (8)

HABITAT AND HOST ASSOCIATION

TriatOmine species inhabit a variety of

ecological environmentS from generalized

ro highly specialized including human

domestic environments Within these

environments they can range from

opportunists feeding on a variety of

host species to specialists feeding on a limited number of host types Specialists

include Cavernicola piLosa which feeds

on bats Rhodnius spp living in palm

trees where they feed on inhabiting birds

and mammals and Psammofestes spp

which live in bird nests constructed of

rwigs Bird blood meals are sufficient

for the bugs to survive and reproduce

but birds are not hosts of T cruzi and

thus alter the parasite transmission cycle

Somewhat more general feeders are T rubrofasciata and members of the T

protracta complex that prefer feeding on

rodents Triatoma infestans T dimidiata

and R profixus are inhabitants of human

domestic environments where they feed

on people and their animals (6) Most

species irrespective of their preferred

habitat can become opportunistic feeders

when other species are available Species

that are generally opportunists can also

be facultative specialists preferring to feed

mainly on one group of hosts if given the

opportunity (10) The Triatoma living

in Arizona are all non-domestic species

that often feed on packrats (Neotoma

spp) yet they readily feed on a variety of

vertebrate hosts they encounter including

humans The Arizona-Sonora Desert

Museum in Tucson Arizona is a regional

educational living zoo that inadvertently

supports large populations of T rubida

and T protracta These bugs plague many

museum animals and sometimes feed

so extensively that they have caused the

death by chronic blood loss of animals

including a rare protected mountain

rattlesnake (James L Jarchow DVM

pers commun) In Kansas Triatoma

sanguisuga like the Arizona species feeds

predominantly on Neotoma raccoons and

opossums but will readily feed on a

variety of other hosts including humans

When and how some species of

triaromines became specialists on humans

is a mystery The subfamily is believed

to have originated about 5 million years

Figure 4 A fifth instar (nymphal stage) of T recurva Note the absence of figure 6 A teneral of T rubida i shy _

wings in the nymphs

8

- shy --t o-ader in California especially

middotmiddotmiddotomiddotva Note the absence of Figure 6 A reneral of T rubida ienewly emerged adult

bull 9

ago in the New World (11) Dates for

the arrival of human beings in the New

World are debated but their estimated

arrival sometime between 14000 to

20000 years ago is relatively recent

Thus shifts in some species of kissing

bugs to specializing on our species are

recent evolutionary events and might

well explain some of our vulnerability to

the T cruzi parasite the bugs transmit to

us

FEEDING BEHAVIOR Kissing bugs rely on multiple sensory

systems to locate hosts These include

gradients of carbon dioxide in the air

odors moisture heat and air flow (12)

They are exquisitely sensitive to carbon

dioxide exhaled by mammals when

breathing being able to detect 75 parts

per million above the background air

levels of 350 parts per million when

a trace of exhaled lactic acid another

attractant is present Cold blooded hosts

including reptiles generate very low levels

of carbon dioxide nevertheless kissing

bugs use many other host-generated

chemical cues including short chained

ali phatic amines and acids 7- to 9-carbon

aldehydes and alcohols and lactic acid to

locate hosts The bugs can also detect

infrared radiation enabling them to orient

toward warm blooded hosts from several

meters Finally they anemotactically

follow the movement of air currents

impregnated with host odors to locate

the host (12) Feeding by bugs in human

domiciles usually takes place at night

with bugs hiding during the day in

cracks and crevices away from the feeding

areas Much less is known about feeding

times for sylvatic (non-domestic) species

Likely they adjust their activity periods to

match the inactive periods of their host

thereby minimizing danger from host

defenses Triatoma rubida and T protracta

do not hesitate to approach and feed on

rodents during bright midday times (13)

a behavior that might well be adaptive for

bugs that often feed on rodents in their

burrows while the rodents are sleeping or

quiescent during the day

Once a host is located a hungry

bug extends its proboscis and inserts it

into the skin of the host Sometimes the

host detects the minor sensation caused

by a bugs probing and moves or shifts

posmon In response the bug usually

retracts somewhat before continuing

probing and feeding Considering that

a bug often imbibes more blood than

its own weight (3) feeding is relatively

rapid lasting on average 22 minutes

for T protracta 28 for T rubida and

between 11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

T dimidiata and R proixus (1 3 14)

Blood is mostly water and the bulkiness

of a large blood meal limits a bugs

movement To eliminate excess water

bugs often defecate during feeding at

completion of feeding or shortly after

leaving the feeding site (Figure 8) Some

species including those domestic species

that frequemly transmit Chagas disease

defecate rapidly and frequently often on

or near the host (14) while others defecate

less rapidly and less frequently often at a

distance from the host (3) Frequency

and proximity of defecation to the host

are considered to be critical factors in

transmitting T cruzi and Chagas

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are th - common cause of insect bites that - -_

in anaphylaxis in the United State --

medical emergency (also causeu - - ~

commonly by bee stings) results -ro ~- =

release of chemical signals in resP Qclt ~

proteins in the bugs saliva ina b _ _ usually causes the individual to r s the emergency room where epineF~~gt _

and other imerventions reverse th - _

blood pressure swollen ai[-as ~=shy

rashes that often accompany anapn- c

Victims usually are awakened at nig shy

shortness of breath difficulty b re-l ~- ~

or generalized itching Othe~ _c ominous allergies include hives se ~

of the eyes swelling at the site 0 - - -t

bite and persistent itching Patiem -_

experience anaphylaxis when re-bi ~-shy

and one adult woman has died ~C _-shythe condition The bite itself is pai

however swelling and inflammatior -shy

the site of the bite may last for middoteeL

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit CI ~

to humans in the United States lt =-__ shy

six such cases have been docunei

Infection with Trypanasoma en is common in several wildlife spe - j -

rare in domestic pets Reported Cd5eS __

10

~--l vluch less is known about feeding

-16 for sylva tic (non-domestic) species

~~Jd~ they adjust their activity periods to

- ch the inactive periods of their host

erltbmiddot minimizing danger from host

erenscs Triatoma rubida and T protracta

_ ~Of hesitate to approach and feed on

rienrs during bright midday times (13)

chlior that might well be adaptive for

_g [hat often feed on rodents in their

transmuting T cruzi and Chagas disease

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are the most

common cause of insect bites that result

in anaphylaxis in the United States This

medical emergency (also caused more

commonly by bee stings) results from the

domestic species

the warmer southern stares There are no

reportS of livestock horses or pigs being

infected Only one case report exists of

infection in a domestic cat in the US

The primary wildlife species in the

United Srates that serve as host reservoirs

for T cruz i are

packrats in the genus Neotoma

and opossums ~ _ -ns while the rodents are sleeping or

-e-cnt during the day

nee a host is located a hungry

extends its proboscis and inserts it

he skin of the host Sometimes the

erects the minor sensation caused

s- Sugs probing and moves or shifts

xsiion In response the bug usually

- = ~-rS somewhat before continuing

iing and feeding Considering that

t~~ often imbibes more blood than

-1 weight (3) feeding is relatively

~i c las ting on average 22 minutes

- ~ ~- porracta 28 for T rubida and

11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

-

3w i

d diara and R prolixus (13 14)

moscly water and the bulkiness

l rge blood meal limits a bugs

bull O1em To eliminate excess water

0 o tten defecate during feeding at

_ -c~E io1 of feeding or shortly after

-T-i ~ he feeding site (Figure 8) Some

~ _-~~ i1Cluding those domestic species

-~-- E~lIently transmit Chagas disease

i-_ ~ ~ rap idly and frequently often on

bullbull -~ ile hos t (14) while others defecate

_ 2-d l and less frequently often at a

_ lt~ ~ r-om the host (3) Frequency

- E - ~igtxi ni( of defecation to the hosr

_~ odered to be critical factors in

release of chemical signals in response to

proteins in the bugs saliva Anaphylaxis

usually causes the individual to rush to

the emergency room where epinephrine

and other interventions reverse the low

blood pressure swollen airways and

rashes that often accompany anaphylaxis

Victims usually are awakened at night by

shortness of breath difficulty breathing

or generalized itching Other less

ominous allergies include hives swelling

of rhe eyes swelling at the site of the

bite and persistent itching Patients may

experience anaphylaxis when re-bitten

and one adult woman has died from

the condition The bite itself is painless

however swelling and inflammation at

the site of the bite may last for weeks

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit Chagas

to humans in the United States only

six such cases have been documented

Infection with Trypanasoma cruz i is

common in several wildlife species but

rare in domestic pets Reporred cases in

are limited ro dogs in

rodents particularly

raccoons

and to a lesser degree

armadillos and skunks T cruzi has been

reporred in more than 20 different wildlife

species in the United States in at least 13 states (15) Wood rats and other rodent

species serve as reservoirs of infection

as rodent dens and nests may harbor

the insect vectors Infection dynamics of

T cruz i isolates appear to vary between

species wirh raccoons being infected wirh

a more virulent genetic strain in which

blood parasites levels peak sooner and

antibodies are more quickly derected rhan

occurs in opossums anorher primary

wildlife reservoir species Additionally

mice injecred with opossum derived T cruzi isolates appear to subsequently

clear the infection and survive whereas

injecting mice with the raccoon derived

strains resulted in a 75 mortality rate

in one study Despite differences in

virulence between the host species strains

pathologic cardiac changes induced by T cruzi have been observed at necropsy in

both raccoons and opossums

Prevalence of T cruz i in wildlife

species varies but infection rates as high

as 62 occurred in raccoons tested

in various states (16) Infection rates

appear to be generally highest in coastal

locations with the elevated rates assumed

11

T cruzi exposure in many southern

states and as far north as Minnesota

In domestic dogs as in wildlife species

infection is thought ro be primarily by

First and foremost is a thorough

inspecrion of the home both inside and

outside

During the active season (around

bull Keep window curtalins and blirci ~-

Seal potential entryways into ho es points of entry) with caulk silicone sea

Figure 7 Blood smear showing

Trypanosoma cruzi parasites among

red blood cells Phoro by Rose

Nasrazadani

ro be due ro the increased disrribution

of insect vectors secondary ro the high

humidiry and lack of a winter freeze

along the sourhern and eastern coasts

In contrast ro the Latin American

isolates that are transmitted ro humans

indirectly at the insect bite location by

fecal contamination T cruzi in wildlife

species in the US is transmitted by

oral ingestion of infected insects and ro

a lesser degree by placental transmission

in utero

In domestic pets T cruzi causing

clinical health issues has been reported

primarily 111 working dogs from

southeastern Texas and foci in Louisiana

although antibody testing has confirmed

eating infected kissing bug vecrors in

response ro skin irritation from the insect

bite and from in utero transmission from

dam ro pup

Clinical signs of infection in dogs are

primarily cardiac recognized as exercise

intolerance or generalized weakness

Diagnostic testing may reveal severe heart

arrythmias And ultimately a dilated

form of heart failure develops Treatment

rarely results in a cure and survival time

in clinically affecred dogs ranges from 0

ro GO months

Prevention of Chagas disease in

dogs depends on insect vecror control

and limiting contacr with host reservoir

species In endemic kissing bug areas

animal housing and bedding should be

treated with insecticide monthly and

kennels improved as needed ro remove

insect nesting sites

PEST MANAGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

Insecticide spraying is the cornersrone

ofvector control programs for triatomines

in South America where domestic and

peridomestic species are prevalent and

can attain high population densities in

and around homes The sylva tic species

found in the US are only occasional

invaders and thus present a different set

of problems that rely on non-chemical

measures for control such as habitat

modification and exclusion techniques

(see table below)

bull amp

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a female T rubida

Table 2 Non-chemical measure w ~c _ triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes ~ _

bedroom to reduce potentia - - ~ - - - - bull Manage vegetation around t nE - ~ ~ - =shy

firewood and debris) that n1 a -shy

Install weather stripping and tight fi insect proof dog and cat entrances a

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting a ~ - - ~

kissing bugs bull Move lights away from doors bull Replace outside white ligh 5 gt- _ _

_ - ~ ntected kissing bug vecmrs in

-~- ro sk in irriration from the insect

- ~ ~ from iii IItero transmission from

2~ __ bull gt ult

C gtal signs of infection in dogs are

- --- shy cardiac recognized as exercise

ltOk 1 or generalized weakness

J~~ -i testing may reveal severe heart

--~ --5 nd ultimately a dilated

t-he-arr failure develops Treatment

-L ~~- ~esul r5 in a cure and survival time

dir alh affected dogs ranges from 0

-1 onths

_~ecmion of Chagas disease in

It7 c epends on insect vector control

-c ~ -i(in g conract with host reservoir

- ifO In endemic kissing bug areas

~Ad fi ousing and bedding should be

lt-~1 2 - irh insecticide monthly and

D --u~-- improved as needed to remove

-51 - s ring sites

bull

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a fem ale T rubida

PEST Mfu~AGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

gt xri ide spraying is the cornersmne

middot C T io nrrol programs for triaromines

~ il merica where domestic and

- --l(1c-gt[ ic species are prevalel1( and

bull- 1il high population densities in

1d aol 1d homes The sylvatic species

~c n [he CS are only occasional

- middot~c dnd thus presel1( a differel1( set

- ~ -tiems that rely on non-chemical

- ~~=-gt fo r control such as habitat

~Cil[ion and exclusion techniques

- dow)

- and foremost is a thorough

-- - - ~ion of the home both inside and

ring the active season (around

Table 2 Non-chemical measures ro reduce risk of household infestation by

triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes piles of paper) inside homes particularly in the

bedroom to reduce potential hiding places for kiSSing bugs bull Manage vegetation around the home and eliminate clutter (eg piles of lumber

firewood and debris) that may prOvide small animal habitat

Install weather stripping and tight fitting insect screens on windows and doors insect proof dog and cat entrances and keep fireplace flues shut

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting at night to make homes less attractive to kissing bugs

bull Move lights away from doors or windows where they may attract insects bull Replace outside white lights with yellow lights bull Keep window curtains and blinds drawn in lighted rooms

I

Seal potential entryways into homes (eg foundation cracks and utility line points of entry) with caulk silicone seal or other appropriate materials

I

13

mid-spring to mid-fall) inspections

should be carried our on a regular basis to

find and destroy any stray bugs During

the day they typically hide in dark places

in cracks and crevices or under objects

For example in the bedroom they may

hide in bed sheets or blankets or under

the mattress so it is recommended that

all of these potential hiding places be

inspected especially before retmng

Outside during the day they hide in

dark sheltered places such as beneath

flowerpots or furniture emerging at night

to be seen crawling or resting on surfaces

Pay special attention to areas inside and

out where pets congregate or sleep

In addition to efforts directly aimed

at kissing bugs concrol measures may be

needed to remove their wild vertebrate

hosts sllch as packrats which are common

around homes in the Southwest Packrats

can have several dozen or more kissing

bugs inhabiting their nests Trapping the

packrats and removing their nests close

to the house can potentially reduce home

invasions However it is advisable that

only the nearest packrat nest and packrats

be removed in the hope that the kissing

bugs will move to more peripheral nests

farther from the house After the packrats

have been removed a pyrethroid dust

or spray should be applied to the old

nesting sites to eliminate any remaining

kiSSing bugs This is critical because in the

absence of their natural host the bugs will

seek out another source of blood which

might end up being the homeowner (I 7)

In the case of sensitized homeowners

who have become allergic to kissing bugs

a directed spray application of pyrethroid

insecticides in and aro und the home

may provide some added protection

Most effective indoors is a crack and

crevice application to potential harborage

sites in bedrooms and bathrooms and

outdoors a perimeter treatment along

the foundation and eaves paying close

attention to thoroughly treat entryways

such as windows and doors to prevent

their access into the home

Sensitized individuals may also elect

to sleep under a bed net (mosquito

netting) that is tucked in all around

the mattress for added protection and

using double-sided sticky tape placed

on the legs of the bed Beds should be

kept at least one foor away from walls

Sticky trap monitors placed under and

around beds may also catch wandering

bugs Finally homeowners might wish

to thoroughly vacuum the bedroom and

consider isolating their bedroom during

the active season by weather-stripping

doors and keeping doors closed

Kissing bugs are medically important

fascinating insects that likely will be

interacting with humans and their pets

wi th increasing frequency in response

to warming climates and as more homes

encroach into their habitats Learning to

recognize these bugs and to keep them

out of human habitations is an important

responsibility of homeownership

14

REFERENCES 1 Weiruch C Munro fB

phylogeny of rhe as middot3i - (Hemi prera Reduviidae shymirochondrial genes dol P~ - ~- shy

Evol 2009 53 287-299 2 Iba rra-Cerdena CN San ~le= - _~

V Townsend Pererso n A Rl middot

(2009) Ecology of -or L _

Triarominae Acra Trop 1 10 - - bull

3 Zeled6n R Beard CB Pio _ 0

Leiby DA Dorn PL R J (in press) An appraisal r ~ --=shyChagas disease in rhe L-n re-C =- ~

4 de la Rua N Srevens (201l) High generic dit _ - 1- _ ~

popularion of (Le Com e 1855) i n ter~ - ~

mirochondrial markef5 Co ~ -

and 16S ribosomal D- -co

Generics and Evolurion 5 Goda D E and C J ~ _

Popularion dynamics of Ii

under narural climaric middot0 shy

rhe Argentin e C haco -EM ~ ~ shy3 179-94

6 Schofield C J 1988 Bios [- c rhe Triarominae In Bio5middotreoi H aemarophagous Insecrs 1 - __

ed) Sys remarics Associario r _ - Volume No 37 pp 284middot31 c -~ shy

Press O xford 7 Lehane M ] P K Mch --

Whiraker and C J Schotleld ] 4 ~ _

role of remperarure and nurririofi- _ _ in flighr iniriarion by 7i-iatam 1-~ _

Acta Trop 52 27-38 8 Klorz J H P L Dorn J L _ --

L Stevens J L Pinnas J 0- ~ l-r _

and S A Klotz 2010 Ki55ill ~ - __ ~

porential disease vecrors and (~ U

anaphylaxiS Cfin In Dis ) o 6 _ - 9 McEwen P K and M ] Lehl _- shy

Relationship between Highr 2

and oviposir ion in TiaOIgtII - - - shy

(Klug) (Hem Reduviidae - shy

Entomo 117 217middot23

u~ Je5 in and around the home

--_2 rovide some added protecrion

-- efrecrin~ indoors is a crack and

_c lt application to potenrial harborage

~-olt r bedrooms and bathrooms and

-or a perimeter rreatmenr along

- -()ll1dation and eaves paying close

~(o n ro thoroughly treat enrryways

~~ - d windows and doors ro prevenr

~ laquo(e55 inro the home

S1si tized individuals may also elect

lteF under a bed net (mosquiro

- ~Jng that is rucked in all around

c -rress for added protection and

_ sect do uble-sided sticky tape placed

Ci - he legs of the bed Beds should be

r ~ least one foor away from walls

rap monirors placed under and

- - ~ -_ bds may also catch wandering

_~ _ Finally- homeowners mighr wish

-uroughh- vacuum rhe bedroom and

___id ~ iolaring rheir bedroom during

d~ 2Cl i season by wearher-srripping

nd keeping doors dosed - lis~ lg bugs are medically imporranr

is -_2ing insecrs rhar likely will be

- _~~~ i rh humans and rheir pers

_1reas ing frequency in response

-ing c1imares and as more homes

-~ h inro their habirars Learning ro

sect-izemiddot these bugs and (Q keep rhem

il-lnan habirarions is an imporranr

- bili r of homeownership

REFERENCES I Weiruch C Munro JB Molecular

phylogeny of the assassin bugs (Hemiptera Reduviidae) based on mirochondrial genes Mol Phylogenet Evo 2009 53 287-299

2 Ibarra-Cerdena CN Sanchez-Cordero

V Townsend Peterson A Ramsey JM (2009) Ecology of North American

Triarominae Acta Trop 110 178-186 3 Zeledon R Beard CB Pinro Dias JC

Leiby DA Dorn PL Rodrigues Coura J (in press) An appraisal of the sraws of Chagas disease in the United States

4 de la Rua N Stevens L Dorn PL (2011) High genetic diversity in a si ngle

population of Tiiatoma sanguisuga

(Le Conte 1855) inferred from rwo mitochondrial markers cytochrome b and 16S ribosomal DNA Infection Genetics and Evolution

5 Goda D E and C J Schofield 1989 Population dynam ics of Ti-iatoma inmans under nawral climatic conditions in

the Argentine Chaco Med Vet Entomol

3 179-94 6 Schofield C J 1988 Biosystematics of

the Triatominae In Biosystematics of Haematophagous Insects (M W Service ed) Systematics Association Special

Volume No 37 pp 284-312 Clarendon

Press Oxford 7 Lehane M J P K McEwen C J

Whitaker and C J Schofield 1992 The role of temperature and nutritional status in flight initiation by Triatoma infestans Acta Timiddotop 52 27-38

8 KJotz J H P L Dorn J L Logan L Stevens J L Pinnas J O Schmidt and S A KJotz 20 IO Kissing Bugs potential disease vectors and cause of anaphylaxis CLin In Dis 50 1629-34

9 McEwen P K and M J Lehane 1994 Relationship berween flight initiation and oviposition in Triatoma infestam (KJug) (Hem Reduviidae) j App

EntomoL 11 7 217-23

10 Gurtler R E L A Ceballos P OrdoZezshy

Krasnowski L A Lanati R Stariolo and

U Kitron 2009 Strong host-feeding

preferences of the vector Tiiatoma

infestans modified by vector density

implications for the epidemiology of

Chagas disease PLGS Neglect Trop Dis

3e447

11 Schofield C J and C Galvno 2009

Classification evolution and species

groups within the Triatominae Acta

Tropl1088-100

12 Guerenstein P G and C R Lazzari

2009 Hosr-seeking how rriatomines

acqui re and make use of information to

find blood Acta Ti-op 110148-583

13 KJotz S A P L Dorn J H KJOtz

] L Pinnas C Weirauch J R Kurtz

and J Schmidt 2009 Feeding behavior

of triaromines from the southwestern

United States an update on potential

risk for transmission of Chagas disease

Acta Trop III114-18

14 Zeled6n R R Alvarado and L F Jiron

1977 Observations on the feeding and

defecation patterns of three triatol11ine

species (Hemiptera Reduviidae) Acta

Timiddotop3465-77

15 Barr Sc Canine C hagas Disease

(American Trypanosomiasis) in North

America Vet CLin Small Animal 39

(2009) 1055-1064

16 Yabsley MJ and NobletGP Seroprevalence

of Trypanosoma cruz i in raccoo ns from

South Carolina and Georgia J WiLdl Dis

38 (2002) 75-83

17 Gouge DH Stoltman AJ Snyder

J L Olson C How to Bug Proof Your

Home http ca ls arizona edupubs

insectsaz l 3201

15

e E

MP

OR

IA S

TATE

UN

IVE

RS

ITYr

u KA

NSA

S SC

HO

OL

NAT

UR

ALIS

T B

OX

4050

12

00 C

OM

MER

CIA

L ST

E

mpo

ria

KS 6

6801

-508

7

ADDR

ESS

SERV

ICE

REQ

UEST

ED

No

np

rofi

t O

rg

US

Pos

tage

PA

ID

Em

pori

a K

ansa

s

66

80

1-5

08

7

Pe

rmit

No

203

Tri

atom

a re

curv

a t

he l

arge

st t

riat

ome

in t

he U

S (f

emal

e)

3 ri bution ofTriatominae of the United States - I I ) -1roiflscUlta

$tates oprtedfrom

I Distribution

Alabama Arizona Arkansas Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Kansas Kentucky louisiana Maryland Mississippi Missouri New Jersey New Mexico N Carolina Ohio Oklahoma Pennsylvania S Carolina Tennessee Texas Virginia

ArizonaCalifornia Florida Georgia Illinois Kansas louisiana Maryland Missouri New Mexico NCarolinaOklahoma Pennsylvania SCarolina TennesseeTexas

Arizona New MexicoTexas

Arizona

ArizonaGJlifornia Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

New Mexico Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas Utah

Texas

Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Texas

ArizonaCalifornia Colorado Nevada New Mexico

periods of the year the bugs are typically

univoltine with only one generation per

year In these regions bugs seek refuge in

rodent burrows cavities caves and other

locations with moderate temperatures and

pass the unfavorable times as immatures

in various stages (Figure 4) Adults live everal months occasionally a year or

more (5) and feed throughout their

lives In captivity adults of Triatoma

rubida T protracta or T recurva live 4-5

months on average Mating lasts only

about 10 minutes a relatively short time

compared to other hemipterans As with

other hemipterans females readily mate

wi th multiple males females can stOre

sperm for use months later and over the [ ~

life span can lay up to several hundrec

eggs depending upon conditions (S

Active dispersal is achieved by flight in

adults and by crawling in immatures (6)

Passive dispersal occurs in some species

by transport of attached eggs to new

locations by birds or other animals or by

human transport of materials harboring

eggs or free-living stages Active dispersal

of immatures can occur when a shortage

of food sources stimulates bugs ro crawl

roward locations potentially having new

hosts Adults typically disperse by flight

around dusk Nutritional state and

hunger are powerful drivers of dispersal

(7) Another is the classical reproductive

strategy in which gravid females retain

eggs for deposition after flight (89)

Dispersal is not a primaly form of mate

seeking as in many moths and other

insects Evidence against mate seeking

is indicated by equal numbers of females

and males captured at lights and the

rapidity with which captured females

oviposit fertile eggs (8)

HABITAT AND HOST ASSOCIATION

TriatOmine species inhabit a variety of

ecological environmentS from generalized

ro highly specialized including human

domestic environments Within these

environments they can range from

opportunists feeding on a variety of

host species to specialists feeding on a limited number of host types Specialists

include Cavernicola piLosa which feeds

on bats Rhodnius spp living in palm

trees where they feed on inhabiting birds

and mammals and Psammofestes spp

which live in bird nests constructed of

rwigs Bird blood meals are sufficient

for the bugs to survive and reproduce

but birds are not hosts of T cruzi and

thus alter the parasite transmission cycle

Somewhat more general feeders are T rubrofasciata and members of the T

protracta complex that prefer feeding on

rodents Triatoma infestans T dimidiata

and R profixus are inhabitants of human

domestic environments where they feed

on people and their animals (6) Most

species irrespective of their preferred

habitat can become opportunistic feeders

when other species are available Species

that are generally opportunists can also

be facultative specialists preferring to feed

mainly on one group of hosts if given the

opportunity (10) The Triatoma living

in Arizona are all non-domestic species

that often feed on packrats (Neotoma

spp) yet they readily feed on a variety of

vertebrate hosts they encounter including

humans The Arizona-Sonora Desert

Museum in Tucson Arizona is a regional

educational living zoo that inadvertently

supports large populations of T rubida

and T protracta These bugs plague many

museum animals and sometimes feed

so extensively that they have caused the

death by chronic blood loss of animals

including a rare protected mountain

rattlesnake (James L Jarchow DVM

pers commun) In Kansas Triatoma

sanguisuga like the Arizona species feeds

predominantly on Neotoma raccoons and

opossums but will readily feed on a

variety of other hosts including humans

When and how some species of

triaromines became specialists on humans

is a mystery The subfamily is believed

to have originated about 5 million years

Figure 4 A fifth instar (nymphal stage) of T recurva Note the absence of figure 6 A teneral of T rubida i shy _

wings in the nymphs

8

- shy --t o-ader in California especially

middotmiddotmiddotomiddotva Note the absence of Figure 6 A reneral of T rubida ienewly emerged adult

bull 9

ago in the New World (11) Dates for

the arrival of human beings in the New

World are debated but their estimated

arrival sometime between 14000 to

20000 years ago is relatively recent

Thus shifts in some species of kissing

bugs to specializing on our species are

recent evolutionary events and might

well explain some of our vulnerability to

the T cruzi parasite the bugs transmit to

us

FEEDING BEHAVIOR Kissing bugs rely on multiple sensory

systems to locate hosts These include

gradients of carbon dioxide in the air

odors moisture heat and air flow (12)

They are exquisitely sensitive to carbon

dioxide exhaled by mammals when

breathing being able to detect 75 parts

per million above the background air

levels of 350 parts per million when

a trace of exhaled lactic acid another

attractant is present Cold blooded hosts

including reptiles generate very low levels

of carbon dioxide nevertheless kissing

bugs use many other host-generated

chemical cues including short chained

ali phatic amines and acids 7- to 9-carbon

aldehydes and alcohols and lactic acid to

locate hosts The bugs can also detect

infrared radiation enabling them to orient

toward warm blooded hosts from several

meters Finally they anemotactically

follow the movement of air currents

impregnated with host odors to locate

the host (12) Feeding by bugs in human

domiciles usually takes place at night

with bugs hiding during the day in

cracks and crevices away from the feeding

areas Much less is known about feeding

times for sylvatic (non-domestic) species

Likely they adjust their activity periods to

match the inactive periods of their host

thereby minimizing danger from host

defenses Triatoma rubida and T protracta

do not hesitate to approach and feed on

rodents during bright midday times (13)

a behavior that might well be adaptive for

bugs that often feed on rodents in their

burrows while the rodents are sleeping or

quiescent during the day

Once a host is located a hungry

bug extends its proboscis and inserts it

into the skin of the host Sometimes the

host detects the minor sensation caused

by a bugs probing and moves or shifts

posmon In response the bug usually

retracts somewhat before continuing

probing and feeding Considering that

a bug often imbibes more blood than

its own weight (3) feeding is relatively

rapid lasting on average 22 minutes

for T protracta 28 for T rubida and

between 11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

T dimidiata and R proixus (1 3 14)

Blood is mostly water and the bulkiness

of a large blood meal limits a bugs

movement To eliminate excess water

bugs often defecate during feeding at

completion of feeding or shortly after

leaving the feeding site (Figure 8) Some

species including those domestic species

that frequemly transmit Chagas disease

defecate rapidly and frequently often on

or near the host (14) while others defecate

less rapidly and less frequently often at a

distance from the host (3) Frequency

and proximity of defecation to the host

are considered to be critical factors in

transmitting T cruzi and Chagas

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are th - common cause of insect bites that - -_

in anaphylaxis in the United State --

medical emergency (also causeu - - ~

commonly by bee stings) results -ro ~- =

release of chemical signals in resP Qclt ~

proteins in the bugs saliva ina b _ _ usually causes the individual to r s the emergency room where epineF~~gt _

and other imerventions reverse th - _

blood pressure swollen ai[-as ~=shy

rashes that often accompany anapn- c

Victims usually are awakened at nig shy

shortness of breath difficulty b re-l ~- ~

or generalized itching Othe~ _c ominous allergies include hives se ~

of the eyes swelling at the site 0 - - -t

bite and persistent itching Patiem -_

experience anaphylaxis when re-bi ~-shy

and one adult woman has died ~C _-shythe condition The bite itself is pai

however swelling and inflammatior -shy

the site of the bite may last for middoteeL

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit CI ~

to humans in the United States lt =-__ shy

six such cases have been docunei

Infection with Trypanasoma en is common in several wildlife spe - j -

rare in domestic pets Reported Cd5eS __

10

~--l vluch less is known about feeding

-16 for sylva tic (non-domestic) species

~~Jd~ they adjust their activity periods to

- ch the inactive periods of their host

erltbmiddot minimizing danger from host

erenscs Triatoma rubida and T protracta

_ ~Of hesitate to approach and feed on

rienrs during bright midday times (13)

chlior that might well be adaptive for

_g [hat often feed on rodents in their

transmuting T cruzi and Chagas disease

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are the most

common cause of insect bites that result

in anaphylaxis in the United States This

medical emergency (also caused more

commonly by bee stings) results from the

domestic species

the warmer southern stares There are no

reportS of livestock horses or pigs being

infected Only one case report exists of

infection in a domestic cat in the US

The primary wildlife species in the

United Srates that serve as host reservoirs

for T cruz i are

packrats in the genus Neotoma

and opossums ~ _ -ns while the rodents are sleeping or

-e-cnt during the day

nee a host is located a hungry

extends its proboscis and inserts it

he skin of the host Sometimes the

erects the minor sensation caused

s- Sugs probing and moves or shifts

xsiion In response the bug usually

- = ~-rS somewhat before continuing

iing and feeding Considering that

t~~ often imbibes more blood than

-1 weight (3) feeding is relatively

~i c las ting on average 22 minutes

- ~ ~- porracta 28 for T rubida and

11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

-

3w i

d diara and R prolixus (13 14)

moscly water and the bulkiness

l rge blood meal limits a bugs

bull O1em To eliminate excess water

0 o tten defecate during feeding at

_ -c~E io1 of feeding or shortly after

-T-i ~ he feeding site (Figure 8) Some

~ _-~~ i1Cluding those domestic species

-~-- E~lIently transmit Chagas disease

i-_ ~ ~ rap idly and frequently often on

bullbull -~ ile hos t (14) while others defecate

_ 2-d l and less frequently often at a

_ lt~ ~ r-om the host (3) Frequency

- E - ~igtxi ni( of defecation to the hosr

_~ odered to be critical factors in

release of chemical signals in response to

proteins in the bugs saliva Anaphylaxis

usually causes the individual to rush to

the emergency room where epinephrine

and other interventions reverse the low

blood pressure swollen airways and

rashes that often accompany anaphylaxis

Victims usually are awakened at night by

shortness of breath difficulty breathing

or generalized itching Other less

ominous allergies include hives swelling

of rhe eyes swelling at the site of the

bite and persistent itching Patients may

experience anaphylaxis when re-bitten

and one adult woman has died from

the condition The bite itself is painless

however swelling and inflammation at

the site of the bite may last for weeks

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit Chagas

to humans in the United States only

six such cases have been documented

Infection with Trypanasoma cruz i is

common in several wildlife species but

rare in domestic pets Reporred cases in

are limited ro dogs in

rodents particularly

raccoons

and to a lesser degree

armadillos and skunks T cruzi has been

reporred in more than 20 different wildlife

species in the United States in at least 13 states (15) Wood rats and other rodent

species serve as reservoirs of infection

as rodent dens and nests may harbor

the insect vectors Infection dynamics of

T cruz i isolates appear to vary between

species wirh raccoons being infected wirh

a more virulent genetic strain in which

blood parasites levels peak sooner and

antibodies are more quickly derected rhan

occurs in opossums anorher primary

wildlife reservoir species Additionally

mice injecred with opossum derived T cruzi isolates appear to subsequently

clear the infection and survive whereas

injecting mice with the raccoon derived

strains resulted in a 75 mortality rate

in one study Despite differences in

virulence between the host species strains

pathologic cardiac changes induced by T cruzi have been observed at necropsy in

both raccoons and opossums

Prevalence of T cruz i in wildlife

species varies but infection rates as high

as 62 occurred in raccoons tested

in various states (16) Infection rates

appear to be generally highest in coastal

locations with the elevated rates assumed

11

T cruzi exposure in many southern

states and as far north as Minnesota

In domestic dogs as in wildlife species

infection is thought ro be primarily by

First and foremost is a thorough

inspecrion of the home both inside and

outside

During the active season (around

bull Keep window curtalins and blirci ~-

Seal potential entryways into ho es points of entry) with caulk silicone sea

Figure 7 Blood smear showing

Trypanosoma cruzi parasites among

red blood cells Phoro by Rose

Nasrazadani

ro be due ro the increased disrribution

of insect vectors secondary ro the high

humidiry and lack of a winter freeze

along the sourhern and eastern coasts

In contrast ro the Latin American

isolates that are transmitted ro humans

indirectly at the insect bite location by

fecal contamination T cruzi in wildlife

species in the US is transmitted by

oral ingestion of infected insects and ro

a lesser degree by placental transmission

in utero

In domestic pets T cruzi causing

clinical health issues has been reported

primarily 111 working dogs from

southeastern Texas and foci in Louisiana

although antibody testing has confirmed

eating infected kissing bug vecrors in

response ro skin irritation from the insect

bite and from in utero transmission from

dam ro pup

Clinical signs of infection in dogs are

primarily cardiac recognized as exercise

intolerance or generalized weakness

Diagnostic testing may reveal severe heart

arrythmias And ultimately a dilated

form of heart failure develops Treatment

rarely results in a cure and survival time

in clinically affecred dogs ranges from 0

ro GO months

Prevention of Chagas disease in

dogs depends on insect vecror control

and limiting contacr with host reservoir

species In endemic kissing bug areas

animal housing and bedding should be

treated with insecticide monthly and

kennels improved as needed ro remove

insect nesting sites

PEST MANAGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

Insecticide spraying is the cornersrone

ofvector control programs for triatomines

in South America where domestic and

peridomestic species are prevalent and

can attain high population densities in

and around homes The sylva tic species

found in the US are only occasional

invaders and thus present a different set

of problems that rely on non-chemical

measures for control such as habitat

modification and exclusion techniques

(see table below)

bull amp

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a female T rubida

Table 2 Non-chemical measure w ~c _ triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes ~ _

bedroom to reduce potentia - - ~ - - - - bull Manage vegetation around t nE - ~ ~ - =shy

firewood and debris) that n1 a -shy

Install weather stripping and tight fi insect proof dog and cat entrances a

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting a ~ - - ~

kissing bugs bull Move lights away from doors bull Replace outside white ligh 5 gt- _ _

_ - ~ ntected kissing bug vecmrs in

-~- ro sk in irriration from the insect

- ~ ~ from iii IItero transmission from

2~ __ bull gt ult

C gtal signs of infection in dogs are

- --- shy cardiac recognized as exercise

ltOk 1 or generalized weakness

J~~ -i testing may reveal severe heart

--~ --5 nd ultimately a dilated

t-he-arr failure develops Treatment

-L ~~- ~esul r5 in a cure and survival time

dir alh affected dogs ranges from 0

-1 onths

_~ecmion of Chagas disease in

It7 c epends on insect vector control

-c ~ -i(in g conract with host reservoir

- ifO In endemic kissing bug areas

~Ad fi ousing and bedding should be

lt-~1 2 - irh insecticide monthly and

D --u~-- improved as needed to remove

-51 - s ring sites

bull

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a fem ale T rubida

PEST Mfu~AGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

gt xri ide spraying is the cornersmne

middot C T io nrrol programs for triaromines

~ il merica where domestic and

- --l(1c-gt[ ic species are prevalel1( and

bull- 1il high population densities in

1d aol 1d homes The sylvatic species

~c n [he CS are only occasional

- middot~c dnd thus presel1( a differel1( set

- ~ -tiems that rely on non-chemical

- ~~=-gt fo r control such as habitat

~Cil[ion and exclusion techniques

- dow)

- and foremost is a thorough

-- - - ~ion of the home both inside and

ring the active season (around

Table 2 Non-chemical measures ro reduce risk of household infestation by

triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes piles of paper) inside homes particularly in the

bedroom to reduce potential hiding places for kiSSing bugs bull Manage vegetation around the home and eliminate clutter (eg piles of lumber

firewood and debris) that may prOvide small animal habitat

Install weather stripping and tight fitting insect screens on windows and doors insect proof dog and cat entrances and keep fireplace flues shut

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting at night to make homes less attractive to kissing bugs

bull Move lights away from doors or windows where they may attract insects bull Replace outside white lights with yellow lights bull Keep window curtains and blinds drawn in lighted rooms

I

Seal potential entryways into homes (eg foundation cracks and utility line points of entry) with caulk silicone seal or other appropriate materials

I

13

mid-spring to mid-fall) inspections

should be carried our on a regular basis to

find and destroy any stray bugs During

the day they typically hide in dark places

in cracks and crevices or under objects

For example in the bedroom they may

hide in bed sheets or blankets or under

the mattress so it is recommended that

all of these potential hiding places be

inspected especially before retmng

Outside during the day they hide in

dark sheltered places such as beneath

flowerpots or furniture emerging at night

to be seen crawling or resting on surfaces

Pay special attention to areas inside and

out where pets congregate or sleep

In addition to efforts directly aimed

at kissing bugs concrol measures may be

needed to remove their wild vertebrate

hosts sllch as packrats which are common

around homes in the Southwest Packrats

can have several dozen or more kissing

bugs inhabiting their nests Trapping the

packrats and removing their nests close

to the house can potentially reduce home

invasions However it is advisable that

only the nearest packrat nest and packrats

be removed in the hope that the kissing

bugs will move to more peripheral nests

farther from the house After the packrats

have been removed a pyrethroid dust

or spray should be applied to the old

nesting sites to eliminate any remaining

kiSSing bugs This is critical because in the

absence of their natural host the bugs will

seek out another source of blood which

might end up being the homeowner (I 7)

In the case of sensitized homeowners

who have become allergic to kissing bugs

a directed spray application of pyrethroid

insecticides in and aro und the home

may provide some added protection

Most effective indoors is a crack and

crevice application to potential harborage

sites in bedrooms and bathrooms and

outdoors a perimeter treatment along

the foundation and eaves paying close

attention to thoroughly treat entryways

such as windows and doors to prevent

their access into the home

Sensitized individuals may also elect

to sleep under a bed net (mosquito

netting) that is tucked in all around

the mattress for added protection and

using double-sided sticky tape placed

on the legs of the bed Beds should be

kept at least one foor away from walls

Sticky trap monitors placed under and

around beds may also catch wandering

bugs Finally homeowners might wish

to thoroughly vacuum the bedroom and

consider isolating their bedroom during

the active season by weather-stripping

doors and keeping doors closed

Kissing bugs are medically important

fascinating insects that likely will be

interacting with humans and their pets

wi th increasing frequency in response

to warming climates and as more homes

encroach into their habitats Learning to

recognize these bugs and to keep them

out of human habitations is an important

responsibility of homeownership

14

REFERENCES 1 Weiruch C Munro fB

phylogeny of rhe as middot3i - (Hemi prera Reduviidae shymirochondrial genes dol P~ - ~- shy

Evol 2009 53 287-299 2 Iba rra-Cerdena CN San ~le= - _~

V Townsend Pererso n A Rl middot

(2009) Ecology of -or L _

Triarominae Acra Trop 1 10 - - bull

3 Zeled6n R Beard CB Pio _ 0

Leiby DA Dorn PL R J (in press) An appraisal r ~ --=shyChagas disease in rhe L-n re-C =- ~

4 de la Rua N Srevens (201l) High generic dit _ - 1- _ ~

popularion of (Le Com e 1855) i n ter~ - ~

mirochondrial markef5 Co ~ -

and 16S ribosomal D- -co

Generics and Evolurion 5 Goda D E and C J ~ _

Popularion dynamics of Ii

under narural climaric middot0 shy

rhe Argentin e C haco -EM ~ ~ shy3 179-94

6 Schofield C J 1988 Bios [- c rhe Triarominae In Bio5middotreoi H aemarophagous Insecrs 1 - __

ed) Sys remarics Associario r _ - Volume No 37 pp 284middot31 c -~ shy

Press O xford 7 Lehane M ] P K Mch --

Whiraker and C J Schotleld ] 4 ~ _

role of remperarure and nurririofi- _ _ in flighr iniriarion by 7i-iatam 1-~ _

Acta Trop 52 27-38 8 Klorz J H P L Dorn J L _ --

L Stevens J L Pinnas J 0- ~ l-r _

and S A Klotz 2010 Ki55ill ~ - __ ~

porential disease vecrors and (~ U

anaphylaxiS Cfin In Dis ) o 6 _ - 9 McEwen P K and M ] Lehl _- shy

Relationship between Highr 2

and oviposir ion in TiaOIgtII - - - shy

(Klug) (Hem Reduviidae - shy

Entomo 117 217middot23

u~ Je5 in and around the home

--_2 rovide some added protecrion

-- efrecrin~ indoors is a crack and

_c lt application to potenrial harborage

~-olt r bedrooms and bathrooms and

-or a perimeter rreatmenr along

- -()ll1dation and eaves paying close

~(o n ro thoroughly treat enrryways

~~ - d windows and doors ro prevenr

~ laquo(e55 inro the home

S1si tized individuals may also elect

lteF under a bed net (mosquiro

- ~Jng that is rucked in all around

c -rress for added protection and

_ sect do uble-sided sticky tape placed

Ci - he legs of the bed Beds should be

r ~ least one foor away from walls

rap monirors placed under and

- - ~ -_ bds may also catch wandering

_~ _ Finally- homeowners mighr wish

-uroughh- vacuum rhe bedroom and

___id ~ iolaring rheir bedroom during

d~ 2Cl i season by wearher-srripping

nd keeping doors dosed - lis~ lg bugs are medically imporranr

is -_2ing insecrs rhar likely will be

- _~~~ i rh humans and rheir pers

_1reas ing frequency in response

-ing c1imares and as more homes

-~ h inro their habirars Learning ro

sect-izemiddot these bugs and (Q keep rhem

il-lnan habirarions is an imporranr

- bili r of homeownership

REFERENCES I Weiruch C Munro JB Molecular

phylogeny of the assassin bugs (Hemiptera Reduviidae) based on mirochondrial genes Mol Phylogenet Evo 2009 53 287-299

2 Ibarra-Cerdena CN Sanchez-Cordero

V Townsend Peterson A Ramsey JM (2009) Ecology of North American

Triarominae Acta Trop 110 178-186 3 Zeledon R Beard CB Pinro Dias JC

Leiby DA Dorn PL Rodrigues Coura J (in press) An appraisal of the sraws of Chagas disease in the United States

4 de la Rua N Stevens L Dorn PL (2011) High genetic diversity in a si ngle

population of Tiiatoma sanguisuga

(Le Conte 1855) inferred from rwo mitochondrial markers cytochrome b and 16S ribosomal DNA Infection Genetics and Evolution

5 Goda D E and C J Schofield 1989 Population dynam ics of Ti-iatoma inmans under nawral climatic conditions in

the Argentine Chaco Med Vet Entomol

3 179-94 6 Schofield C J 1988 Biosystematics of

the Triatominae In Biosystematics of Haematophagous Insects (M W Service ed) Systematics Association Special

Volume No 37 pp 284-312 Clarendon

Press Oxford 7 Lehane M J P K McEwen C J

Whitaker and C J Schofield 1992 The role of temperature and nutritional status in flight initiation by Triatoma infestans Acta Timiddotop 52 27-38

8 KJotz J H P L Dorn J L Logan L Stevens J L Pinnas J O Schmidt and S A KJotz 20 IO Kissing Bugs potential disease vectors and cause of anaphylaxis CLin In Dis 50 1629-34

9 McEwen P K and M J Lehane 1994 Relationship berween flight initiation and oviposition in Triatoma infestam (KJug) (Hem Reduviidae) j App

EntomoL 11 7 217-23

10 Gurtler R E L A Ceballos P OrdoZezshy

Krasnowski L A Lanati R Stariolo and

U Kitron 2009 Strong host-feeding

preferences of the vector Tiiatoma

infestans modified by vector density

implications for the epidemiology of

Chagas disease PLGS Neglect Trop Dis

3e447

11 Schofield C J and C Galvno 2009

Classification evolution and species

groups within the Triatominae Acta

Tropl1088-100

12 Guerenstein P G and C R Lazzari

2009 Hosr-seeking how rriatomines

acqui re and make use of information to

find blood Acta Ti-op 110148-583

13 KJotz S A P L Dorn J H KJOtz

] L Pinnas C Weirauch J R Kurtz

and J Schmidt 2009 Feeding behavior

of triaromines from the southwestern

United States an update on potential

risk for transmission of Chagas disease

Acta Trop III114-18

14 Zeled6n R R Alvarado and L F Jiron

1977 Observations on the feeding and

defecation patterns of three triatol11ine

species (Hemiptera Reduviidae) Acta

Timiddotop3465-77

15 Barr Sc Canine C hagas Disease

(American Trypanosomiasis) in North

America Vet CLin Small Animal 39

(2009) 1055-1064

16 Yabsley MJ and NobletGP Seroprevalence

of Trypanosoma cruz i in raccoo ns from

South Carolina and Georgia J WiLdl Dis

38 (2002) 75-83

17 Gouge DH Stoltman AJ Snyder

J L Olson C How to Bug Proof Your

Home http ca ls arizona edupubs

insectsaz l 3201

15

e E

MP

OR

IA S

TATE

UN

IVE

RS

ITYr

u KA

NSA

S SC

HO

OL

NAT

UR

ALIS

T B

OX

4050

12

00 C

OM

MER

CIA

L ST

E

mpo

ria

KS 6

6801

-508

7

ADDR

ESS

SERV

ICE

REQ

UEST

ED

No

np

rofi

t O

rg

US

Pos

tage

PA

ID

Em

pori

a K

ansa

s

66

80

1-5

08

7

Pe

rmit

No

203

Tri

atom

a re

curv

a t

he l

arge

st t

riat

ome

in t

he U

S (f

emal

e)

Figure 4 A fifth instar (nymphal stage) of T recurva Note the absence of figure 6 A teneral of T rubida i shy _

wings in the nymphs

8

- shy --t o-ader in California especially

middotmiddotmiddotomiddotva Note the absence of Figure 6 A reneral of T rubida ienewly emerged adult

bull 9

ago in the New World (11) Dates for

the arrival of human beings in the New

World are debated but their estimated

arrival sometime between 14000 to

20000 years ago is relatively recent

Thus shifts in some species of kissing

bugs to specializing on our species are

recent evolutionary events and might

well explain some of our vulnerability to

the T cruzi parasite the bugs transmit to

us

FEEDING BEHAVIOR Kissing bugs rely on multiple sensory

systems to locate hosts These include

gradients of carbon dioxide in the air

odors moisture heat and air flow (12)

They are exquisitely sensitive to carbon

dioxide exhaled by mammals when

breathing being able to detect 75 parts

per million above the background air

levels of 350 parts per million when

a trace of exhaled lactic acid another

attractant is present Cold blooded hosts

including reptiles generate very low levels

of carbon dioxide nevertheless kissing

bugs use many other host-generated

chemical cues including short chained

ali phatic amines and acids 7- to 9-carbon

aldehydes and alcohols and lactic acid to

locate hosts The bugs can also detect

infrared radiation enabling them to orient

toward warm blooded hosts from several

meters Finally they anemotactically

follow the movement of air currents

impregnated with host odors to locate

the host (12) Feeding by bugs in human

domiciles usually takes place at night

with bugs hiding during the day in

cracks and crevices away from the feeding

areas Much less is known about feeding

times for sylvatic (non-domestic) species

Likely they adjust their activity periods to

match the inactive periods of their host

thereby minimizing danger from host

defenses Triatoma rubida and T protracta

do not hesitate to approach and feed on

rodents during bright midday times (13)

a behavior that might well be adaptive for

bugs that often feed on rodents in their

burrows while the rodents are sleeping or

quiescent during the day

Once a host is located a hungry

bug extends its proboscis and inserts it

into the skin of the host Sometimes the

host detects the minor sensation caused

by a bugs probing and moves or shifts

posmon In response the bug usually

retracts somewhat before continuing

probing and feeding Considering that

a bug often imbibes more blood than

its own weight (3) feeding is relatively

rapid lasting on average 22 minutes

for T protracta 28 for T rubida and

between 11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

T dimidiata and R proixus (1 3 14)

Blood is mostly water and the bulkiness

of a large blood meal limits a bugs

movement To eliminate excess water

bugs often defecate during feeding at

completion of feeding or shortly after

leaving the feeding site (Figure 8) Some

species including those domestic species

that frequemly transmit Chagas disease

defecate rapidly and frequently often on

or near the host (14) while others defecate

less rapidly and less frequently often at a

distance from the host (3) Frequency

and proximity of defecation to the host

are considered to be critical factors in

transmitting T cruzi and Chagas

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are th - common cause of insect bites that - -_

in anaphylaxis in the United State --

medical emergency (also causeu - - ~

commonly by bee stings) results -ro ~- =

release of chemical signals in resP Qclt ~

proteins in the bugs saliva ina b _ _ usually causes the individual to r s the emergency room where epineF~~gt _

and other imerventions reverse th - _

blood pressure swollen ai[-as ~=shy

rashes that often accompany anapn- c

Victims usually are awakened at nig shy

shortness of breath difficulty b re-l ~- ~

or generalized itching Othe~ _c ominous allergies include hives se ~

of the eyes swelling at the site 0 - - -t

bite and persistent itching Patiem -_

experience anaphylaxis when re-bi ~-shy

and one adult woman has died ~C _-shythe condition The bite itself is pai

however swelling and inflammatior -shy

the site of the bite may last for middoteeL

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit CI ~

to humans in the United States lt =-__ shy

six such cases have been docunei

Infection with Trypanasoma en is common in several wildlife spe - j -

rare in domestic pets Reported Cd5eS __

10

~--l vluch less is known about feeding

-16 for sylva tic (non-domestic) species

~~Jd~ they adjust their activity periods to

- ch the inactive periods of their host

erltbmiddot minimizing danger from host

erenscs Triatoma rubida and T protracta

_ ~Of hesitate to approach and feed on

rienrs during bright midday times (13)

chlior that might well be adaptive for

_g [hat often feed on rodents in their

transmuting T cruzi and Chagas disease

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are the most

common cause of insect bites that result

in anaphylaxis in the United States This

medical emergency (also caused more

commonly by bee stings) results from the

domestic species

the warmer southern stares There are no

reportS of livestock horses or pigs being

infected Only one case report exists of

infection in a domestic cat in the US

The primary wildlife species in the

United Srates that serve as host reservoirs

for T cruz i are

packrats in the genus Neotoma

and opossums ~ _ -ns while the rodents are sleeping or

-e-cnt during the day

nee a host is located a hungry

extends its proboscis and inserts it

he skin of the host Sometimes the

erects the minor sensation caused

s- Sugs probing and moves or shifts

xsiion In response the bug usually

- = ~-rS somewhat before continuing

iing and feeding Considering that

t~~ often imbibes more blood than

-1 weight (3) feeding is relatively

~i c las ting on average 22 minutes

- ~ ~- porracta 28 for T rubida and

11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

-

3w i

d diara and R prolixus (13 14)

moscly water and the bulkiness

l rge blood meal limits a bugs

bull O1em To eliminate excess water

0 o tten defecate during feeding at

_ -c~E io1 of feeding or shortly after

-T-i ~ he feeding site (Figure 8) Some

~ _-~~ i1Cluding those domestic species

-~-- E~lIently transmit Chagas disease

i-_ ~ ~ rap idly and frequently often on

bullbull -~ ile hos t (14) while others defecate

_ 2-d l and less frequently often at a

_ lt~ ~ r-om the host (3) Frequency

- E - ~igtxi ni( of defecation to the hosr

_~ odered to be critical factors in

release of chemical signals in response to

proteins in the bugs saliva Anaphylaxis

usually causes the individual to rush to

the emergency room where epinephrine

and other interventions reverse the low

blood pressure swollen airways and

rashes that often accompany anaphylaxis

Victims usually are awakened at night by

shortness of breath difficulty breathing

or generalized itching Other less

ominous allergies include hives swelling

of rhe eyes swelling at the site of the

bite and persistent itching Patients may

experience anaphylaxis when re-bitten

and one adult woman has died from

the condition The bite itself is painless

however swelling and inflammation at

the site of the bite may last for weeks

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit Chagas

to humans in the United States only

six such cases have been documented

Infection with Trypanasoma cruz i is

common in several wildlife species but

rare in domestic pets Reporred cases in

are limited ro dogs in

rodents particularly

raccoons

and to a lesser degree

armadillos and skunks T cruzi has been

reporred in more than 20 different wildlife

species in the United States in at least 13 states (15) Wood rats and other rodent

species serve as reservoirs of infection

as rodent dens and nests may harbor

the insect vectors Infection dynamics of

T cruz i isolates appear to vary between

species wirh raccoons being infected wirh

a more virulent genetic strain in which

blood parasites levels peak sooner and

antibodies are more quickly derected rhan

occurs in opossums anorher primary

wildlife reservoir species Additionally

mice injecred with opossum derived T cruzi isolates appear to subsequently

clear the infection and survive whereas

injecting mice with the raccoon derived

strains resulted in a 75 mortality rate

in one study Despite differences in

virulence between the host species strains

pathologic cardiac changes induced by T cruzi have been observed at necropsy in

both raccoons and opossums

Prevalence of T cruz i in wildlife

species varies but infection rates as high

as 62 occurred in raccoons tested

in various states (16) Infection rates

appear to be generally highest in coastal

locations with the elevated rates assumed

11

T cruzi exposure in many southern

states and as far north as Minnesota

In domestic dogs as in wildlife species

infection is thought ro be primarily by

First and foremost is a thorough

inspecrion of the home both inside and

outside

During the active season (around

bull Keep window curtalins and blirci ~-

Seal potential entryways into ho es points of entry) with caulk silicone sea

Figure 7 Blood smear showing

Trypanosoma cruzi parasites among

red blood cells Phoro by Rose

Nasrazadani

ro be due ro the increased disrribution

of insect vectors secondary ro the high

humidiry and lack of a winter freeze

along the sourhern and eastern coasts

In contrast ro the Latin American

isolates that are transmitted ro humans

indirectly at the insect bite location by

fecal contamination T cruzi in wildlife

species in the US is transmitted by

oral ingestion of infected insects and ro

a lesser degree by placental transmission

in utero

In domestic pets T cruzi causing

clinical health issues has been reported

primarily 111 working dogs from

southeastern Texas and foci in Louisiana

although antibody testing has confirmed

eating infected kissing bug vecrors in

response ro skin irritation from the insect

bite and from in utero transmission from

dam ro pup

Clinical signs of infection in dogs are

primarily cardiac recognized as exercise

intolerance or generalized weakness

Diagnostic testing may reveal severe heart

arrythmias And ultimately a dilated

form of heart failure develops Treatment

rarely results in a cure and survival time

in clinically affecred dogs ranges from 0

ro GO months

Prevention of Chagas disease in

dogs depends on insect vecror control

and limiting contacr with host reservoir

species In endemic kissing bug areas

animal housing and bedding should be

treated with insecticide monthly and

kennels improved as needed ro remove

insect nesting sites

PEST MANAGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

Insecticide spraying is the cornersrone

ofvector control programs for triatomines

in South America where domestic and

peridomestic species are prevalent and

can attain high population densities in

and around homes The sylva tic species

found in the US are only occasional

invaders and thus present a different set

of problems that rely on non-chemical

measures for control such as habitat

modification and exclusion techniques

(see table below)

bull amp

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a female T rubida

Table 2 Non-chemical measure w ~c _ triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes ~ _

bedroom to reduce potentia - - ~ - - - - bull Manage vegetation around t nE - ~ ~ - =shy

firewood and debris) that n1 a -shy

Install weather stripping and tight fi insect proof dog and cat entrances a

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting a ~ - - ~

kissing bugs bull Move lights away from doors bull Replace outside white ligh 5 gt- _ _

_ - ~ ntected kissing bug vecmrs in

-~- ro sk in irriration from the insect

- ~ ~ from iii IItero transmission from

2~ __ bull gt ult

C gtal signs of infection in dogs are

- --- shy cardiac recognized as exercise

ltOk 1 or generalized weakness

J~~ -i testing may reveal severe heart

--~ --5 nd ultimately a dilated

t-he-arr failure develops Treatment

-L ~~- ~esul r5 in a cure and survival time

dir alh affected dogs ranges from 0

-1 onths

_~ecmion of Chagas disease in

It7 c epends on insect vector control

-c ~ -i(in g conract with host reservoir

- ifO In endemic kissing bug areas

~Ad fi ousing and bedding should be

lt-~1 2 - irh insecticide monthly and

D --u~-- improved as needed to remove

-51 - s ring sites

bull

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a fem ale T rubida

PEST Mfu~AGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

gt xri ide spraying is the cornersmne

middot C T io nrrol programs for triaromines

~ il merica where domestic and

- --l(1c-gt[ ic species are prevalel1( and

bull- 1il high population densities in

1d aol 1d homes The sylvatic species

~c n [he CS are only occasional

- middot~c dnd thus presel1( a differel1( set

- ~ -tiems that rely on non-chemical

- ~~=-gt fo r control such as habitat

~Cil[ion and exclusion techniques

- dow)

- and foremost is a thorough

-- - - ~ion of the home both inside and

ring the active season (around

Table 2 Non-chemical measures ro reduce risk of household infestation by

triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes piles of paper) inside homes particularly in the

bedroom to reduce potential hiding places for kiSSing bugs bull Manage vegetation around the home and eliminate clutter (eg piles of lumber

firewood and debris) that may prOvide small animal habitat

Install weather stripping and tight fitting insect screens on windows and doors insect proof dog and cat entrances and keep fireplace flues shut

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting at night to make homes less attractive to kissing bugs

bull Move lights away from doors or windows where they may attract insects bull Replace outside white lights with yellow lights bull Keep window curtains and blinds drawn in lighted rooms

I

Seal potential entryways into homes (eg foundation cracks and utility line points of entry) with caulk silicone seal or other appropriate materials

I

13

mid-spring to mid-fall) inspections

should be carried our on a regular basis to

find and destroy any stray bugs During

the day they typically hide in dark places

in cracks and crevices or under objects

For example in the bedroom they may

hide in bed sheets or blankets or under

the mattress so it is recommended that

all of these potential hiding places be

inspected especially before retmng

Outside during the day they hide in

dark sheltered places such as beneath

flowerpots or furniture emerging at night

to be seen crawling or resting on surfaces

Pay special attention to areas inside and

out where pets congregate or sleep

In addition to efforts directly aimed

at kissing bugs concrol measures may be

needed to remove their wild vertebrate

hosts sllch as packrats which are common

around homes in the Southwest Packrats

can have several dozen or more kissing

bugs inhabiting their nests Trapping the

packrats and removing their nests close

to the house can potentially reduce home

invasions However it is advisable that

only the nearest packrat nest and packrats

be removed in the hope that the kissing

bugs will move to more peripheral nests

farther from the house After the packrats

have been removed a pyrethroid dust

or spray should be applied to the old

nesting sites to eliminate any remaining

kiSSing bugs This is critical because in the

absence of their natural host the bugs will

seek out another source of blood which

might end up being the homeowner (I 7)

In the case of sensitized homeowners

who have become allergic to kissing bugs

a directed spray application of pyrethroid

insecticides in and aro und the home

may provide some added protection

Most effective indoors is a crack and

crevice application to potential harborage

sites in bedrooms and bathrooms and

outdoors a perimeter treatment along

the foundation and eaves paying close

attention to thoroughly treat entryways

such as windows and doors to prevent

their access into the home

Sensitized individuals may also elect

to sleep under a bed net (mosquito

netting) that is tucked in all around

the mattress for added protection and

using double-sided sticky tape placed

on the legs of the bed Beds should be

kept at least one foor away from walls

Sticky trap monitors placed under and

around beds may also catch wandering

bugs Finally homeowners might wish

to thoroughly vacuum the bedroom and

consider isolating their bedroom during

the active season by weather-stripping

doors and keeping doors closed

Kissing bugs are medically important

fascinating insects that likely will be

interacting with humans and their pets

wi th increasing frequency in response

to warming climates and as more homes

encroach into their habitats Learning to

recognize these bugs and to keep them

out of human habitations is an important

responsibility of homeownership

14

REFERENCES 1 Weiruch C Munro fB

phylogeny of rhe as middot3i - (Hemi prera Reduviidae shymirochondrial genes dol P~ - ~- shy

Evol 2009 53 287-299 2 Iba rra-Cerdena CN San ~le= - _~

V Townsend Pererso n A Rl middot

(2009) Ecology of -or L _

Triarominae Acra Trop 1 10 - - bull

3 Zeled6n R Beard CB Pio _ 0

Leiby DA Dorn PL R J (in press) An appraisal r ~ --=shyChagas disease in rhe L-n re-C =- ~

4 de la Rua N Srevens (201l) High generic dit _ - 1- _ ~

popularion of (Le Com e 1855) i n ter~ - ~

mirochondrial markef5 Co ~ -

and 16S ribosomal D- -co

Generics and Evolurion 5 Goda D E and C J ~ _

Popularion dynamics of Ii

under narural climaric middot0 shy

rhe Argentin e C haco -EM ~ ~ shy3 179-94

6 Schofield C J 1988 Bios [- c rhe Triarominae In Bio5middotreoi H aemarophagous Insecrs 1 - __

ed) Sys remarics Associario r _ - Volume No 37 pp 284middot31 c -~ shy

Press O xford 7 Lehane M ] P K Mch --

Whiraker and C J Schotleld ] 4 ~ _

role of remperarure and nurririofi- _ _ in flighr iniriarion by 7i-iatam 1-~ _

Acta Trop 52 27-38 8 Klorz J H P L Dorn J L _ --

L Stevens J L Pinnas J 0- ~ l-r _

and S A Klotz 2010 Ki55ill ~ - __ ~

porential disease vecrors and (~ U

anaphylaxiS Cfin In Dis ) o 6 _ - 9 McEwen P K and M ] Lehl _- shy

Relationship between Highr 2

and oviposir ion in TiaOIgtII - - - shy

(Klug) (Hem Reduviidae - shy

Entomo 117 217middot23

u~ Je5 in and around the home

--_2 rovide some added protecrion

-- efrecrin~ indoors is a crack and

_c lt application to potenrial harborage

~-olt r bedrooms and bathrooms and

-or a perimeter rreatmenr along

- -()ll1dation and eaves paying close

~(o n ro thoroughly treat enrryways

~~ - d windows and doors ro prevenr

~ laquo(e55 inro the home

S1si tized individuals may also elect

lteF under a bed net (mosquiro

- ~Jng that is rucked in all around

c -rress for added protection and

_ sect do uble-sided sticky tape placed

Ci - he legs of the bed Beds should be

r ~ least one foor away from walls

rap monirors placed under and

- - ~ -_ bds may also catch wandering

_~ _ Finally- homeowners mighr wish

-uroughh- vacuum rhe bedroom and

___id ~ iolaring rheir bedroom during

d~ 2Cl i season by wearher-srripping

nd keeping doors dosed - lis~ lg bugs are medically imporranr

is -_2ing insecrs rhar likely will be

- _~~~ i rh humans and rheir pers

_1reas ing frequency in response

-ing c1imares and as more homes

-~ h inro their habirars Learning ro

sect-izemiddot these bugs and (Q keep rhem

il-lnan habirarions is an imporranr

- bili r of homeownership

REFERENCES I Weiruch C Munro JB Molecular

phylogeny of the assassin bugs (Hemiptera Reduviidae) based on mirochondrial genes Mol Phylogenet Evo 2009 53 287-299

2 Ibarra-Cerdena CN Sanchez-Cordero

V Townsend Peterson A Ramsey JM (2009) Ecology of North American

Triarominae Acta Trop 110 178-186 3 Zeledon R Beard CB Pinro Dias JC

Leiby DA Dorn PL Rodrigues Coura J (in press) An appraisal of the sraws of Chagas disease in the United States

4 de la Rua N Stevens L Dorn PL (2011) High genetic diversity in a si ngle

population of Tiiatoma sanguisuga

(Le Conte 1855) inferred from rwo mitochondrial markers cytochrome b and 16S ribosomal DNA Infection Genetics and Evolution

5 Goda D E and C J Schofield 1989 Population dynam ics of Ti-iatoma inmans under nawral climatic conditions in

the Argentine Chaco Med Vet Entomol

3 179-94 6 Schofield C J 1988 Biosystematics of

the Triatominae In Biosystematics of Haematophagous Insects (M W Service ed) Systematics Association Special

Volume No 37 pp 284-312 Clarendon

Press Oxford 7 Lehane M J P K McEwen C J

Whitaker and C J Schofield 1992 The role of temperature and nutritional status in flight initiation by Triatoma infestans Acta Timiddotop 52 27-38

8 KJotz J H P L Dorn J L Logan L Stevens J L Pinnas J O Schmidt and S A KJotz 20 IO Kissing Bugs potential disease vectors and cause of anaphylaxis CLin In Dis 50 1629-34

9 McEwen P K and M J Lehane 1994 Relationship berween flight initiation and oviposition in Triatoma infestam (KJug) (Hem Reduviidae) j App

EntomoL 11 7 217-23

10 Gurtler R E L A Ceballos P OrdoZezshy

Krasnowski L A Lanati R Stariolo and

U Kitron 2009 Strong host-feeding

preferences of the vector Tiiatoma

infestans modified by vector density

implications for the epidemiology of

Chagas disease PLGS Neglect Trop Dis

3e447

11 Schofield C J and C Galvno 2009

Classification evolution and species

groups within the Triatominae Acta

Tropl1088-100

12 Guerenstein P G and C R Lazzari

2009 Hosr-seeking how rriatomines

acqui re and make use of information to

find blood Acta Ti-op 110148-583

13 KJotz S A P L Dorn J H KJOtz

] L Pinnas C Weirauch J R Kurtz

and J Schmidt 2009 Feeding behavior

of triaromines from the southwestern

United States an update on potential

risk for transmission of Chagas disease

Acta Trop III114-18

14 Zeled6n R R Alvarado and L F Jiron

1977 Observations on the feeding and

defecation patterns of three triatol11ine

species (Hemiptera Reduviidae) Acta

Timiddotop3465-77

15 Barr Sc Canine C hagas Disease

(American Trypanosomiasis) in North

America Vet CLin Small Animal 39

(2009) 1055-1064

16 Yabsley MJ and NobletGP Seroprevalence

of Trypanosoma cruz i in raccoo ns from

South Carolina and Georgia J WiLdl Dis

38 (2002) 75-83

17 Gouge DH Stoltman AJ Snyder

J L Olson C How to Bug Proof Your

Home http ca ls arizona edupubs

insectsaz l 3201

15

e E

MP

OR

IA S

TATE

UN

IVE

RS

ITYr

u KA

NSA

S SC

HO

OL

NAT

UR

ALIS

T B

OX

4050

12

00 C

OM

MER

CIA

L ST

E

mpo

ria

KS 6

6801

-508

7

ADDR

ESS

SERV

ICE

REQ

UEST

ED

No

np

rofi

t O

rg

US

Pos

tage

PA

ID

Em

pori

a K

ansa

s

66

80

1-5

08

7

Pe

rmit

No

203

Tri

atom

a re

curv

a t

he l

arge

st t

riat

ome

in t

he U

S (f

emal

e)

- shy --t o-ader in California especially

middotmiddotmiddotomiddotva Note the absence of Figure 6 A reneral of T rubida ienewly emerged adult

bull 9

ago in the New World (11) Dates for

the arrival of human beings in the New

World are debated but their estimated

arrival sometime between 14000 to

20000 years ago is relatively recent

Thus shifts in some species of kissing

bugs to specializing on our species are

recent evolutionary events and might

well explain some of our vulnerability to

the T cruzi parasite the bugs transmit to

us

FEEDING BEHAVIOR Kissing bugs rely on multiple sensory

systems to locate hosts These include

gradients of carbon dioxide in the air

odors moisture heat and air flow (12)

They are exquisitely sensitive to carbon

dioxide exhaled by mammals when

breathing being able to detect 75 parts

per million above the background air

levels of 350 parts per million when

a trace of exhaled lactic acid another

attractant is present Cold blooded hosts

including reptiles generate very low levels

of carbon dioxide nevertheless kissing

bugs use many other host-generated

chemical cues including short chained

ali phatic amines and acids 7- to 9-carbon

aldehydes and alcohols and lactic acid to

locate hosts The bugs can also detect

infrared radiation enabling them to orient

toward warm blooded hosts from several

meters Finally they anemotactically

follow the movement of air currents

impregnated with host odors to locate

the host (12) Feeding by bugs in human

domiciles usually takes place at night

with bugs hiding during the day in

cracks and crevices away from the feeding

areas Much less is known about feeding

times for sylvatic (non-domestic) species

Likely they adjust their activity periods to

match the inactive periods of their host

thereby minimizing danger from host

defenses Triatoma rubida and T protracta

do not hesitate to approach and feed on

rodents during bright midday times (13)

a behavior that might well be adaptive for

bugs that often feed on rodents in their

burrows while the rodents are sleeping or

quiescent during the day

Once a host is located a hungry

bug extends its proboscis and inserts it

into the skin of the host Sometimes the

host detects the minor sensation caused

by a bugs probing and moves or shifts

posmon In response the bug usually

retracts somewhat before continuing

probing and feeding Considering that

a bug often imbibes more blood than

its own weight (3) feeding is relatively

rapid lasting on average 22 minutes

for T protracta 28 for T rubida and

between 11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

T dimidiata and R proixus (1 3 14)

Blood is mostly water and the bulkiness

of a large blood meal limits a bugs

movement To eliminate excess water

bugs often defecate during feeding at

completion of feeding or shortly after

leaving the feeding site (Figure 8) Some

species including those domestic species

that frequemly transmit Chagas disease

defecate rapidly and frequently often on

or near the host (14) while others defecate

less rapidly and less frequently often at a

distance from the host (3) Frequency

and proximity of defecation to the host

are considered to be critical factors in

transmitting T cruzi and Chagas

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are th - common cause of insect bites that - -_

in anaphylaxis in the United State --

medical emergency (also causeu - - ~

commonly by bee stings) results -ro ~- =

release of chemical signals in resP Qclt ~

proteins in the bugs saliva ina b _ _ usually causes the individual to r s the emergency room where epineF~~gt _

and other imerventions reverse th - _

blood pressure swollen ai[-as ~=shy

rashes that often accompany anapn- c

Victims usually are awakened at nig shy

shortness of breath difficulty b re-l ~- ~

or generalized itching Othe~ _c ominous allergies include hives se ~

of the eyes swelling at the site 0 - - -t

bite and persistent itching Patiem -_

experience anaphylaxis when re-bi ~-shy

and one adult woman has died ~C _-shythe condition The bite itself is pai

however swelling and inflammatior -shy

the site of the bite may last for middoteeL

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit CI ~

to humans in the United States lt =-__ shy

six such cases have been docunei

Infection with Trypanasoma en is common in several wildlife spe - j -

rare in domestic pets Reported Cd5eS __

10

~--l vluch less is known about feeding

-16 for sylva tic (non-domestic) species

~~Jd~ they adjust their activity periods to

- ch the inactive periods of their host

erltbmiddot minimizing danger from host

erenscs Triatoma rubida and T protracta

_ ~Of hesitate to approach and feed on

rienrs during bright midday times (13)

chlior that might well be adaptive for

_g [hat often feed on rodents in their

transmuting T cruzi and Chagas disease

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are the most

common cause of insect bites that result

in anaphylaxis in the United States This

medical emergency (also caused more

commonly by bee stings) results from the

domestic species

the warmer southern stares There are no

reportS of livestock horses or pigs being

infected Only one case report exists of

infection in a domestic cat in the US

The primary wildlife species in the

United Srates that serve as host reservoirs

for T cruz i are

packrats in the genus Neotoma

and opossums ~ _ -ns while the rodents are sleeping or

-e-cnt during the day

nee a host is located a hungry

extends its proboscis and inserts it

he skin of the host Sometimes the

erects the minor sensation caused

s- Sugs probing and moves or shifts

xsiion In response the bug usually

- = ~-rS somewhat before continuing

iing and feeding Considering that

t~~ often imbibes more blood than

-1 weight (3) feeding is relatively

~i c las ting on average 22 minutes

- ~ ~- porracta 28 for T rubida and

11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

-

3w i

d diara and R prolixus (13 14)

moscly water and the bulkiness

l rge blood meal limits a bugs

bull O1em To eliminate excess water

0 o tten defecate during feeding at

_ -c~E io1 of feeding or shortly after

-T-i ~ he feeding site (Figure 8) Some

~ _-~~ i1Cluding those domestic species

-~-- E~lIently transmit Chagas disease

i-_ ~ ~ rap idly and frequently often on

bullbull -~ ile hos t (14) while others defecate

_ 2-d l and less frequently often at a

_ lt~ ~ r-om the host (3) Frequency

- E - ~igtxi ni( of defecation to the hosr

_~ odered to be critical factors in

release of chemical signals in response to

proteins in the bugs saliva Anaphylaxis

usually causes the individual to rush to

the emergency room where epinephrine

and other interventions reverse the low

blood pressure swollen airways and

rashes that often accompany anaphylaxis

Victims usually are awakened at night by

shortness of breath difficulty breathing

or generalized itching Other less

ominous allergies include hives swelling

of rhe eyes swelling at the site of the

bite and persistent itching Patients may

experience anaphylaxis when re-bitten

and one adult woman has died from

the condition The bite itself is painless

however swelling and inflammation at

the site of the bite may last for weeks

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit Chagas

to humans in the United States only

six such cases have been documented

Infection with Trypanasoma cruz i is

common in several wildlife species but

rare in domestic pets Reporred cases in

are limited ro dogs in

rodents particularly

raccoons

and to a lesser degree

armadillos and skunks T cruzi has been

reporred in more than 20 different wildlife

species in the United States in at least 13 states (15) Wood rats and other rodent

species serve as reservoirs of infection

as rodent dens and nests may harbor

the insect vectors Infection dynamics of

T cruz i isolates appear to vary between

species wirh raccoons being infected wirh

a more virulent genetic strain in which

blood parasites levels peak sooner and

antibodies are more quickly derected rhan

occurs in opossums anorher primary

wildlife reservoir species Additionally

mice injecred with opossum derived T cruzi isolates appear to subsequently

clear the infection and survive whereas

injecting mice with the raccoon derived

strains resulted in a 75 mortality rate

in one study Despite differences in

virulence between the host species strains

pathologic cardiac changes induced by T cruzi have been observed at necropsy in

both raccoons and opossums

Prevalence of T cruz i in wildlife

species varies but infection rates as high

as 62 occurred in raccoons tested

in various states (16) Infection rates

appear to be generally highest in coastal

locations with the elevated rates assumed

11

T cruzi exposure in many southern

states and as far north as Minnesota

In domestic dogs as in wildlife species

infection is thought ro be primarily by

First and foremost is a thorough

inspecrion of the home both inside and

outside

During the active season (around

bull Keep window curtalins and blirci ~-

Seal potential entryways into ho es points of entry) with caulk silicone sea

Figure 7 Blood smear showing

Trypanosoma cruzi parasites among

red blood cells Phoro by Rose

Nasrazadani

ro be due ro the increased disrribution

of insect vectors secondary ro the high

humidiry and lack of a winter freeze

along the sourhern and eastern coasts

In contrast ro the Latin American

isolates that are transmitted ro humans

indirectly at the insect bite location by

fecal contamination T cruzi in wildlife

species in the US is transmitted by

oral ingestion of infected insects and ro

a lesser degree by placental transmission

in utero

In domestic pets T cruzi causing

clinical health issues has been reported

primarily 111 working dogs from

southeastern Texas and foci in Louisiana

although antibody testing has confirmed

eating infected kissing bug vecrors in

response ro skin irritation from the insect

bite and from in utero transmission from

dam ro pup

Clinical signs of infection in dogs are

primarily cardiac recognized as exercise

intolerance or generalized weakness

Diagnostic testing may reveal severe heart

arrythmias And ultimately a dilated

form of heart failure develops Treatment

rarely results in a cure and survival time

in clinically affecred dogs ranges from 0

ro GO months

Prevention of Chagas disease in

dogs depends on insect vecror control

and limiting contacr with host reservoir

species In endemic kissing bug areas

animal housing and bedding should be

treated with insecticide monthly and

kennels improved as needed ro remove

insect nesting sites

PEST MANAGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

Insecticide spraying is the cornersrone

ofvector control programs for triatomines

in South America where domestic and

peridomestic species are prevalent and

can attain high population densities in

and around homes The sylva tic species

found in the US are only occasional

invaders and thus present a different set

of problems that rely on non-chemical

measures for control such as habitat

modification and exclusion techniques

(see table below)

bull amp

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a female T rubida

Table 2 Non-chemical measure w ~c _ triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes ~ _

bedroom to reduce potentia - - ~ - - - - bull Manage vegetation around t nE - ~ ~ - =shy

firewood and debris) that n1 a -shy

Install weather stripping and tight fi insect proof dog and cat entrances a

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting a ~ - - ~

kissing bugs bull Move lights away from doors bull Replace outside white ligh 5 gt- _ _

_ - ~ ntected kissing bug vecmrs in

-~- ro sk in irriration from the insect

- ~ ~ from iii IItero transmission from

2~ __ bull gt ult

C gtal signs of infection in dogs are

- --- shy cardiac recognized as exercise

ltOk 1 or generalized weakness

J~~ -i testing may reveal severe heart

--~ --5 nd ultimately a dilated

t-he-arr failure develops Treatment

-L ~~- ~esul r5 in a cure and survival time

dir alh affected dogs ranges from 0

-1 onths

_~ecmion of Chagas disease in

It7 c epends on insect vector control

-c ~ -i(in g conract with host reservoir

- ifO In endemic kissing bug areas

~Ad fi ousing and bedding should be

lt-~1 2 - irh insecticide monthly and

D --u~-- improved as needed to remove

-51 - s ring sites

bull

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a fem ale T rubida

PEST Mfu~AGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

gt xri ide spraying is the cornersmne

middot C T io nrrol programs for triaromines

~ il merica where domestic and

- --l(1c-gt[ ic species are prevalel1( and

bull- 1il high population densities in

1d aol 1d homes The sylvatic species

~c n [he CS are only occasional

- middot~c dnd thus presel1( a differel1( set

- ~ -tiems that rely on non-chemical

- ~~=-gt fo r control such as habitat

~Cil[ion and exclusion techniques

- dow)

- and foremost is a thorough

-- - - ~ion of the home both inside and

ring the active season (around

Table 2 Non-chemical measures ro reduce risk of household infestation by

triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes piles of paper) inside homes particularly in the

bedroom to reduce potential hiding places for kiSSing bugs bull Manage vegetation around the home and eliminate clutter (eg piles of lumber

firewood and debris) that may prOvide small animal habitat

Install weather stripping and tight fitting insect screens on windows and doors insect proof dog and cat entrances and keep fireplace flues shut

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting at night to make homes less attractive to kissing bugs

bull Move lights away from doors or windows where they may attract insects bull Replace outside white lights with yellow lights bull Keep window curtains and blinds drawn in lighted rooms

I

Seal potential entryways into homes (eg foundation cracks and utility line points of entry) with caulk silicone seal or other appropriate materials

I

13

mid-spring to mid-fall) inspections

should be carried our on a regular basis to

find and destroy any stray bugs During

the day they typically hide in dark places

in cracks and crevices or under objects

For example in the bedroom they may

hide in bed sheets or blankets or under

the mattress so it is recommended that

all of these potential hiding places be

inspected especially before retmng

Outside during the day they hide in

dark sheltered places such as beneath

flowerpots or furniture emerging at night

to be seen crawling or resting on surfaces

Pay special attention to areas inside and

out where pets congregate or sleep

In addition to efforts directly aimed

at kissing bugs concrol measures may be

needed to remove their wild vertebrate

hosts sllch as packrats which are common

around homes in the Southwest Packrats

can have several dozen or more kissing

bugs inhabiting their nests Trapping the

packrats and removing their nests close

to the house can potentially reduce home

invasions However it is advisable that

only the nearest packrat nest and packrats

be removed in the hope that the kissing

bugs will move to more peripheral nests

farther from the house After the packrats

have been removed a pyrethroid dust

or spray should be applied to the old

nesting sites to eliminate any remaining

kiSSing bugs This is critical because in the

absence of their natural host the bugs will

seek out another source of blood which

might end up being the homeowner (I 7)

In the case of sensitized homeowners

who have become allergic to kissing bugs

a directed spray application of pyrethroid

insecticides in and aro und the home

may provide some added protection

Most effective indoors is a crack and

crevice application to potential harborage

sites in bedrooms and bathrooms and

outdoors a perimeter treatment along

the foundation and eaves paying close

attention to thoroughly treat entryways

such as windows and doors to prevent

their access into the home

Sensitized individuals may also elect

to sleep under a bed net (mosquito

netting) that is tucked in all around

the mattress for added protection and

using double-sided sticky tape placed

on the legs of the bed Beds should be

kept at least one foor away from walls

Sticky trap monitors placed under and

around beds may also catch wandering

bugs Finally homeowners might wish

to thoroughly vacuum the bedroom and

consider isolating their bedroom during

the active season by weather-stripping

doors and keeping doors closed

Kissing bugs are medically important

fascinating insects that likely will be

interacting with humans and their pets

wi th increasing frequency in response

to warming climates and as more homes

encroach into their habitats Learning to

recognize these bugs and to keep them

out of human habitations is an important

responsibility of homeownership

14

REFERENCES 1 Weiruch C Munro fB

phylogeny of rhe as middot3i - (Hemi prera Reduviidae shymirochondrial genes dol P~ - ~- shy

Evol 2009 53 287-299 2 Iba rra-Cerdena CN San ~le= - _~

V Townsend Pererso n A Rl middot

(2009) Ecology of -or L _

Triarominae Acra Trop 1 10 - - bull

3 Zeled6n R Beard CB Pio _ 0

Leiby DA Dorn PL R J (in press) An appraisal r ~ --=shyChagas disease in rhe L-n re-C =- ~

4 de la Rua N Srevens (201l) High generic dit _ - 1- _ ~

popularion of (Le Com e 1855) i n ter~ - ~

mirochondrial markef5 Co ~ -

and 16S ribosomal D- -co

Generics and Evolurion 5 Goda D E and C J ~ _

Popularion dynamics of Ii

under narural climaric middot0 shy

rhe Argentin e C haco -EM ~ ~ shy3 179-94

6 Schofield C J 1988 Bios [- c rhe Triarominae In Bio5middotreoi H aemarophagous Insecrs 1 - __

ed) Sys remarics Associario r _ - Volume No 37 pp 284middot31 c -~ shy

Press O xford 7 Lehane M ] P K Mch --

Whiraker and C J Schotleld ] 4 ~ _

role of remperarure and nurririofi- _ _ in flighr iniriarion by 7i-iatam 1-~ _

Acta Trop 52 27-38 8 Klorz J H P L Dorn J L _ --

L Stevens J L Pinnas J 0- ~ l-r _

and S A Klotz 2010 Ki55ill ~ - __ ~

porential disease vecrors and (~ U

anaphylaxiS Cfin In Dis ) o 6 _ - 9 McEwen P K and M ] Lehl _- shy

Relationship between Highr 2

and oviposir ion in TiaOIgtII - - - shy

(Klug) (Hem Reduviidae - shy

Entomo 117 217middot23

u~ Je5 in and around the home

--_2 rovide some added protecrion

-- efrecrin~ indoors is a crack and

_c lt application to potenrial harborage

~-olt r bedrooms and bathrooms and

-or a perimeter rreatmenr along

- -()ll1dation and eaves paying close

~(o n ro thoroughly treat enrryways

~~ - d windows and doors ro prevenr

~ laquo(e55 inro the home

S1si tized individuals may also elect

lteF under a bed net (mosquiro

- ~Jng that is rucked in all around

c -rress for added protection and

_ sect do uble-sided sticky tape placed

Ci - he legs of the bed Beds should be

r ~ least one foor away from walls

rap monirors placed under and

- - ~ -_ bds may also catch wandering

_~ _ Finally- homeowners mighr wish

-uroughh- vacuum rhe bedroom and

___id ~ iolaring rheir bedroom during

d~ 2Cl i season by wearher-srripping

nd keeping doors dosed - lis~ lg bugs are medically imporranr

is -_2ing insecrs rhar likely will be

- _~~~ i rh humans and rheir pers

_1reas ing frequency in response

-ing c1imares and as more homes

-~ h inro their habirars Learning ro

sect-izemiddot these bugs and (Q keep rhem

il-lnan habirarions is an imporranr

- bili r of homeownership

REFERENCES I Weiruch C Munro JB Molecular

phylogeny of the assassin bugs (Hemiptera Reduviidae) based on mirochondrial genes Mol Phylogenet Evo 2009 53 287-299

2 Ibarra-Cerdena CN Sanchez-Cordero

V Townsend Peterson A Ramsey JM (2009) Ecology of North American

Triarominae Acta Trop 110 178-186 3 Zeledon R Beard CB Pinro Dias JC

Leiby DA Dorn PL Rodrigues Coura J (in press) An appraisal of the sraws of Chagas disease in the United States

4 de la Rua N Stevens L Dorn PL (2011) High genetic diversity in a si ngle

population of Tiiatoma sanguisuga

(Le Conte 1855) inferred from rwo mitochondrial markers cytochrome b and 16S ribosomal DNA Infection Genetics and Evolution

5 Goda D E and C J Schofield 1989 Population dynam ics of Ti-iatoma inmans under nawral climatic conditions in

the Argentine Chaco Med Vet Entomol

3 179-94 6 Schofield C J 1988 Biosystematics of

the Triatominae In Biosystematics of Haematophagous Insects (M W Service ed) Systematics Association Special

Volume No 37 pp 284-312 Clarendon

Press Oxford 7 Lehane M J P K McEwen C J

Whitaker and C J Schofield 1992 The role of temperature and nutritional status in flight initiation by Triatoma infestans Acta Timiddotop 52 27-38

8 KJotz J H P L Dorn J L Logan L Stevens J L Pinnas J O Schmidt and S A KJotz 20 IO Kissing Bugs potential disease vectors and cause of anaphylaxis CLin In Dis 50 1629-34

9 McEwen P K and M J Lehane 1994 Relationship berween flight initiation and oviposition in Triatoma infestam (KJug) (Hem Reduviidae) j App

EntomoL 11 7 217-23

10 Gurtler R E L A Ceballos P OrdoZezshy

Krasnowski L A Lanati R Stariolo and

U Kitron 2009 Strong host-feeding

preferences of the vector Tiiatoma

infestans modified by vector density

implications for the epidemiology of

Chagas disease PLGS Neglect Trop Dis

3e447

11 Schofield C J and C Galvno 2009

Classification evolution and species

groups within the Triatominae Acta

Tropl1088-100

12 Guerenstein P G and C R Lazzari

2009 Hosr-seeking how rriatomines

acqui re and make use of information to

find blood Acta Ti-op 110148-583

13 KJotz S A P L Dorn J H KJOtz

] L Pinnas C Weirauch J R Kurtz

and J Schmidt 2009 Feeding behavior

of triaromines from the southwestern

United States an update on potential

risk for transmission of Chagas disease

Acta Trop III114-18

14 Zeled6n R R Alvarado and L F Jiron

1977 Observations on the feeding and

defecation patterns of three triatol11ine

species (Hemiptera Reduviidae) Acta

Timiddotop3465-77

15 Barr Sc Canine C hagas Disease

(American Trypanosomiasis) in North

America Vet CLin Small Animal 39

(2009) 1055-1064

16 Yabsley MJ and NobletGP Seroprevalence

of Trypanosoma cruz i in raccoo ns from

South Carolina and Georgia J WiLdl Dis

38 (2002) 75-83

17 Gouge DH Stoltman AJ Snyder

J L Olson C How to Bug Proof Your

Home http ca ls arizona edupubs

insectsaz l 3201

15

e E

MP

OR

IA S

TATE

UN

IVE

RS

ITYr

u KA

NSA

S SC

HO

OL

NAT

UR

ALIS

T B

OX

4050

12

00 C

OM

MER

CIA

L ST

E

mpo

ria

KS 6

6801

-508

7

ADDR

ESS

SERV

ICE

REQ

UEST

ED

No

np

rofi

t O

rg

US

Pos

tage

PA

ID

Em

pori

a K

ansa

s

66

80

1-5

08

7

Pe

rmit

No

203

Tri

atom

a re

curv

a t

he l

arge

st t

riat

ome

in t

he U

S (f

emal

e)

ago in the New World (11) Dates for

the arrival of human beings in the New

World are debated but their estimated

arrival sometime between 14000 to

20000 years ago is relatively recent

Thus shifts in some species of kissing

bugs to specializing on our species are

recent evolutionary events and might

well explain some of our vulnerability to

the T cruzi parasite the bugs transmit to

us

FEEDING BEHAVIOR Kissing bugs rely on multiple sensory

systems to locate hosts These include

gradients of carbon dioxide in the air

odors moisture heat and air flow (12)

They are exquisitely sensitive to carbon

dioxide exhaled by mammals when

breathing being able to detect 75 parts

per million above the background air

levels of 350 parts per million when

a trace of exhaled lactic acid another

attractant is present Cold blooded hosts

including reptiles generate very low levels

of carbon dioxide nevertheless kissing

bugs use many other host-generated

chemical cues including short chained

ali phatic amines and acids 7- to 9-carbon

aldehydes and alcohols and lactic acid to

locate hosts The bugs can also detect

infrared radiation enabling them to orient

toward warm blooded hosts from several

meters Finally they anemotactically

follow the movement of air currents

impregnated with host odors to locate

the host (12) Feeding by bugs in human

domiciles usually takes place at night

with bugs hiding during the day in

cracks and crevices away from the feeding

areas Much less is known about feeding

times for sylvatic (non-domestic) species

Likely they adjust their activity periods to

match the inactive periods of their host

thereby minimizing danger from host

defenses Triatoma rubida and T protracta

do not hesitate to approach and feed on

rodents during bright midday times (13)

a behavior that might well be adaptive for

bugs that often feed on rodents in their

burrows while the rodents are sleeping or

quiescent during the day

Once a host is located a hungry

bug extends its proboscis and inserts it

into the skin of the host Sometimes the

host detects the minor sensation caused

by a bugs probing and moves or shifts

posmon In response the bug usually

retracts somewhat before continuing

probing and feeding Considering that

a bug often imbibes more blood than

its own weight (3) feeding is relatively

rapid lasting on average 22 minutes

for T protracta 28 for T rubida and

between 11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

T dimidiata and R proixus (1 3 14)

Blood is mostly water and the bulkiness

of a large blood meal limits a bugs

movement To eliminate excess water

bugs often defecate during feeding at

completion of feeding or shortly after

leaving the feeding site (Figure 8) Some

species including those domestic species

that frequemly transmit Chagas disease

defecate rapidly and frequently often on

or near the host (14) while others defecate

less rapidly and less frequently often at a

distance from the host (3) Frequency

and proximity of defecation to the host

are considered to be critical factors in

transmitting T cruzi and Chagas

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are th - common cause of insect bites that - -_

in anaphylaxis in the United State --

medical emergency (also causeu - - ~

commonly by bee stings) results -ro ~- =

release of chemical signals in resP Qclt ~

proteins in the bugs saliva ina b _ _ usually causes the individual to r s the emergency room where epineF~~gt _

and other imerventions reverse th - _

blood pressure swollen ai[-as ~=shy

rashes that often accompany anapn- c

Victims usually are awakened at nig shy

shortness of breath difficulty b re-l ~- ~

or generalized itching Othe~ _c ominous allergies include hives se ~

of the eyes swelling at the site 0 - - -t

bite and persistent itching Patiem -_

experience anaphylaxis when re-bi ~-shy

and one adult woman has died ~C _-shythe condition The bite itself is pai

however swelling and inflammatior -shy

the site of the bite may last for middoteeL

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit CI ~

to humans in the United States lt =-__ shy

six such cases have been docunei

Infection with Trypanasoma en is common in several wildlife spe - j -

rare in domestic pets Reported Cd5eS __

10

~--l vluch less is known about feeding

-16 for sylva tic (non-domestic) species

~~Jd~ they adjust their activity periods to

- ch the inactive periods of their host

erltbmiddot minimizing danger from host

erenscs Triatoma rubida and T protracta

_ ~Of hesitate to approach and feed on

rienrs during bright midday times (13)

chlior that might well be adaptive for

_g [hat often feed on rodents in their

transmuting T cruzi and Chagas disease

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are the most

common cause of insect bites that result

in anaphylaxis in the United States This

medical emergency (also caused more

commonly by bee stings) results from the

domestic species

the warmer southern stares There are no

reportS of livestock horses or pigs being

infected Only one case report exists of

infection in a domestic cat in the US

The primary wildlife species in the

United Srates that serve as host reservoirs

for T cruz i are

packrats in the genus Neotoma

and opossums ~ _ -ns while the rodents are sleeping or

-e-cnt during the day

nee a host is located a hungry

extends its proboscis and inserts it

he skin of the host Sometimes the

erects the minor sensation caused

s- Sugs probing and moves or shifts

xsiion In response the bug usually

- = ~-rS somewhat before continuing

iing and feeding Considering that

t~~ often imbibes more blood than

-1 weight (3) feeding is relatively

~i c las ting on average 22 minutes

- ~ ~- porracta 28 for T rubida and

11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

-

3w i

d diara and R prolixus (13 14)

moscly water and the bulkiness

l rge blood meal limits a bugs

bull O1em To eliminate excess water

0 o tten defecate during feeding at

_ -c~E io1 of feeding or shortly after

-T-i ~ he feeding site (Figure 8) Some

~ _-~~ i1Cluding those domestic species

-~-- E~lIently transmit Chagas disease

i-_ ~ ~ rap idly and frequently often on

bullbull -~ ile hos t (14) while others defecate

_ 2-d l and less frequently often at a

_ lt~ ~ r-om the host (3) Frequency

- E - ~igtxi ni( of defecation to the hosr

_~ odered to be critical factors in

release of chemical signals in response to

proteins in the bugs saliva Anaphylaxis

usually causes the individual to rush to

the emergency room where epinephrine

and other interventions reverse the low

blood pressure swollen airways and

rashes that often accompany anaphylaxis

Victims usually are awakened at night by

shortness of breath difficulty breathing

or generalized itching Other less

ominous allergies include hives swelling

of rhe eyes swelling at the site of the

bite and persistent itching Patients may

experience anaphylaxis when re-bitten

and one adult woman has died from

the condition The bite itself is painless

however swelling and inflammation at

the site of the bite may last for weeks

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit Chagas

to humans in the United States only

six such cases have been documented

Infection with Trypanasoma cruz i is

common in several wildlife species but

rare in domestic pets Reporred cases in

are limited ro dogs in

rodents particularly

raccoons

and to a lesser degree

armadillos and skunks T cruzi has been

reporred in more than 20 different wildlife

species in the United States in at least 13 states (15) Wood rats and other rodent

species serve as reservoirs of infection

as rodent dens and nests may harbor

the insect vectors Infection dynamics of

T cruz i isolates appear to vary between

species wirh raccoons being infected wirh

a more virulent genetic strain in which

blood parasites levels peak sooner and

antibodies are more quickly derected rhan

occurs in opossums anorher primary

wildlife reservoir species Additionally

mice injecred with opossum derived T cruzi isolates appear to subsequently

clear the infection and survive whereas

injecting mice with the raccoon derived

strains resulted in a 75 mortality rate

in one study Despite differences in

virulence between the host species strains

pathologic cardiac changes induced by T cruzi have been observed at necropsy in

both raccoons and opossums

Prevalence of T cruz i in wildlife

species varies but infection rates as high

as 62 occurred in raccoons tested

in various states (16) Infection rates

appear to be generally highest in coastal

locations with the elevated rates assumed

11

T cruzi exposure in many southern

states and as far north as Minnesota

In domestic dogs as in wildlife species

infection is thought ro be primarily by

First and foremost is a thorough

inspecrion of the home both inside and

outside

During the active season (around

bull Keep window curtalins and blirci ~-

Seal potential entryways into ho es points of entry) with caulk silicone sea

Figure 7 Blood smear showing

Trypanosoma cruzi parasites among

red blood cells Phoro by Rose

Nasrazadani

ro be due ro the increased disrribution

of insect vectors secondary ro the high

humidiry and lack of a winter freeze

along the sourhern and eastern coasts

In contrast ro the Latin American

isolates that are transmitted ro humans

indirectly at the insect bite location by

fecal contamination T cruzi in wildlife

species in the US is transmitted by

oral ingestion of infected insects and ro

a lesser degree by placental transmission

in utero

In domestic pets T cruzi causing

clinical health issues has been reported

primarily 111 working dogs from

southeastern Texas and foci in Louisiana

although antibody testing has confirmed

eating infected kissing bug vecrors in

response ro skin irritation from the insect

bite and from in utero transmission from

dam ro pup

Clinical signs of infection in dogs are

primarily cardiac recognized as exercise

intolerance or generalized weakness

Diagnostic testing may reveal severe heart

arrythmias And ultimately a dilated

form of heart failure develops Treatment

rarely results in a cure and survival time

in clinically affecred dogs ranges from 0

ro GO months

Prevention of Chagas disease in

dogs depends on insect vecror control

and limiting contacr with host reservoir

species In endemic kissing bug areas

animal housing and bedding should be

treated with insecticide monthly and

kennels improved as needed ro remove

insect nesting sites

PEST MANAGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

Insecticide spraying is the cornersrone

ofvector control programs for triatomines

in South America where domestic and

peridomestic species are prevalent and

can attain high population densities in

and around homes The sylva tic species

found in the US are only occasional

invaders and thus present a different set

of problems that rely on non-chemical

measures for control such as habitat

modification and exclusion techniques

(see table below)

bull amp

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a female T rubida

Table 2 Non-chemical measure w ~c _ triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes ~ _

bedroom to reduce potentia - - ~ - - - - bull Manage vegetation around t nE - ~ ~ - =shy

firewood and debris) that n1 a -shy

Install weather stripping and tight fi insect proof dog and cat entrances a

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting a ~ - - ~

kissing bugs bull Move lights away from doors bull Replace outside white ligh 5 gt- _ _

_ - ~ ntected kissing bug vecmrs in

-~- ro sk in irriration from the insect

- ~ ~ from iii IItero transmission from

2~ __ bull gt ult

C gtal signs of infection in dogs are

- --- shy cardiac recognized as exercise

ltOk 1 or generalized weakness

J~~ -i testing may reveal severe heart

--~ --5 nd ultimately a dilated

t-he-arr failure develops Treatment

-L ~~- ~esul r5 in a cure and survival time

dir alh affected dogs ranges from 0

-1 onths

_~ecmion of Chagas disease in

It7 c epends on insect vector control

-c ~ -i(in g conract with host reservoir

- ifO In endemic kissing bug areas

~Ad fi ousing and bedding should be

lt-~1 2 - irh insecticide monthly and

D --u~-- improved as needed to remove

-51 - s ring sites

bull

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a fem ale T rubida

PEST Mfu~AGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

gt xri ide spraying is the cornersmne

middot C T io nrrol programs for triaromines

~ il merica where domestic and

- --l(1c-gt[ ic species are prevalel1( and

bull- 1il high population densities in

1d aol 1d homes The sylvatic species

~c n [he CS are only occasional

- middot~c dnd thus presel1( a differel1( set

- ~ -tiems that rely on non-chemical

- ~~=-gt fo r control such as habitat

~Cil[ion and exclusion techniques

- dow)

- and foremost is a thorough

-- - - ~ion of the home both inside and

ring the active season (around

Table 2 Non-chemical measures ro reduce risk of household infestation by

triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes piles of paper) inside homes particularly in the

bedroom to reduce potential hiding places for kiSSing bugs bull Manage vegetation around the home and eliminate clutter (eg piles of lumber

firewood and debris) that may prOvide small animal habitat

Install weather stripping and tight fitting insect screens on windows and doors insect proof dog and cat entrances and keep fireplace flues shut

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting at night to make homes less attractive to kissing bugs

bull Move lights away from doors or windows where they may attract insects bull Replace outside white lights with yellow lights bull Keep window curtains and blinds drawn in lighted rooms

I

Seal potential entryways into homes (eg foundation cracks and utility line points of entry) with caulk silicone seal or other appropriate materials

I

13

mid-spring to mid-fall) inspections

should be carried our on a regular basis to

find and destroy any stray bugs During

the day they typically hide in dark places

in cracks and crevices or under objects

For example in the bedroom they may

hide in bed sheets or blankets or under

the mattress so it is recommended that

all of these potential hiding places be

inspected especially before retmng

Outside during the day they hide in

dark sheltered places such as beneath

flowerpots or furniture emerging at night

to be seen crawling or resting on surfaces

Pay special attention to areas inside and

out where pets congregate or sleep

In addition to efforts directly aimed

at kissing bugs concrol measures may be

needed to remove their wild vertebrate

hosts sllch as packrats which are common

around homes in the Southwest Packrats

can have several dozen or more kissing

bugs inhabiting their nests Trapping the

packrats and removing their nests close

to the house can potentially reduce home

invasions However it is advisable that

only the nearest packrat nest and packrats

be removed in the hope that the kissing

bugs will move to more peripheral nests

farther from the house After the packrats

have been removed a pyrethroid dust

or spray should be applied to the old

nesting sites to eliminate any remaining

kiSSing bugs This is critical because in the

absence of their natural host the bugs will

seek out another source of blood which

might end up being the homeowner (I 7)

In the case of sensitized homeowners

who have become allergic to kissing bugs

a directed spray application of pyrethroid

insecticides in and aro und the home

may provide some added protection

Most effective indoors is a crack and

crevice application to potential harborage

sites in bedrooms and bathrooms and

outdoors a perimeter treatment along

the foundation and eaves paying close

attention to thoroughly treat entryways

such as windows and doors to prevent

their access into the home

Sensitized individuals may also elect

to sleep under a bed net (mosquito

netting) that is tucked in all around

the mattress for added protection and

using double-sided sticky tape placed

on the legs of the bed Beds should be

kept at least one foor away from walls

Sticky trap monitors placed under and

around beds may also catch wandering

bugs Finally homeowners might wish

to thoroughly vacuum the bedroom and

consider isolating their bedroom during

the active season by weather-stripping

doors and keeping doors closed

Kissing bugs are medically important

fascinating insects that likely will be

interacting with humans and their pets

wi th increasing frequency in response

to warming climates and as more homes

encroach into their habitats Learning to

recognize these bugs and to keep them

out of human habitations is an important

responsibility of homeownership

14

REFERENCES 1 Weiruch C Munro fB

phylogeny of rhe as middot3i - (Hemi prera Reduviidae shymirochondrial genes dol P~ - ~- shy

Evol 2009 53 287-299 2 Iba rra-Cerdena CN San ~le= - _~

V Townsend Pererso n A Rl middot

(2009) Ecology of -or L _

Triarominae Acra Trop 1 10 - - bull

3 Zeled6n R Beard CB Pio _ 0

Leiby DA Dorn PL R J (in press) An appraisal r ~ --=shyChagas disease in rhe L-n re-C =- ~

4 de la Rua N Srevens (201l) High generic dit _ - 1- _ ~

popularion of (Le Com e 1855) i n ter~ - ~

mirochondrial markef5 Co ~ -

and 16S ribosomal D- -co

Generics and Evolurion 5 Goda D E and C J ~ _

Popularion dynamics of Ii

under narural climaric middot0 shy

rhe Argentin e C haco -EM ~ ~ shy3 179-94

6 Schofield C J 1988 Bios [- c rhe Triarominae In Bio5middotreoi H aemarophagous Insecrs 1 - __

ed) Sys remarics Associario r _ - Volume No 37 pp 284middot31 c -~ shy

Press O xford 7 Lehane M ] P K Mch --

Whiraker and C J Schotleld ] 4 ~ _

role of remperarure and nurririofi- _ _ in flighr iniriarion by 7i-iatam 1-~ _

Acta Trop 52 27-38 8 Klorz J H P L Dorn J L _ --

L Stevens J L Pinnas J 0- ~ l-r _

and S A Klotz 2010 Ki55ill ~ - __ ~

porential disease vecrors and (~ U

anaphylaxiS Cfin In Dis ) o 6 _ - 9 McEwen P K and M ] Lehl _- shy

Relationship between Highr 2

and oviposir ion in TiaOIgtII - - - shy

(Klug) (Hem Reduviidae - shy

Entomo 117 217middot23

u~ Je5 in and around the home

--_2 rovide some added protecrion

-- efrecrin~ indoors is a crack and

_c lt application to potenrial harborage

~-olt r bedrooms and bathrooms and

-or a perimeter rreatmenr along

- -()ll1dation and eaves paying close

~(o n ro thoroughly treat enrryways

~~ - d windows and doors ro prevenr

~ laquo(e55 inro the home

S1si tized individuals may also elect

lteF under a bed net (mosquiro

- ~Jng that is rucked in all around

c -rress for added protection and

_ sect do uble-sided sticky tape placed

Ci - he legs of the bed Beds should be

r ~ least one foor away from walls

rap monirors placed under and

- - ~ -_ bds may also catch wandering

_~ _ Finally- homeowners mighr wish

-uroughh- vacuum rhe bedroom and

___id ~ iolaring rheir bedroom during

d~ 2Cl i season by wearher-srripping

nd keeping doors dosed - lis~ lg bugs are medically imporranr

is -_2ing insecrs rhar likely will be

- _~~~ i rh humans and rheir pers

_1reas ing frequency in response

-ing c1imares and as more homes

-~ h inro their habirars Learning ro

sect-izemiddot these bugs and (Q keep rhem

il-lnan habirarions is an imporranr

- bili r of homeownership

REFERENCES I Weiruch C Munro JB Molecular

phylogeny of the assassin bugs (Hemiptera Reduviidae) based on mirochondrial genes Mol Phylogenet Evo 2009 53 287-299

2 Ibarra-Cerdena CN Sanchez-Cordero

V Townsend Peterson A Ramsey JM (2009) Ecology of North American

Triarominae Acta Trop 110 178-186 3 Zeledon R Beard CB Pinro Dias JC

Leiby DA Dorn PL Rodrigues Coura J (in press) An appraisal of the sraws of Chagas disease in the United States

4 de la Rua N Stevens L Dorn PL (2011) High genetic diversity in a si ngle

population of Tiiatoma sanguisuga

(Le Conte 1855) inferred from rwo mitochondrial markers cytochrome b and 16S ribosomal DNA Infection Genetics and Evolution

5 Goda D E and C J Schofield 1989 Population dynam ics of Ti-iatoma inmans under nawral climatic conditions in

the Argentine Chaco Med Vet Entomol

3 179-94 6 Schofield C J 1988 Biosystematics of

the Triatominae In Biosystematics of Haematophagous Insects (M W Service ed) Systematics Association Special

Volume No 37 pp 284-312 Clarendon

Press Oxford 7 Lehane M J P K McEwen C J

Whitaker and C J Schofield 1992 The role of temperature and nutritional status in flight initiation by Triatoma infestans Acta Timiddotop 52 27-38

8 KJotz J H P L Dorn J L Logan L Stevens J L Pinnas J O Schmidt and S A KJotz 20 IO Kissing Bugs potential disease vectors and cause of anaphylaxis CLin In Dis 50 1629-34

9 McEwen P K and M J Lehane 1994 Relationship berween flight initiation and oviposition in Triatoma infestam (KJug) (Hem Reduviidae) j App

EntomoL 11 7 217-23

10 Gurtler R E L A Ceballos P OrdoZezshy

Krasnowski L A Lanati R Stariolo and

U Kitron 2009 Strong host-feeding

preferences of the vector Tiiatoma

infestans modified by vector density

implications for the epidemiology of

Chagas disease PLGS Neglect Trop Dis

3e447

11 Schofield C J and C Galvno 2009

Classification evolution and species

groups within the Triatominae Acta

Tropl1088-100

12 Guerenstein P G and C R Lazzari

2009 Hosr-seeking how rriatomines

acqui re and make use of information to

find blood Acta Ti-op 110148-583

13 KJotz S A P L Dorn J H KJOtz

] L Pinnas C Weirauch J R Kurtz

and J Schmidt 2009 Feeding behavior

of triaromines from the southwestern

United States an update on potential

risk for transmission of Chagas disease

Acta Trop III114-18

14 Zeled6n R R Alvarado and L F Jiron

1977 Observations on the feeding and

defecation patterns of three triatol11ine

species (Hemiptera Reduviidae) Acta

Timiddotop3465-77

15 Barr Sc Canine C hagas Disease

(American Trypanosomiasis) in North

America Vet CLin Small Animal 39

(2009) 1055-1064

16 Yabsley MJ and NobletGP Seroprevalence

of Trypanosoma cruz i in raccoo ns from

South Carolina and Georgia J WiLdl Dis

38 (2002) 75-83

17 Gouge DH Stoltman AJ Snyder

J L Olson C How to Bug Proof Your

Home http ca ls arizona edupubs

insectsaz l 3201

15

e E

MP

OR

IA S

TATE

UN

IVE

RS

ITYr

u KA

NSA

S SC

HO

OL

NAT

UR

ALIS

T B

OX

4050

12

00 C

OM

MER

CIA

L ST

E

mpo

ria

KS 6

6801

-508

7

ADDR

ESS

SERV

ICE

REQ

UEST

ED

No

np

rofi

t O

rg

US

Pos

tage

PA

ID

Em

pori

a K

ansa

s

66

80

1-5

08

7

Pe

rmit

No

203

Tri

atom

a re

curv

a t

he l

arge

st t

riat

ome

in t

he U

S (f

emal

e)

~--l vluch less is known about feeding

-16 for sylva tic (non-domestic) species

~~Jd~ they adjust their activity periods to

- ch the inactive periods of their host

erltbmiddot minimizing danger from host

erenscs Triatoma rubida and T protracta

_ ~Of hesitate to approach and feed on

rienrs during bright midday times (13)

chlior that might well be adaptive for

_g [hat often feed on rodents in their

transmuting T cruzi and Chagas disease

to humans (Figure 9)

HUMAN BITE ALLERGIES FROM KISSING BUGS

Kissing bug bites are the most

common cause of insect bites that result

in anaphylaxis in the United States This

medical emergency (also caused more

commonly by bee stings) results from the

domestic species

the warmer southern stares There are no

reportS of livestock horses or pigs being

infected Only one case report exists of

infection in a domestic cat in the US

The primary wildlife species in the

United Srates that serve as host reservoirs

for T cruz i are

packrats in the genus Neotoma

and opossums ~ _ -ns while the rodents are sleeping or

-e-cnt during the day

nee a host is located a hungry

extends its proboscis and inserts it

he skin of the host Sometimes the

erects the minor sensation caused

s- Sugs probing and moves or shifts

xsiion In response the bug usually

- = ~-rS somewhat before continuing

iing and feeding Considering that

t~~ often imbibes more blood than

-1 weight (3) feeding is relatively

~i c las ting on average 22 minutes

- ~ ~- porracta 28 for T rubida and

11 - 28 minutes for T infestans

-

3w i

d diara and R prolixus (13 14)

moscly water and the bulkiness

l rge blood meal limits a bugs

bull O1em To eliminate excess water

0 o tten defecate during feeding at

_ -c~E io1 of feeding or shortly after

-T-i ~ he feeding site (Figure 8) Some

~ _-~~ i1Cluding those domestic species

-~-- E~lIently transmit Chagas disease

i-_ ~ ~ rap idly and frequently often on

bullbull -~ ile hos t (14) while others defecate

_ 2-d l and less frequently often at a

_ lt~ ~ r-om the host (3) Frequency

- E - ~igtxi ni( of defecation to the hosr

_~ odered to be critical factors in

release of chemical signals in response to

proteins in the bugs saliva Anaphylaxis

usually causes the individual to rush to

the emergency room where epinephrine

and other interventions reverse the low

blood pressure swollen airways and

rashes that often accompany anaphylaxis

Victims usually are awakened at night by

shortness of breath difficulty breathing

or generalized itching Other less

ominous allergies include hives swelling

of rhe eyes swelling at the site of the

bite and persistent itching Patients may

experience anaphylaxis when re-bitten

and one adult woman has died from

the condition The bite itself is painless

however swelling and inflammation at

the site of the bite may last for weeks

WILD AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN THE UNITED STATES

Kissing bugs rarely transmit Chagas

to humans in the United States only

six such cases have been documented

Infection with Trypanasoma cruz i is

common in several wildlife species but

rare in domestic pets Reporred cases in

are limited ro dogs in

rodents particularly

raccoons

and to a lesser degree

armadillos and skunks T cruzi has been

reporred in more than 20 different wildlife

species in the United States in at least 13 states (15) Wood rats and other rodent

species serve as reservoirs of infection

as rodent dens and nests may harbor

the insect vectors Infection dynamics of

T cruz i isolates appear to vary between

species wirh raccoons being infected wirh

a more virulent genetic strain in which

blood parasites levels peak sooner and

antibodies are more quickly derected rhan

occurs in opossums anorher primary

wildlife reservoir species Additionally

mice injecred with opossum derived T cruzi isolates appear to subsequently

clear the infection and survive whereas

injecting mice with the raccoon derived

strains resulted in a 75 mortality rate

in one study Despite differences in

virulence between the host species strains

pathologic cardiac changes induced by T cruzi have been observed at necropsy in

both raccoons and opossums

Prevalence of T cruz i in wildlife

species varies but infection rates as high

as 62 occurred in raccoons tested

in various states (16) Infection rates

appear to be generally highest in coastal

locations with the elevated rates assumed

11

T cruzi exposure in many southern

states and as far north as Minnesota

In domestic dogs as in wildlife species

infection is thought ro be primarily by

First and foremost is a thorough

inspecrion of the home both inside and

outside

During the active season (around

bull Keep window curtalins and blirci ~-

Seal potential entryways into ho es points of entry) with caulk silicone sea

Figure 7 Blood smear showing

Trypanosoma cruzi parasites among

red blood cells Phoro by Rose

Nasrazadani

ro be due ro the increased disrribution

of insect vectors secondary ro the high

humidiry and lack of a winter freeze

along the sourhern and eastern coasts

In contrast ro the Latin American

isolates that are transmitted ro humans

indirectly at the insect bite location by

fecal contamination T cruzi in wildlife

species in the US is transmitted by

oral ingestion of infected insects and ro

a lesser degree by placental transmission

in utero

In domestic pets T cruzi causing

clinical health issues has been reported

primarily 111 working dogs from

southeastern Texas and foci in Louisiana

although antibody testing has confirmed

eating infected kissing bug vecrors in

response ro skin irritation from the insect

bite and from in utero transmission from

dam ro pup

Clinical signs of infection in dogs are

primarily cardiac recognized as exercise

intolerance or generalized weakness

Diagnostic testing may reveal severe heart

arrythmias And ultimately a dilated

form of heart failure develops Treatment

rarely results in a cure and survival time

in clinically affecred dogs ranges from 0

ro GO months

Prevention of Chagas disease in

dogs depends on insect vecror control

and limiting contacr with host reservoir

species In endemic kissing bug areas

animal housing and bedding should be

treated with insecticide monthly and

kennels improved as needed ro remove

insect nesting sites

PEST MANAGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

Insecticide spraying is the cornersrone

ofvector control programs for triatomines

in South America where domestic and

peridomestic species are prevalent and

can attain high population densities in

and around homes The sylva tic species

found in the US are only occasional

invaders and thus present a different set

of problems that rely on non-chemical

measures for control such as habitat

modification and exclusion techniques

(see table below)

bull amp

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a female T rubida

Table 2 Non-chemical measure w ~c _ triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes ~ _

bedroom to reduce potentia - - ~ - - - - bull Manage vegetation around t nE - ~ ~ - =shy

firewood and debris) that n1 a -shy

Install weather stripping and tight fi insect proof dog and cat entrances a

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting a ~ - - ~

kissing bugs bull Move lights away from doors bull Replace outside white ligh 5 gt- _ _

_ - ~ ntected kissing bug vecmrs in

-~- ro sk in irriration from the insect

- ~ ~ from iii IItero transmission from

2~ __ bull gt ult

C gtal signs of infection in dogs are

- --- shy cardiac recognized as exercise

ltOk 1 or generalized weakness

J~~ -i testing may reveal severe heart

--~ --5 nd ultimately a dilated

t-he-arr failure develops Treatment

-L ~~- ~esul r5 in a cure and survival time

dir alh affected dogs ranges from 0

-1 onths

_~ecmion of Chagas disease in

It7 c epends on insect vector control

-c ~ -i(in g conract with host reservoir

- ifO In endemic kissing bug areas

~Ad fi ousing and bedding should be

lt-~1 2 - irh insecticide monthly and

D --u~-- improved as needed to remove

-51 - s ring sites

bull

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a fem ale T rubida

PEST Mfu~AGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

gt xri ide spraying is the cornersmne

middot C T io nrrol programs for triaromines

~ il merica where domestic and

- --l(1c-gt[ ic species are prevalel1( and

bull- 1il high population densities in

1d aol 1d homes The sylvatic species

~c n [he CS are only occasional

- middot~c dnd thus presel1( a differel1( set

- ~ -tiems that rely on non-chemical

- ~~=-gt fo r control such as habitat

~Cil[ion and exclusion techniques

- dow)

- and foremost is a thorough

-- - - ~ion of the home both inside and

ring the active season (around

Table 2 Non-chemical measures ro reduce risk of household infestation by

triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes piles of paper) inside homes particularly in the

bedroom to reduce potential hiding places for kiSSing bugs bull Manage vegetation around the home and eliminate clutter (eg piles of lumber

firewood and debris) that may prOvide small animal habitat

Install weather stripping and tight fitting insect screens on windows and doors insect proof dog and cat entrances and keep fireplace flues shut

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting at night to make homes less attractive to kissing bugs

bull Move lights away from doors or windows where they may attract insects bull Replace outside white lights with yellow lights bull Keep window curtains and blinds drawn in lighted rooms

I

Seal potential entryways into homes (eg foundation cracks and utility line points of entry) with caulk silicone seal or other appropriate materials

I

13

mid-spring to mid-fall) inspections

should be carried our on a regular basis to

find and destroy any stray bugs During

the day they typically hide in dark places

in cracks and crevices or under objects

For example in the bedroom they may

hide in bed sheets or blankets or under

the mattress so it is recommended that

all of these potential hiding places be

inspected especially before retmng

Outside during the day they hide in

dark sheltered places such as beneath

flowerpots or furniture emerging at night

to be seen crawling or resting on surfaces

Pay special attention to areas inside and

out where pets congregate or sleep

In addition to efforts directly aimed

at kissing bugs concrol measures may be

needed to remove their wild vertebrate

hosts sllch as packrats which are common

around homes in the Southwest Packrats

can have several dozen or more kissing

bugs inhabiting their nests Trapping the

packrats and removing their nests close

to the house can potentially reduce home

invasions However it is advisable that

only the nearest packrat nest and packrats

be removed in the hope that the kissing

bugs will move to more peripheral nests

farther from the house After the packrats

have been removed a pyrethroid dust

or spray should be applied to the old

nesting sites to eliminate any remaining

kiSSing bugs This is critical because in the

absence of their natural host the bugs will

seek out another source of blood which

might end up being the homeowner (I 7)

In the case of sensitized homeowners

who have become allergic to kissing bugs

a directed spray application of pyrethroid

insecticides in and aro und the home

may provide some added protection

Most effective indoors is a crack and

crevice application to potential harborage

sites in bedrooms and bathrooms and

outdoors a perimeter treatment along

the foundation and eaves paying close

attention to thoroughly treat entryways

such as windows and doors to prevent

their access into the home

Sensitized individuals may also elect

to sleep under a bed net (mosquito

netting) that is tucked in all around

the mattress for added protection and

using double-sided sticky tape placed

on the legs of the bed Beds should be

kept at least one foor away from walls

Sticky trap monitors placed under and

around beds may also catch wandering

bugs Finally homeowners might wish

to thoroughly vacuum the bedroom and

consider isolating their bedroom during

the active season by weather-stripping

doors and keeping doors closed

Kissing bugs are medically important

fascinating insects that likely will be

interacting with humans and their pets

wi th increasing frequency in response

to warming climates and as more homes

encroach into their habitats Learning to

recognize these bugs and to keep them

out of human habitations is an important

responsibility of homeownership

14

REFERENCES 1 Weiruch C Munro fB

phylogeny of rhe as middot3i - (Hemi prera Reduviidae shymirochondrial genes dol P~ - ~- shy

Evol 2009 53 287-299 2 Iba rra-Cerdena CN San ~le= - _~

V Townsend Pererso n A Rl middot

(2009) Ecology of -or L _

Triarominae Acra Trop 1 10 - - bull

3 Zeled6n R Beard CB Pio _ 0

Leiby DA Dorn PL R J (in press) An appraisal r ~ --=shyChagas disease in rhe L-n re-C =- ~

4 de la Rua N Srevens (201l) High generic dit _ - 1- _ ~

popularion of (Le Com e 1855) i n ter~ - ~

mirochondrial markef5 Co ~ -

and 16S ribosomal D- -co

Generics and Evolurion 5 Goda D E and C J ~ _

Popularion dynamics of Ii

under narural climaric middot0 shy

rhe Argentin e C haco -EM ~ ~ shy3 179-94

6 Schofield C J 1988 Bios [- c rhe Triarominae In Bio5middotreoi H aemarophagous Insecrs 1 - __

ed) Sys remarics Associario r _ - Volume No 37 pp 284middot31 c -~ shy

Press O xford 7 Lehane M ] P K Mch --

Whiraker and C J Schotleld ] 4 ~ _

role of remperarure and nurririofi- _ _ in flighr iniriarion by 7i-iatam 1-~ _

Acta Trop 52 27-38 8 Klorz J H P L Dorn J L _ --

L Stevens J L Pinnas J 0- ~ l-r _

and S A Klotz 2010 Ki55ill ~ - __ ~

porential disease vecrors and (~ U

anaphylaxiS Cfin In Dis ) o 6 _ - 9 McEwen P K and M ] Lehl _- shy

Relationship between Highr 2

and oviposir ion in TiaOIgtII - - - shy

(Klug) (Hem Reduviidae - shy

Entomo 117 217middot23

u~ Je5 in and around the home

--_2 rovide some added protecrion

-- efrecrin~ indoors is a crack and

_c lt application to potenrial harborage

~-olt r bedrooms and bathrooms and

-or a perimeter rreatmenr along

- -()ll1dation and eaves paying close

~(o n ro thoroughly treat enrryways

~~ - d windows and doors ro prevenr

~ laquo(e55 inro the home

S1si tized individuals may also elect

lteF under a bed net (mosquiro

- ~Jng that is rucked in all around

c -rress for added protection and

_ sect do uble-sided sticky tape placed

Ci - he legs of the bed Beds should be

r ~ least one foor away from walls

rap monirors placed under and

- - ~ -_ bds may also catch wandering

_~ _ Finally- homeowners mighr wish

-uroughh- vacuum rhe bedroom and

___id ~ iolaring rheir bedroom during

d~ 2Cl i season by wearher-srripping

nd keeping doors dosed - lis~ lg bugs are medically imporranr

is -_2ing insecrs rhar likely will be

- _~~~ i rh humans and rheir pers

_1reas ing frequency in response

-ing c1imares and as more homes

-~ h inro their habirars Learning ro

sect-izemiddot these bugs and (Q keep rhem

il-lnan habirarions is an imporranr

- bili r of homeownership

REFERENCES I Weiruch C Munro JB Molecular

phylogeny of the assassin bugs (Hemiptera Reduviidae) based on mirochondrial genes Mol Phylogenet Evo 2009 53 287-299

2 Ibarra-Cerdena CN Sanchez-Cordero

V Townsend Peterson A Ramsey JM (2009) Ecology of North American

Triarominae Acta Trop 110 178-186 3 Zeledon R Beard CB Pinro Dias JC

Leiby DA Dorn PL Rodrigues Coura J (in press) An appraisal of the sraws of Chagas disease in the United States

4 de la Rua N Stevens L Dorn PL (2011) High genetic diversity in a si ngle

population of Tiiatoma sanguisuga

(Le Conte 1855) inferred from rwo mitochondrial markers cytochrome b and 16S ribosomal DNA Infection Genetics and Evolution

5 Goda D E and C J Schofield 1989 Population dynam ics of Ti-iatoma inmans under nawral climatic conditions in

the Argentine Chaco Med Vet Entomol

3 179-94 6 Schofield C J 1988 Biosystematics of

the Triatominae In Biosystematics of Haematophagous Insects (M W Service ed) Systematics Association Special

Volume No 37 pp 284-312 Clarendon

Press Oxford 7 Lehane M J P K McEwen C J

Whitaker and C J Schofield 1992 The role of temperature and nutritional status in flight initiation by Triatoma infestans Acta Timiddotop 52 27-38

8 KJotz J H P L Dorn J L Logan L Stevens J L Pinnas J O Schmidt and S A KJotz 20 IO Kissing Bugs potential disease vectors and cause of anaphylaxis CLin In Dis 50 1629-34

9 McEwen P K and M J Lehane 1994 Relationship berween flight initiation and oviposition in Triatoma infestam (KJug) (Hem Reduviidae) j App

EntomoL 11 7 217-23

10 Gurtler R E L A Ceballos P OrdoZezshy

Krasnowski L A Lanati R Stariolo and

U Kitron 2009 Strong host-feeding

preferences of the vector Tiiatoma

infestans modified by vector density

implications for the epidemiology of

Chagas disease PLGS Neglect Trop Dis

3e447

11 Schofield C J and C Galvno 2009

Classification evolution and species

groups within the Triatominae Acta

Tropl1088-100

12 Guerenstein P G and C R Lazzari

2009 Hosr-seeking how rriatomines

acqui re and make use of information to

find blood Acta Ti-op 110148-583

13 KJotz S A P L Dorn J H KJOtz

] L Pinnas C Weirauch J R Kurtz

and J Schmidt 2009 Feeding behavior

of triaromines from the southwestern

United States an update on potential

risk for transmission of Chagas disease

Acta Trop III114-18

14 Zeled6n R R Alvarado and L F Jiron

1977 Observations on the feeding and

defecation patterns of three triatol11ine

species (Hemiptera Reduviidae) Acta

Timiddotop3465-77

15 Barr Sc Canine C hagas Disease

(American Trypanosomiasis) in North

America Vet CLin Small Animal 39

(2009) 1055-1064

16 Yabsley MJ and NobletGP Seroprevalence

of Trypanosoma cruz i in raccoo ns from

South Carolina and Georgia J WiLdl Dis

38 (2002) 75-83

17 Gouge DH Stoltman AJ Snyder

J L Olson C How to Bug Proof Your

Home http ca ls arizona edupubs

insectsaz l 3201

15

e E

MP

OR

IA S

TATE

UN

IVE

RS

ITYr

u KA

NSA

S SC

HO

OL

NAT

UR

ALIS

T B

OX

4050

12

00 C

OM

MER

CIA

L ST

E

mpo

ria

KS 6

6801

-508

7

ADDR

ESS

SERV

ICE

REQ

UEST

ED

No

np

rofi

t O

rg

US

Pos

tage

PA

ID

Em

pori

a K

ansa

s

66

80

1-5

08

7

Pe

rmit

No

203

Tri

atom

a re

curv

a t

he l

arge

st t

riat

ome

in t

he U

S (f

emal

e)

T cruzi exposure in many southern

states and as far north as Minnesota

In domestic dogs as in wildlife species

infection is thought ro be primarily by

First and foremost is a thorough

inspecrion of the home both inside and

outside

During the active season (around

bull Keep window curtalins and blirci ~-

Seal potential entryways into ho es points of entry) with caulk silicone sea

Figure 7 Blood smear showing

Trypanosoma cruzi parasites among

red blood cells Phoro by Rose

Nasrazadani

ro be due ro the increased disrribution

of insect vectors secondary ro the high

humidiry and lack of a winter freeze

along the sourhern and eastern coasts

In contrast ro the Latin American

isolates that are transmitted ro humans

indirectly at the insect bite location by

fecal contamination T cruzi in wildlife

species in the US is transmitted by

oral ingestion of infected insects and ro

a lesser degree by placental transmission

in utero

In domestic pets T cruzi causing

clinical health issues has been reported

primarily 111 working dogs from

southeastern Texas and foci in Louisiana

although antibody testing has confirmed

eating infected kissing bug vecrors in

response ro skin irritation from the insect

bite and from in utero transmission from

dam ro pup

Clinical signs of infection in dogs are

primarily cardiac recognized as exercise

intolerance or generalized weakness

Diagnostic testing may reveal severe heart

arrythmias And ultimately a dilated

form of heart failure develops Treatment

rarely results in a cure and survival time

in clinically affecred dogs ranges from 0

ro GO months

Prevention of Chagas disease in

dogs depends on insect vecror control

and limiting contacr with host reservoir

species In endemic kissing bug areas

animal housing and bedding should be

treated with insecticide monthly and

kennels improved as needed ro remove

insect nesting sites

PEST MANAGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

Insecticide spraying is the cornersrone

ofvector control programs for triatomines

in South America where domestic and

peridomestic species are prevalent and

can attain high population densities in

and around homes The sylva tic species

found in the US are only occasional

invaders and thus present a different set

of problems that rely on non-chemical

measures for control such as habitat

modification and exclusion techniques

(see table below)

bull amp

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a female T rubida

Table 2 Non-chemical measure w ~c _ triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes ~ _

bedroom to reduce potentia - - ~ - - - - bull Manage vegetation around t nE - ~ ~ - =shy

firewood and debris) that n1 a -shy

Install weather stripping and tight fi insect proof dog and cat entrances a

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting a ~ - - ~

kissing bugs bull Move lights away from doors bull Replace outside white ligh 5 gt- _ _

_ - ~ ntected kissing bug vecmrs in

-~- ro sk in irriration from the insect

- ~ ~ from iii IItero transmission from

2~ __ bull gt ult

C gtal signs of infection in dogs are

- --- shy cardiac recognized as exercise

ltOk 1 or generalized weakness

J~~ -i testing may reveal severe heart

--~ --5 nd ultimately a dilated

t-he-arr failure develops Treatment

-L ~~- ~esul r5 in a cure and survival time

dir alh affected dogs ranges from 0

-1 onths

_~ecmion of Chagas disease in

It7 c epends on insect vector control

-c ~ -i(in g conract with host reservoir

- ifO In endemic kissing bug areas

~Ad fi ousing and bedding should be

lt-~1 2 - irh insecticide monthly and

D --u~-- improved as needed to remove

-51 - s ring sites

bull

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a fem ale T rubida

PEST Mfu~AGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

gt xri ide spraying is the cornersmne

middot C T io nrrol programs for triaromines

~ il merica where domestic and

- --l(1c-gt[ ic species are prevalel1( and

bull- 1il high population densities in

1d aol 1d homes The sylvatic species

~c n [he CS are only occasional

- middot~c dnd thus presel1( a differel1( set

- ~ -tiems that rely on non-chemical

- ~~=-gt fo r control such as habitat

~Cil[ion and exclusion techniques

- dow)

- and foremost is a thorough

-- - - ~ion of the home both inside and

ring the active season (around

Table 2 Non-chemical measures ro reduce risk of household infestation by

triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes piles of paper) inside homes particularly in the

bedroom to reduce potential hiding places for kiSSing bugs bull Manage vegetation around the home and eliminate clutter (eg piles of lumber

firewood and debris) that may prOvide small animal habitat

Install weather stripping and tight fitting insect screens on windows and doors insect proof dog and cat entrances and keep fireplace flues shut

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting at night to make homes less attractive to kissing bugs

bull Move lights away from doors or windows where they may attract insects bull Replace outside white lights with yellow lights bull Keep window curtains and blinds drawn in lighted rooms

I

Seal potential entryways into homes (eg foundation cracks and utility line points of entry) with caulk silicone seal or other appropriate materials

I

13

mid-spring to mid-fall) inspections

should be carried our on a regular basis to

find and destroy any stray bugs During

the day they typically hide in dark places

in cracks and crevices or under objects

For example in the bedroom they may

hide in bed sheets or blankets or under

the mattress so it is recommended that

all of these potential hiding places be

inspected especially before retmng

Outside during the day they hide in

dark sheltered places such as beneath

flowerpots or furniture emerging at night

to be seen crawling or resting on surfaces

Pay special attention to areas inside and

out where pets congregate or sleep

In addition to efforts directly aimed

at kissing bugs concrol measures may be

needed to remove their wild vertebrate

hosts sllch as packrats which are common

around homes in the Southwest Packrats

can have several dozen or more kissing

bugs inhabiting their nests Trapping the

packrats and removing their nests close

to the house can potentially reduce home

invasions However it is advisable that

only the nearest packrat nest and packrats

be removed in the hope that the kissing

bugs will move to more peripheral nests

farther from the house After the packrats

have been removed a pyrethroid dust

or spray should be applied to the old

nesting sites to eliminate any remaining

kiSSing bugs This is critical because in the

absence of their natural host the bugs will

seek out another source of blood which

might end up being the homeowner (I 7)

In the case of sensitized homeowners

who have become allergic to kissing bugs

a directed spray application of pyrethroid

insecticides in and aro und the home

may provide some added protection

Most effective indoors is a crack and

crevice application to potential harborage

sites in bedrooms and bathrooms and

outdoors a perimeter treatment along

the foundation and eaves paying close

attention to thoroughly treat entryways

such as windows and doors to prevent

their access into the home

Sensitized individuals may also elect

to sleep under a bed net (mosquito

netting) that is tucked in all around

the mattress for added protection and

using double-sided sticky tape placed

on the legs of the bed Beds should be

kept at least one foor away from walls

Sticky trap monitors placed under and

around beds may also catch wandering

bugs Finally homeowners might wish

to thoroughly vacuum the bedroom and

consider isolating their bedroom during

the active season by weather-stripping

doors and keeping doors closed

Kissing bugs are medically important

fascinating insects that likely will be

interacting with humans and their pets

wi th increasing frequency in response

to warming climates and as more homes

encroach into their habitats Learning to

recognize these bugs and to keep them

out of human habitations is an important

responsibility of homeownership

14

REFERENCES 1 Weiruch C Munro fB

phylogeny of rhe as middot3i - (Hemi prera Reduviidae shymirochondrial genes dol P~ - ~- shy

Evol 2009 53 287-299 2 Iba rra-Cerdena CN San ~le= - _~

V Townsend Pererso n A Rl middot

(2009) Ecology of -or L _

Triarominae Acra Trop 1 10 - - bull

3 Zeled6n R Beard CB Pio _ 0

Leiby DA Dorn PL R J (in press) An appraisal r ~ --=shyChagas disease in rhe L-n re-C =- ~

4 de la Rua N Srevens (201l) High generic dit _ - 1- _ ~

popularion of (Le Com e 1855) i n ter~ - ~

mirochondrial markef5 Co ~ -

and 16S ribosomal D- -co

Generics and Evolurion 5 Goda D E and C J ~ _

Popularion dynamics of Ii

under narural climaric middot0 shy

rhe Argentin e C haco -EM ~ ~ shy3 179-94

6 Schofield C J 1988 Bios [- c rhe Triarominae In Bio5middotreoi H aemarophagous Insecrs 1 - __

ed) Sys remarics Associario r _ - Volume No 37 pp 284middot31 c -~ shy

Press O xford 7 Lehane M ] P K Mch --

Whiraker and C J Schotleld ] 4 ~ _

role of remperarure and nurririofi- _ _ in flighr iniriarion by 7i-iatam 1-~ _

Acta Trop 52 27-38 8 Klorz J H P L Dorn J L _ --

L Stevens J L Pinnas J 0- ~ l-r _

and S A Klotz 2010 Ki55ill ~ - __ ~

porential disease vecrors and (~ U

anaphylaxiS Cfin In Dis ) o 6 _ - 9 McEwen P K and M ] Lehl _- shy

Relationship between Highr 2

and oviposir ion in TiaOIgtII - - - shy

(Klug) (Hem Reduviidae - shy

Entomo 117 217middot23

u~ Je5 in and around the home

--_2 rovide some added protecrion

-- efrecrin~ indoors is a crack and

_c lt application to potenrial harborage

~-olt r bedrooms and bathrooms and

-or a perimeter rreatmenr along

- -()ll1dation and eaves paying close

~(o n ro thoroughly treat enrryways

~~ - d windows and doors ro prevenr

~ laquo(e55 inro the home

S1si tized individuals may also elect

lteF under a bed net (mosquiro

- ~Jng that is rucked in all around

c -rress for added protection and

_ sect do uble-sided sticky tape placed

Ci - he legs of the bed Beds should be

r ~ least one foor away from walls

rap monirors placed under and

- - ~ -_ bds may also catch wandering

_~ _ Finally- homeowners mighr wish

-uroughh- vacuum rhe bedroom and

___id ~ iolaring rheir bedroom during

d~ 2Cl i season by wearher-srripping

nd keeping doors dosed - lis~ lg bugs are medically imporranr

is -_2ing insecrs rhar likely will be

- _~~~ i rh humans and rheir pers

_1reas ing frequency in response

-ing c1imares and as more homes

-~ h inro their habirars Learning ro

sect-izemiddot these bugs and (Q keep rhem

il-lnan habirarions is an imporranr

- bili r of homeownership

REFERENCES I Weiruch C Munro JB Molecular

phylogeny of the assassin bugs (Hemiptera Reduviidae) based on mirochondrial genes Mol Phylogenet Evo 2009 53 287-299

2 Ibarra-Cerdena CN Sanchez-Cordero

V Townsend Peterson A Ramsey JM (2009) Ecology of North American

Triarominae Acta Trop 110 178-186 3 Zeledon R Beard CB Pinro Dias JC

Leiby DA Dorn PL Rodrigues Coura J (in press) An appraisal of the sraws of Chagas disease in the United States

4 de la Rua N Stevens L Dorn PL (2011) High genetic diversity in a si ngle

population of Tiiatoma sanguisuga

(Le Conte 1855) inferred from rwo mitochondrial markers cytochrome b and 16S ribosomal DNA Infection Genetics and Evolution

5 Goda D E and C J Schofield 1989 Population dynam ics of Ti-iatoma inmans under nawral climatic conditions in

the Argentine Chaco Med Vet Entomol

3 179-94 6 Schofield C J 1988 Biosystematics of

the Triatominae In Biosystematics of Haematophagous Insects (M W Service ed) Systematics Association Special

Volume No 37 pp 284-312 Clarendon

Press Oxford 7 Lehane M J P K McEwen C J

Whitaker and C J Schofield 1992 The role of temperature and nutritional status in flight initiation by Triatoma infestans Acta Timiddotop 52 27-38

8 KJotz J H P L Dorn J L Logan L Stevens J L Pinnas J O Schmidt and S A KJotz 20 IO Kissing Bugs potential disease vectors and cause of anaphylaxis CLin In Dis 50 1629-34

9 McEwen P K and M J Lehane 1994 Relationship berween flight initiation and oviposition in Triatoma infestam (KJug) (Hem Reduviidae) j App

EntomoL 11 7 217-23

10 Gurtler R E L A Ceballos P OrdoZezshy

Krasnowski L A Lanati R Stariolo and

U Kitron 2009 Strong host-feeding

preferences of the vector Tiiatoma

infestans modified by vector density

implications for the epidemiology of

Chagas disease PLGS Neglect Trop Dis

3e447

11 Schofield C J and C Galvno 2009

Classification evolution and species

groups within the Triatominae Acta

Tropl1088-100

12 Guerenstein P G and C R Lazzari

2009 Hosr-seeking how rriatomines

acqui re and make use of information to

find blood Acta Ti-op 110148-583

13 KJotz S A P L Dorn J H KJOtz

] L Pinnas C Weirauch J R Kurtz

and J Schmidt 2009 Feeding behavior

of triaromines from the southwestern

United States an update on potential

risk for transmission of Chagas disease

Acta Trop III114-18

14 Zeled6n R R Alvarado and L F Jiron

1977 Observations on the feeding and

defecation patterns of three triatol11ine

species (Hemiptera Reduviidae) Acta

Timiddotop3465-77

15 Barr Sc Canine C hagas Disease

(American Trypanosomiasis) in North

America Vet CLin Small Animal 39

(2009) 1055-1064

16 Yabsley MJ and NobletGP Seroprevalence

of Trypanosoma cruz i in raccoo ns from

South Carolina and Georgia J WiLdl Dis

38 (2002) 75-83

17 Gouge DH Stoltman AJ Snyder

J L Olson C How to Bug Proof Your

Home http ca ls arizona edupubs

insectsaz l 3201

15

e E

MP

OR

IA S

TATE

UN

IVE

RS

ITYr

u KA

NSA

S SC

HO

OL

NAT

UR

ALIS

T B

OX

4050

12

00 C

OM

MER

CIA

L ST

E

mpo

ria

KS 6

6801

-508

7

ADDR

ESS

SERV

ICE

REQ

UEST

ED

No

np

rofi

t O

rg

US

Pos

tage

PA

ID

Em

pori

a K

ansa

s

66

80

1-5

08

7

Pe

rmit

No

203

Tri

atom

a re

curv

a t

he l

arge

st t

riat

ome

in t

he U

S (f

emal

e)

_ - ~ ntected kissing bug vecmrs in

-~- ro sk in irriration from the insect

- ~ ~ from iii IItero transmission from

2~ __ bull gt ult

C gtal signs of infection in dogs are

- --- shy cardiac recognized as exercise

ltOk 1 or generalized weakness

J~~ -i testing may reveal severe heart

--~ --5 nd ultimately a dilated

t-he-arr failure develops Treatment

-L ~~- ~esul r5 in a cure and survival time

dir alh affected dogs ranges from 0

-1 onths

_~ecmion of Chagas disease in

It7 c epends on insect vector control

-c ~ -i(in g conract with host reservoir

- ifO In endemic kissing bug areas

~Ad fi ousing and bedding should be

lt-~1 2 - irh insecticide monthly and

D --u~-- improved as needed to remove

-51 - s ring sites

bull

Figure 8 (above) Fecal smears

and drops from a fem ale T rubida

PEST Mfu~AGEMENT OF KISSING BUGS

gt xri ide spraying is the cornersmne

middot C T io nrrol programs for triaromines

~ il merica where domestic and

- --l(1c-gt[ ic species are prevalel1( and

bull- 1il high population densities in

1d aol 1d homes The sylvatic species

~c n [he CS are only occasional

- middot~c dnd thus presel1( a differel1( set

- ~ -tiems that rely on non-chemical

- ~~=-gt fo r control such as habitat

~Cil[ion and exclusion techniques

- dow)

- and foremost is a thorough

-- - - ~ion of the home both inside and

ring the active season (around

Table 2 Non-chemical measures ro reduce risk of household infestation by

triaromines

Sanitation measures bull Reduce clutter (eg clothes piles of paper) inside homes particularly in the

bedroom to reduce potential hiding places for kiSSing bugs bull Manage vegetation around the home and eliminate clutter (eg piles of lumber

firewood and debris) that may prOvide small animal habitat

Install weather stripping and tight fitting insect screens on windows and doors insect proof dog and cat entrances and keep fireplace flues shut

Manage indoor and outdoor lighting at night to make homes less attractive to kissing bugs

bull Move lights away from doors or windows where they may attract insects bull Replace outside white lights with yellow lights bull Keep window curtains and blinds drawn in lighted rooms

I

Seal potential entryways into homes (eg foundation cracks and utility line points of entry) with caulk silicone seal or other appropriate materials

I

13

mid-spring to mid-fall) inspections

should be carried our on a regular basis to

find and destroy any stray bugs During

the day they typically hide in dark places

in cracks and crevices or under objects

For example in the bedroom they may

hide in bed sheets or blankets or under

the mattress so it is recommended that

all of these potential hiding places be

inspected especially before retmng

Outside during the day they hide in

dark sheltered places such as beneath

flowerpots or furniture emerging at night

to be seen crawling or resting on surfaces

Pay special attention to areas inside and

out where pets congregate or sleep

In addition to efforts directly aimed

at kissing bugs concrol measures may be

needed to remove their wild vertebrate

hosts sllch as packrats which are common

around homes in the Southwest Packrats

can have several dozen or more kissing

bugs inhabiting their nests Trapping the

packrats and removing their nests close

to the house can potentially reduce home

invasions However it is advisable that

only the nearest packrat nest and packrats

be removed in the hope that the kissing

bugs will move to more peripheral nests

farther from the house After the packrats

have been removed a pyrethroid dust

or spray should be applied to the old

nesting sites to eliminate any remaining

kiSSing bugs This is critical because in the

absence of their natural host the bugs will

seek out another source of blood which

might end up being the homeowner (I 7)

In the case of sensitized homeowners

who have become allergic to kissing bugs

a directed spray application of pyrethroid

insecticides in and aro und the home

may provide some added protection

Most effective indoors is a crack and

crevice application to potential harborage

sites in bedrooms and bathrooms and

outdoors a perimeter treatment along

the foundation and eaves paying close

attention to thoroughly treat entryways

such as windows and doors to prevent

their access into the home

Sensitized individuals may also elect

to sleep under a bed net (mosquito

netting) that is tucked in all around

the mattress for added protection and

using double-sided sticky tape placed

on the legs of the bed Beds should be

kept at least one foor away from walls

Sticky trap monitors placed under and

around beds may also catch wandering

bugs Finally homeowners might wish

to thoroughly vacuum the bedroom and

consider isolating their bedroom during

the active season by weather-stripping

doors and keeping doors closed

Kissing bugs are medically important

fascinating insects that likely will be

interacting with humans and their pets

wi th increasing frequency in response

to warming climates and as more homes

encroach into their habitats Learning to

recognize these bugs and to keep them

out of human habitations is an important

responsibility of homeownership

14

REFERENCES 1 Weiruch C Munro fB

phylogeny of rhe as middot3i - (Hemi prera Reduviidae shymirochondrial genes dol P~ - ~- shy

Evol 2009 53 287-299 2 Iba rra-Cerdena CN San ~le= - _~

V Townsend Pererso n A Rl middot

(2009) Ecology of -or L _

Triarominae Acra Trop 1 10 - - bull

3 Zeled6n R Beard CB Pio _ 0

Leiby DA Dorn PL R J (in press) An appraisal r ~ --=shyChagas disease in rhe L-n re-C =- ~

4 de la Rua N Srevens (201l) High generic dit _ - 1- _ ~

popularion of (Le Com e 1855) i n ter~ - ~

mirochondrial markef5 Co ~ -

and 16S ribosomal D- -co

Generics and Evolurion 5 Goda D E and C J ~ _

Popularion dynamics of Ii

under narural climaric middot0 shy

rhe Argentin e C haco -EM ~ ~ shy3 179-94

6 Schofield C J 1988 Bios [- c rhe Triarominae In Bio5middotreoi H aemarophagous Insecrs 1 - __

ed) Sys remarics Associario r _ - Volume No 37 pp 284middot31 c -~ shy

Press O xford 7 Lehane M ] P K Mch --

Whiraker and C J Schotleld ] 4 ~ _

role of remperarure and nurririofi- _ _ in flighr iniriarion by 7i-iatam 1-~ _

Acta Trop 52 27-38 8 Klorz J H P L Dorn J L _ --

L Stevens J L Pinnas J 0- ~ l-r _

and S A Klotz 2010 Ki55ill ~ - __ ~

porential disease vecrors and (~ U

anaphylaxiS Cfin In Dis ) o 6 _ - 9 McEwen P K and M ] Lehl _- shy

Relationship between Highr 2

and oviposir ion in TiaOIgtII - - - shy

(Klug) (Hem Reduviidae - shy

Entomo 117 217middot23

u~ Je5 in and around the home

--_2 rovide some added protecrion

-- efrecrin~ indoors is a crack and

_c lt application to potenrial harborage

~-olt r bedrooms and bathrooms and

-or a perimeter rreatmenr along

- -()ll1dation and eaves paying close

~(o n ro thoroughly treat enrryways

~~ - d windows and doors ro prevenr

~ laquo(e55 inro the home

S1si tized individuals may also elect

lteF under a bed net (mosquiro

- ~Jng that is rucked in all around

c -rress for added protection and

_ sect do uble-sided sticky tape placed

Ci - he legs of the bed Beds should be

r ~ least one foor away from walls

rap monirors placed under and

- - ~ -_ bds may also catch wandering

_~ _ Finally- homeowners mighr wish

-uroughh- vacuum rhe bedroom and

___id ~ iolaring rheir bedroom during

d~ 2Cl i season by wearher-srripping

nd keeping doors dosed - lis~ lg bugs are medically imporranr

is -_2ing insecrs rhar likely will be

- _~~~ i rh humans and rheir pers

_1reas ing frequency in response

-ing c1imares and as more homes

-~ h inro their habirars Learning ro

sect-izemiddot these bugs and (Q keep rhem

il-lnan habirarions is an imporranr

- bili r of homeownership

REFERENCES I Weiruch C Munro JB Molecular

phylogeny of the assassin bugs (Hemiptera Reduviidae) based on mirochondrial genes Mol Phylogenet Evo 2009 53 287-299

2 Ibarra-Cerdena CN Sanchez-Cordero

V Townsend Peterson A Ramsey JM (2009) Ecology of North American

Triarominae Acta Trop 110 178-186 3 Zeledon R Beard CB Pinro Dias JC

Leiby DA Dorn PL Rodrigues Coura J (in press) An appraisal of the sraws of Chagas disease in the United States

4 de la Rua N Stevens L Dorn PL (2011) High genetic diversity in a si ngle

population of Tiiatoma sanguisuga

(Le Conte 1855) inferred from rwo mitochondrial markers cytochrome b and 16S ribosomal DNA Infection Genetics and Evolution

5 Goda D E and C J Schofield 1989 Population dynam ics of Ti-iatoma inmans under nawral climatic conditions in

the Argentine Chaco Med Vet Entomol

3 179-94 6 Schofield C J 1988 Biosystematics of

the Triatominae In Biosystematics of Haematophagous Insects (M W Service ed) Systematics Association Special

Volume No 37 pp 284-312 Clarendon

Press Oxford 7 Lehane M J P K McEwen C J

Whitaker and C J Schofield 1992 The role of temperature and nutritional status in flight initiation by Triatoma infestans Acta Timiddotop 52 27-38

8 KJotz J H P L Dorn J L Logan L Stevens J L Pinnas J O Schmidt and S A KJotz 20 IO Kissing Bugs potential disease vectors and cause of anaphylaxis CLin In Dis 50 1629-34

9 McEwen P K and M J Lehane 1994 Relationship berween flight initiation and oviposition in Triatoma infestam (KJug) (Hem Reduviidae) j App

EntomoL 11 7 217-23

10 Gurtler R E L A Ceballos P OrdoZezshy

Krasnowski L A Lanati R Stariolo and

U Kitron 2009 Strong host-feeding

preferences of the vector Tiiatoma

infestans modified by vector density

implications for the epidemiology of

Chagas disease PLGS Neglect Trop Dis

3e447

11 Schofield C J and C Galvno 2009

Classification evolution and species

groups within the Triatominae Acta

Tropl1088-100

12 Guerenstein P G and C R Lazzari

2009 Hosr-seeking how rriatomines

acqui re and make use of information to

find blood Acta Ti-op 110148-583

13 KJotz S A P L Dorn J H KJOtz

] L Pinnas C Weirauch J R Kurtz

and J Schmidt 2009 Feeding behavior

of triaromines from the southwestern

United States an update on potential

risk for transmission of Chagas disease

Acta Trop III114-18

14 Zeled6n R R Alvarado and L F Jiron

1977 Observations on the feeding and

defecation patterns of three triatol11ine

species (Hemiptera Reduviidae) Acta

Timiddotop3465-77

15 Barr Sc Canine C hagas Disease

(American Trypanosomiasis) in North

America Vet CLin Small Animal 39

(2009) 1055-1064

16 Yabsley MJ and NobletGP Seroprevalence

of Trypanosoma cruz i in raccoo ns from

South Carolina and Georgia J WiLdl Dis

38 (2002) 75-83

17 Gouge DH Stoltman AJ Snyder

J L Olson C How to Bug Proof Your

Home http ca ls arizona edupubs

insectsaz l 3201

15

e E

MP

OR

IA S

TATE

UN

IVE

RS

ITYr

u KA

NSA

S SC

HO

OL

NAT

UR

ALIS

T B

OX

4050

12

00 C

OM

MER

CIA

L ST

E

mpo

ria

KS 6

6801

-508

7

ADDR

ESS

SERV

ICE

REQ

UEST

ED

No

np

rofi

t O

rg

US

Pos

tage

PA

ID

Em

pori

a K

ansa

s

66

80

1-5

08

7

Pe

rmit

No

203

Tri

atom

a re

curv

a t

he l

arge

st t

riat

ome

in t

he U

S (f

emal

e)

mid-spring to mid-fall) inspections

should be carried our on a regular basis to

find and destroy any stray bugs During

the day they typically hide in dark places

in cracks and crevices or under objects

For example in the bedroom they may

hide in bed sheets or blankets or under

the mattress so it is recommended that

all of these potential hiding places be

inspected especially before retmng

Outside during the day they hide in

dark sheltered places such as beneath

flowerpots or furniture emerging at night

to be seen crawling or resting on surfaces

Pay special attention to areas inside and

out where pets congregate or sleep

In addition to efforts directly aimed

at kissing bugs concrol measures may be

needed to remove their wild vertebrate

hosts sllch as packrats which are common

around homes in the Southwest Packrats

can have several dozen or more kissing

bugs inhabiting their nests Trapping the

packrats and removing their nests close

to the house can potentially reduce home

invasions However it is advisable that

only the nearest packrat nest and packrats

be removed in the hope that the kissing

bugs will move to more peripheral nests

farther from the house After the packrats

have been removed a pyrethroid dust

or spray should be applied to the old

nesting sites to eliminate any remaining

kiSSing bugs This is critical because in the

absence of their natural host the bugs will

seek out another source of blood which

might end up being the homeowner (I 7)

In the case of sensitized homeowners

who have become allergic to kissing bugs

a directed spray application of pyrethroid

insecticides in and aro und the home

may provide some added protection

Most effective indoors is a crack and

crevice application to potential harborage

sites in bedrooms and bathrooms and

outdoors a perimeter treatment along

the foundation and eaves paying close

attention to thoroughly treat entryways

such as windows and doors to prevent

their access into the home

Sensitized individuals may also elect

to sleep under a bed net (mosquito

netting) that is tucked in all around

the mattress for added protection and

using double-sided sticky tape placed

on the legs of the bed Beds should be

kept at least one foor away from walls

Sticky trap monitors placed under and

around beds may also catch wandering

bugs Finally homeowners might wish

to thoroughly vacuum the bedroom and

consider isolating their bedroom during

the active season by weather-stripping

doors and keeping doors closed

Kissing bugs are medically important

fascinating insects that likely will be

interacting with humans and their pets

wi th increasing frequency in response

to warming climates and as more homes

encroach into their habitats Learning to

recognize these bugs and to keep them

out of human habitations is an important

responsibility of homeownership

14

REFERENCES 1 Weiruch C Munro fB

phylogeny of rhe as middot3i - (Hemi prera Reduviidae shymirochondrial genes dol P~ - ~- shy

Evol 2009 53 287-299 2 Iba rra-Cerdena CN San ~le= - _~

V Townsend Pererso n A Rl middot

(2009) Ecology of -or L _

Triarominae Acra Trop 1 10 - - bull

3 Zeled6n R Beard CB Pio _ 0

Leiby DA Dorn PL R J (in press) An appraisal r ~ --=shyChagas disease in rhe L-n re-C =- ~

4 de la Rua N Srevens (201l) High generic dit _ - 1- _ ~

popularion of (Le Com e 1855) i n ter~ - ~

mirochondrial markef5 Co ~ -

and 16S ribosomal D- -co

Generics and Evolurion 5 Goda D E and C J ~ _

Popularion dynamics of Ii

under narural climaric middot0 shy

rhe Argentin e C haco -EM ~ ~ shy3 179-94

6 Schofield C J 1988 Bios [- c rhe Triarominae In Bio5middotreoi H aemarophagous Insecrs 1 - __

ed) Sys remarics Associario r _ - Volume No 37 pp 284middot31 c -~ shy

Press O xford 7 Lehane M ] P K Mch --

Whiraker and C J Schotleld ] 4 ~ _

role of remperarure and nurririofi- _ _ in flighr iniriarion by 7i-iatam 1-~ _

Acta Trop 52 27-38 8 Klorz J H P L Dorn J L _ --

L Stevens J L Pinnas J 0- ~ l-r _

and S A Klotz 2010 Ki55ill ~ - __ ~

porential disease vecrors and (~ U

anaphylaxiS Cfin In Dis ) o 6 _ - 9 McEwen P K and M ] Lehl _- shy

Relationship between Highr 2

and oviposir ion in TiaOIgtII - - - shy

(Klug) (Hem Reduviidae - shy

Entomo 117 217middot23

u~ Je5 in and around the home

--_2 rovide some added protecrion

-- efrecrin~ indoors is a crack and

_c lt application to potenrial harborage

~-olt r bedrooms and bathrooms and

-or a perimeter rreatmenr along

- -()ll1dation and eaves paying close

~(o n ro thoroughly treat enrryways

~~ - d windows and doors ro prevenr

~ laquo(e55 inro the home

S1si tized individuals may also elect

lteF under a bed net (mosquiro

- ~Jng that is rucked in all around

c -rress for added protection and

_ sect do uble-sided sticky tape placed

Ci - he legs of the bed Beds should be

r ~ least one foor away from walls

rap monirors placed under and

- - ~ -_ bds may also catch wandering

_~ _ Finally- homeowners mighr wish

-uroughh- vacuum rhe bedroom and

___id ~ iolaring rheir bedroom during

d~ 2Cl i season by wearher-srripping

nd keeping doors dosed - lis~ lg bugs are medically imporranr

is -_2ing insecrs rhar likely will be

- _~~~ i rh humans and rheir pers

_1reas ing frequency in response

-ing c1imares and as more homes

-~ h inro their habirars Learning ro

sect-izemiddot these bugs and (Q keep rhem

il-lnan habirarions is an imporranr

- bili r of homeownership

REFERENCES I Weiruch C Munro JB Molecular

phylogeny of the assassin bugs (Hemiptera Reduviidae) based on mirochondrial genes Mol Phylogenet Evo 2009 53 287-299

2 Ibarra-Cerdena CN Sanchez-Cordero

V Townsend Peterson A Ramsey JM (2009) Ecology of North American

Triarominae Acta Trop 110 178-186 3 Zeledon R Beard CB Pinro Dias JC

Leiby DA Dorn PL Rodrigues Coura J (in press) An appraisal of the sraws of Chagas disease in the United States

4 de la Rua N Stevens L Dorn PL (2011) High genetic diversity in a si ngle

population of Tiiatoma sanguisuga

(Le Conte 1855) inferred from rwo mitochondrial markers cytochrome b and 16S ribosomal DNA Infection Genetics and Evolution

5 Goda D E and C J Schofield 1989 Population dynam ics of Ti-iatoma inmans under nawral climatic conditions in

the Argentine Chaco Med Vet Entomol

3 179-94 6 Schofield C J 1988 Biosystematics of

the Triatominae In Biosystematics of Haematophagous Insects (M W Service ed) Systematics Association Special

Volume No 37 pp 284-312 Clarendon

Press Oxford 7 Lehane M J P K McEwen C J

Whitaker and C J Schofield 1992 The role of temperature and nutritional status in flight initiation by Triatoma infestans Acta Timiddotop 52 27-38

8 KJotz J H P L Dorn J L Logan L Stevens J L Pinnas J O Schmidt and S A KJotz 20 IO Kissing Bugs potential disease vectors and cause of anaphylaxis CLin In Dis 50 1629-34

9 McEwen P K and M J Lehane 1994 Relationship berween flight initiation and oviposition in Triatoma infestam (KJug) (Hem Reduviidae) j App

EntomoL 11 7 217-23

10 Gurtler R E L A Ceballos P OrdoZezshy

Krasnowski L A Lanati R Stariolo and

U Kitron 2009 Strong host-feeding

preferences of the vector Tiiatoma

infestans modified by vector density

implications for the epidemiology of

Chagas disease PLGS Neglect Trop Dis

3e447

11 Schofield C J and C Galvno 2009

Classification evolution and species

groups within the Triatominae Acta

Tropl1088-100

12 Guerenstein P G and C R Lazzari

2009 Hosr-seeking how rriatomines

acqui re and make use of information to

find blood Acta Ti-op 110148-583

13 KJotz S A P L Dorn J H KJOtz

] L Pinnas C Weirauch J R Kurtz

and J Schmidt 2009 Feeding behavior

of triaromines from the southwestern

United States an update on potential

risk for transmission of Chagas disease

Acta Trop III114-18

14 Zeled6n R R Alvarado and L F Jiron

1977 Observations on the feeding and

defecation patterns of three triatol11ine

species (Hemiptera Reduviidae) Acta

Timiddotop3465-77

15 Barr Sc Canine C hagas Disease

(American Trypanosomiasis) in North

America Vet CLin Small Animal 39

(2009) 1055-1064

16 Yabsley MJ and NobletGP Seroprevalence

of Trypanosoma cruz i in raccoo ns from

South Carolina and Georgia J WiLdl Dis

38 (2002) 75-83

17 Gouge DH Stoltman AJ Snyder

J L Olson C How to Bug Proof Your

Home http ca ls arizona edupubs

insectsaz l 3201

15

e E

MP

OR

IA S

TATE

UN

IVE

RS

ITYr

u KA

NSA

S SC

HO

OL

NAT

UR

ALIS

T B

OX

4050

12

00 C

OM

MER

CIA

L ST

E

mpo

ria

KS 6

6801

-508

7

ADDR

ESS

SERV

ICE

REQ

UEST

ED

No

np

rofi

t O

rg

US

Pos

tage

PA

ID

Em

pori

a K

ansa

s

66

80

1-5

08

7

Pe

rmit

No

203

Tri

atom

a re

curv

a t

he l

arge

st t

riat

ome

in t

he U

S (f

emal

e)

u~ Je5 in and around the home

--_2 rovide some added protecrion

-- efrecrin~ indoors is a crack and

_c lt application to potenrial harborage

~-olt r bedrooms and bathrooms and

-or a perimeter rreatmenr along

- -()ll1dation and eaves paying close

~(o n ro thoroughly treat enrryways

~~ - d windows and doors ro prevenr

~ laquo(e55 inro the home

S1si tized individuals may also elect

lteF under a bed net (mosquiro

- ~Jng that is rucked in all around

c -rress for added protection and

_ sect do uble-sided sticky tape placed

Ci - he legs of the bed Beds should be

r ~ least one foor away from walls

rap monirors placed under and

- - ~ -_ bds may also catch wandering

_~ _ Finally- homeowners mighr wish

-uroughh- vacuum rhe bedroom and

___id ~ iolaring rheir bedroom during

d~ 2Cl i season by wearher-srripping

nd keeping doors dosed - lis~ lg bugs are medically imporranr

is -_2ing insecrs rhar likely will be

- _~~~ i rh humans and rheir pers

_1reas ing frequency in response

-ing c1imares and as more homes

-~ h inro their habirars Learning ro

sect-izemiddot these bugs and (Q keep rhem

il-lnan habirarions is an imporranr

- bili r of homeownership

REFERENCES I Weiruch C Munro JB Molecular

phylogeny of the assassin bugs (Hemiptera Reduviidae) based on mirochondrial genes Mol Phylogenet Evo 2009 53 287-299

2 Ibarra-Cerdena CN Sanchez-Cordero

V Townsend Peterson A Ramsey JM (2009) Ecology of North American

Triarominae Acta Trop 110 178-186 3 Zeledon R Beard CB Pinro Dias JC

Leiby DA Dorn PL Rodrigues Coura J (in press) An appraisal of the sraws of Chagas disease in the United States

4 de la Rua N Stevens L Dorn PL (2011) High genetic diversity in a si ngle

population of Tiiatoma sanguisuga

(Le Conte 1855) inferred from rwo mitochondrial markers cytochrome b and 16S ribosomal DNA Infection Genetics and Evolution

5 Goda D E and C J Schofield 1989 Population dynam ics of Ti-iatoma inmans under nawral climatic conditions in

the Argentine Chaco Med Vet Entomol

3 179-94 6 Schofield C J 1988 Biosystematics of

the Triatominae In Biosystematics of Haematophagous Insects (M W Service ed) Systematics Association Special

Volume No 37 pp 284-312 Clarendon

Press Oxford 7 Lehane M J P K McEwen C J

Whitaker and C J Schofield 1992 The role of temperature and nutritional status in flight initiation by Triatoma infestans Acta Timiddotop 52 27-38

8 KJotz J H P L Dorn J L Logan L Stevens J L Pinnas J O Schmidt and S A KJotz 20 IO Kissing Bugs potential disease vectors and cause of anaphylaxis CLin In Dis 50 1629-34

9 McEwen P K and M J Lehane 1994 Relationship berween flight initiation and oviposition in Triatoma infestam (KJug) (Hem Reduviidae) j App

EntomoL 11 7 217-23

10 Gurtler R E L A Ceballos P OrdoZezshy

Krasnowski L A Lanati R Stariolo and

U Kitron 2009 Strong host-feeding

preferences of the vector Tiiatoma

infestans modified by vector density

implications for the epidemiology of

Chagas disease PLGS Neglect Trop Dis

3e447

11 Schofield C J and C Galvno 2009

Classification evolution and species

groups within the Triatominae Acta

Tropl1088-100

12 Guerenstein P G and C R Lazzari

2009 Hosr-seeking how rriatomines

acqui re and make use of information to

find blood Acta Ti-op 110148-583

13 KJotz S A P L Dorn J H KJOtz

] L Pinnas C Weirauch J R Kurtz

and J Schmidt 2009 Feeding behavior

of triaromines from the southwestern

United States an update on potential

risk for transmission of Chagas disease

Acta Trop III114-18

14 Zeled6n R R Alvarado and L F Jiron

1977 Observations on the feeding and

defecation patterns of three triatol11ine

species (Hemiptera Reduviidae) Acta

Timiddotop3465-77

15 Barr Sc Canine C hagas Disease

(American Trypanosomiasis) in North

America Vet CLin Small Animal 39

(2009) 1055-1064

16 Yabsley MJ and NobletGP Seroprevalence

of Trypanosoma cruz i in raccoo ns from

South Carolina and Georgia J WiLdl Dis

38 (2002) 75-83

17 Gouge DH Stoltman AJ Snyder

J L Olson C How to Bug Proof Your

Home http ca ls arizona edupubs

insectsaz l 3201

15

e E

MP

OR

IA S

TATE

UN

IVE

RS

ITYr

u KA

NSA

S SC

HO

OL

NAT

UR

ALIS

T B

OX

4050

12

00 C

OM

MER

CIA

L ST

E

mpo

ria

KS 6

6801

-508

7

ADDR

ESS

SERV

ICE

REQ

UEST

ED

No

np

rofi

t O

rg

US

Pos

tage

PA

ID

Em

pori

a K

ansa

s

66

80

1-5

08

7

Pe

rmit

No

203

Tri

atom

a re

curv

a t

he l

arge

st t

riat

ome

in t

he U

S (f

emal

e)

e E

MP

OR

IA S

TATE

UN

IVE

RS

ITYr

u KA

NSA

S SC

HO

OL

NAT

UR

ALIS

T B

OX

4050

12

00 C

OM

MER

CIA

L ST

E

mpo

ria

KS 6

6801

-508

7

ADDR

ESS

SERV

ICE

REQ

UEST

ED

No

np

rofi

t O

rg

US

Pos

tage

PA

ID

Em

pori

a K

ansa

s

66

80

1-5

08

7

Pe

rmit

No

203

Tri

atom

a re

curv

a t

he l

arge

st t

riat

ome

in t

he U

S (f

emal

e)