kickstarter patent lawsuit june 2015

8/21/2019 Kickstarter Patent Lawsuit June 2015

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VCBZFJ YZMZFY JBYZTBIZ ILVTZYLVZNFTC JBYZTBIZ LG CFX RLT@

@MZNFTBCF _LA@ GMBAAM, Jbstrbit Eujhf5

_ambctbgg @bi`stmrtfr, Bci. (‑@bi`stmrtfr‛) drluhnt tnbs mitblc mhmbcst

Jfgfcjmcts Gmc Gucjfj, AAI (‑Gmc Gucjfj‛) mcj MrtbstYnmrf, Bci.

(‑MrtbstYnmrf‛), sff`bch jfiamrmtlry rfabfg tnmt V.Y. _mtfct Cl. 8,>>6,>>8 glr

‑Kftnlj mcj mppmrmtusfs glr gbcmcibch mcj kmr`ftbch m irfmtbvf wlr`‛ (tnf

‑„>>8 _mtfct‛) bs bcvmabj, mcj tnus tnmt _ambctbgg jlfs clt (mcj, bcjffj, imcclt)

bcgrbchf bt. Dfglrf tnf Ilurt mrf tnf pmrtbfs‒ irlss-kltblcs glr sukkmry

eujhkfct lc tnf slaf bssuf lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct‒s vmabjbty. M imrfgua rfmj lg tnmt

pmtfct, mcj lg rfifct jfibsblcs lc pmtfct fabhbdbabty grlk tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt

mcj tnf Vcbtfj Ytmtfs Ilurt lg Mppfmas glr tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt, km`fs pambc

tnmt tnf „>>8 _mtfct iambks lcay tnf mdstrmit mcj tbkf-nlclrfj ilcifpt lg

pmtrlcmhf, mcj fvfc tnf mjjbtblc lg mc fafkfct lg ilkputfr usf bs bcsuggbibfct

tl rfcjfr bt vmabj ucjfr Yfitblc =?= lg tnf _mtfct Mit, 96 V.Y.I. § =?=.

_ambctbgg‒s kltblc glr sukkmry eujhkfct lc tnmt hrlucj bs tnfrfglrf hrmctfj,

mcj Jfgfcjmcts‒ kltblc bs jfcbfj.

-----------------------------------------------------

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_ambctbgg,

v.

GMC GVCJFJ, AAI, ft ma.,

Jfgfcjmcts.

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== Ibv. 72?2 (@_G)

L_BCBLC MCJ LTJFT

VYJI YJCR

JLIVKFCZ

FAFIZTLCBIMAAR GBAFJ

JLI #5 \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\

JMZF GBAFJ5 \\\\\\\\\\\\\\ Eucf 42, 4?=6

Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf = lg 9=


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4

DMI@HTLVCJ=

M. Znf _mrtbfs

_ambctbgg @bi`stmrtfr bs m Jfamwmrf ilrplrmtblc wbtn bts prbcibpma pamif lg

dusbcfss bc Cfw Rlr`. (Ilkpa. · 40 Mcs. · 4). Bt bs m wfd-dmsfj gucjbch

pamtglrk glr m wbjf vmrbfty lg irfmtbvf prlefits, bciaujbch tnlsf rfamtbch tl

kusbi, gbak, mrt tfinclalhy, jfsbhc, gllj, mcj pudabsnbch. (Ilkpa. · 20 Ictria.

· 7).

Jfgfcjmct MrtbstYnmrf bs m Jfamwmrf ilrplrmtblc, masl wbtn bts prbcibpma

pamif lg dusbcfss bc Cfw Rlr`, tnmt mssbsts mrtbsts bc miqubrbch gucjbch tl

prljuif irfmtbvf wlr`s dy kmr`ftbch tnfbr prlefits jbrfitay tl bcjbvbjumas mcj

fctbtbfs bctfrfstfj bc tnf prlefits. (Ilkpa. · :0 Ictria. ·· =, =7). MrtbstYnmrf

wms abstfj ms tnf mssbhcff lc tnf pmtfct mt bssuf, tnf „>>8 _mtfct. („>>8 _mtfct

= Znf Ilurt cltfs tnmt, bcslgmr ms tnf bssuf lg pmtfct fabhbdbabty bs ilcifrcfj, tnf bcstmctsukkmry eujhkfct kltblcs iluaj nmvf dffc, mcj pfrnmps snluaj nmvf dffc, styafj ms

kltblcs glr eujhkfct lc tnf pafmjbchs. Yff LB_ Zfinclalhbfs, Bci. v. Mkmzlc.ilk, Bci.,Cl. 4?=4-=727, ‚ G.9j ‚, 4?=6 XA 9744=>=, mt *: (Gfj. Ibr. Eucf ==, 4?=6) (Kmyfr,

E., ilciurrbch) (‑Mjjrfssbch 96 V.Y.I. § =?= mt tnf lutsft clt lcay ilcsfrvfs simrif eujbibma rfslurifs mcj spmrfs abtbhmcts tnf stmhhfrbch ilsts msslibmtfj wbtn jbsilvfrymcj prltrmitfj iambk ilcstruitblc abtbhmtblc, bt masl wlr`s tl stfk tnf tbjf lg vfxmtblussubts drluhnt dy tnf lwcfrs lg vmhuf mcj lvfrdrlmj dusbcfss kftnlj pmtfcts.‛). Zlglrfstmaa miiusmtblcs lg ‑Klcjmy-klrcbch qumrtfrdmi`bch,‛ nlwfvfr, tnf Ilurt cltfstnmt suin m ilursf kmy clt nmvf dffc ms ldvblus prblr tl tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt‒s Eucf4?=: jfibsblc bc Mabif Ilrp. _ty. v. IAY Dmc` Bct‒a , =9: Y. It. 49:8 (4?=:), mcj tnf

Gfjfrma Ibriubt eurbsprujfcif tnmt nms jfvfalpfj bc bts wm`f. Bc mcy fvfct, tnf pmrtbfsnmvf fchmhfj bc ilcsbjfrmdaf jbsilvfry (pmrtbiuamray rfamtbch tl bcvmabjbty ilctfctblcsucrfamtfj tl fabhbdbabty), rfsuatbch bc m sudstmctbma rfilrj lc sukkmry eujhkfct. Bcruabch lc tnfsf kltblcs glr sukkmry eujhkfct, tnf Ilurt ilcsbjfrfj tnf fctbrf rfilrj

dfglrf bt0 nlwfvfr, tnf Ilurt nfrf sfts glrtn lcay tnlsf gmits pfrtbcfct tl bts jfibsblc,wnbin bs kmjf lc fabhbdbabty hrlucjs. Znf gmits sft glrtn nfrfbc mrf jrmwc prbkmrbaygrlk tnf „>>8 _mtfct btsfag (lc tnf rfilrj ms Elbct Mppfcjbx (‑EM^‛) Fx. =)0 _ambctbgg‒sIlkpambct (‑Ilkpa.‛) (J`t. #=)0 Jfgfcjmcts‒ Mcswfr (‑Mcs.‛) mcj Iluctfriambk(‑Ictria.‛) (J`t #9?)0 _ambctbgg‒s Mcswfr tl tnf Iluctfriambk (‑Ictria. Mcs.‛) (J`t. #9=)0mcj ltnfr jliukfcts ms ibtfj. Glr ilcvfcbfcif, _ambctbgg‒s lpfcbch drbfg bs rfgfrrfj tlms ‑_a. Dr.‛0 Jfgfcjmcts‒ lpfcbch drbfg mcj lpplsbtblc bs rfgfrrfj tl ms ‑Jfg. Dr.‛0_ambctbgg‒s lpplsbtblc mcj rfpay bs rfgfrrfj tl ms ‑_a. Lpp.‛0 mcj Jfgfcjmcts‒ rfpay bsrfgfrrfj tl ms ‑Jfg. Tfpay.‛

Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 4 lg 9=


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mt P89[). Jfgfcjmct Gmc Gucjfj bs m Jfamwmrf abkbtfj abmdbabty ilkpmcy wbtn bts

prbcibpma pamif lg dusbcfss bc Jfamwmrf0 bt bs m wnlaay-lwcfj sudsbjbmry lg

MrtbstYnmrf. (Ilkpa. · 90 Ictria. ·· 9, =8). MrtbstYnmrf nms mssbhcfj tnf „>>8

_mtfct tl Gmc Gucjfj. (Ictria. · :).

D. Znf „>>8 _mtfct

Znf „>>8 _mtfct, fctbtafj ‑Kftnlj mcj Mppmrmtusfs glr Gbcmcibch mcj

Kmr`ftbch m Irfmtbvf Xlr`,‛ wms bssufj dy tnf V.Y. _mtfct mcj Zrmjfkmr`

Lggbif (tnf ‑_ZL‛) lc Gfdrumry >, 4?==. („>>8 _mtfct mt P:6[, P6:[). Znf „>>8

_mtfct iambks ‑m systfk mcj kftnlj glr rmbsbch gbcmcibch mcj/lr rfvfcuf dy

Pmc[ mrtbst glr m prlefit, wnfrf tnf prlefit kmy df m irfmtbvf wlr` lg tnf mrtbst.‛

(Bj. mt P68[). Znf „>>8 _mtfct rfibtfs 98 iambks, wnbin bciaujfs sbx bcjfpfcjfct

iambks (Iambks =, =6, =8, =>, 96, mcj 97) mcj 9= jfpfcjfct iambks (Iambks 4-

=:, =7, =2-9:, 98).4

Iambk = lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct bs rfprfsfctmtbvf59

4 Jfgfcjmct lrbhbcmaay ilctfcjfj tnmt _ambctbgg bcgrbchfj 46 iambks lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct, lcaygbvf lg wnbin (=, =8, =>, 96, mcj 97) wfrf bcjfpfcjfct iambks. (Yff Emc. =>, 4?=9Lpbcblc mcj Lrjfr (‑Emc. =>, 4?=9 Lp.‛) 4 c.=) (J`t. #69). Glaalwbch tnf Ilurt‒s iambkilcstruitblc lpbcblc (sff bj.), Jfgfcjmct stbpuamtfj tnmt _ambctbgg jbj clt bcgrbchf tnf„>>8 _mtfct ms ilcstrufj (sff J`t. #67 mt = c.4).

9 Nmvbch rfvbfwfj tnf „>>8 _mtfct, tnf Ilurt mhrffs wbtn _ambctbgg tnmt Iambk = bsrfprfsfctmtbvf. (Yff _a. Dr. =? & c.:). Jfgfcjmcts mrf ilrrfit tnmt fmin iambk

ilctmbcfj bc tnf „>>8 _mtfct bs prfsukptbvfay vmabj. (Jfg. Dr. == (ibtbch 96 V.Y.I.§ 4>4)). Dut ig. Vatrmkfribma, Bci. v. Nuau, AAI , 884 G.9j 8?2, 84?-4= (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=:)(Kmyfr, E., ilciurrbch) (‑Matnluhn tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt nms tm`fc up sfvfrma sfitblc =?=

imsfs bc rfifct yfmrs, bt nms cfvfr kfctblcfj ‚ kuin afss mppabfj ‚ mcy prfsukptblclg fabhbdbabty. Znf rfmslcmdaf bcgfrfcif, tnfrfglrf, bs tnmt wnbaf m prfsukptblc lg vmabjbtymttminfs bc kmcy ilctfxts, … cl fqubvmafct prfsukptblc lg fabhbdbabty mppabfs bc tnfsfitblc =?= imaiuaus.‛ (ibtmtblc lkbttfj)). Nlwfvfr, wnfrf, ms nfrf, tnf iambks mrf‑sudstmctbmaay sbkbamr mcj abc`fj tl tnf smkf mdstrmit bjfm,‛ tnf Ilurt kmy jbsplsf lgtnf ltnfr iambks bc afss jftmba. Ilctfct Fxtrmitblc & Zrmcskbssblc AAI v. Xfaas GmrhlDmc`, Cmt‒a Mss‒c , 887 G.9j =9:9, =9:> (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=:) (‑IFZ ‛)0 sff bj. (gbcjbch tnfjbstrbit ilurt ‑ilrrfitay jftfrkbcfj tnmt mjjrfssbch fmin iambk lg tnf mssfrtfj pmtfctswms uccfifssmry‛ mcj mpprlvbch tnf ilurt‒s sfafitblc lg m rfprfsfctmtbvf iambk)0 bj. (rfefitbch pmtfctff‒s mrhukfct tnmt gmbaurf tl mjjrfss fmin iambk bcjbvbjumaay wms



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Iambk =. M systfk glr kmr`ftbch mcj gucjbch lcf lrklrf prlefits lg mc mrtbst ilkprbsbch m sfrvfr nmvbch

mppabimtblcs prlhrmks lpfrmdaf grlk m rfkltf sbtf glr5

prlvbjbch slgtwmrf tllas tl mc mrtbst lr Miiluct Kmcmhfr

tl kmcmhf mt afmst lcf prlefit, tnf prlefit

ilkprbsbch mt afmst lcf irfmtbvf wlr`0rfifbvbch bcglrkmtblc grlk tnf mrtbst lr Miiluct

Kmcmhfr rfhmrjbch mt afmst lcf Ymafs Ilctmbcfrmsslibmtfj wbtn tnf mt afmst lcf prlefit, fmin YmafsIlctmbcfr bciaujbch mt afmst lcf lg m prljuit, msfrvbif, mcj m pmtrlcmhf, wnbaf tnf mrtbst rftmbcslutrbhnt lwcfrsnbp lg tnf prlefit mcj tnf irfmtbvfwlr`0

trmcskbttbch lggfr jmtm grlk m sfrvfr tl m iabfct vbm mcftwlr`, tnf lggfr jmtm ilkprbsbch mc lggfr tl Gmcs

ilcifrcbch tnf mt afmst lcf Ymafs Ilctmbcfrmsslibmtfj wbtn mt afmst lcf prlefit, wnfrfbc tnf lggfrbs glr m Ymafs Ilctmbcfr mt m prfjftfrkbcfj afvfa lgpmtrlcmhf bc fxinmchf glr gucjs glr tnf prlefit0

rfifbvbch mt tnf iabfct suin lggfr jmtm mcj prfsfctbch

tnf lggfr tl tnf Gmc0

trmcskbttbch miifptmcif jmtm dmi` tl tnf sfrvfr grlktnf iabfct miifptbch tnf lggfr0

prlifssbch tnf miifptmcif jmtm dy tnf sfrvfr0

rfhbstfrbch ilctmit mcj kmr`ftbch bcglrkmtblc

rfhmrjbch _mtrlcs bc m jmtmdmsf0 mcjprlvbjbch tnf mrtbst lr Miiluct Kmcmhfr slgtwmrf tllas

tl kmcmhf ilkkucbimtblcs, tnrluhn smbj _mtrlcjmtmdmsf, tl _mtrlcs rfhmrjbch tnf smafs mcjkmr`ftbch lg lcf lr klrf prlefits.

bcilcsbstfct wbtn stmtutlry prfsukptblc lg vmabjbty lg fmin iambk)0 sff masl Dbas`b v.

@mppls , 67= V.Y. 629, 7==-=4 (4?=?) (jftfrkbcbch tnmt == iambks bc m pmtfctmppabimtblc wfrf bcvmabjay mdstrmit mgtfr mcmayzbch lcay twl lg tnf iambks bc jftmba).Mjjbtblcmaay, tnf jfpfcjfct iambks lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct ‑rfibtf lcay sabhnt vmrbmtblcs lg tnfbcjfpfcjfct iambks,‛ mcj sl tnf Ilurt cffj clt ilcsbjfr tnfk jbstbcitay. _amcft Dbchl,AAI v. W@HY AAI , 687 G. Mpp‒x =??6, =??8 (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=:) (ucpudabsnfj jfibsblc)0 sffmasl IFZ , 887 G.9j mt =9:2 (‑PX[nbaf Ptnf jfpfcjfct[ iambks kmy nmvf m cmrrlwfr silpf

tnmc tnf rfprfsfctmtbvf iambks, cl iambk ilctmbcs mc „bcvfctbvf ilcifpt‒ tnmt trmcsglrkstnf ilrrfsplcjbch iambk bctl m pmtfct-fabhbdaf mppabimtblc lg tnf ltnfrwbsf bcfabhbdafmdstrmit bjfm.‛).

Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf : lg 9=


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(„>>8 _mtfct ila.4= a.96-79).: Znf _mtfct jfsirbdfs tnf bcvfctblc ms, bctfr mabm ,

m kftnlj glr ‑hfcfrmtbch impbtma glr m prlefit lg mc mrtbst‛ dy lggfrbch

‑fctbtafkfctPs6[ wnbin kmy df rfamtfj tl tnf mrtbsts mt m prfjftfrkbcfj afvfa lg

pmtrlcmhf mklch m paurmabty lg afvfas lg pmtrlcmhf.‛ (Bj. mt ila.: a.4>-9:). Bt

jfsirbdfs sfvfrma kfinmcbsks glr lggfrbch ilcsbjfrmtblc (b.f., mc ‑fctbtafkfct‛)

bc fxinmchf glr gucjs glr m prlefit, rfgfrrbch tl tnfsf kfinmcbsks ms ‑Ymafs

Ilctmbcfrs.‛ Znf ‑Ymafs Ilctmbcfr‛ kmy ilcsbst lg mc muitblc, m smafs btfk, m

sudsirbptblc sfrbfs, sudsirbptblc miifss, pmy-pfr-vbfw, abifcsbch, mcj pmtrlc

splcslrsnbp. (Bj. mt ila.=? a.:9-69). M ‑smafs btfk‛ kmy bciaujf, glr fxmkpaf,

jlwcalmjmdaf kusbi, snfft kusbi, mc nlur-alch tfafpnlcf afsslc grlk tnf

mrtbst lc slchwrbtbch, lr slkf ltnfr ‑bcvfctlry btfk.‛ (Bj. mt ila.== a.9-46). M

sudsirbptblc kmy bciaujf miifss tl rfilrjbch sfssblc vbjfls, rfilrjfj emk

sfssblcs, mcj ltnfr prljuitblc-rfamtfj kfjbm lr prljuits. (Bj. mt ila.=4 a.2-

=2). Znf _mtfct jfsirbdfs km`bch lggfrbchs tl ‑gmcs‛ ‚ m tfrk ilcstrufj tl

bciaujf ‑m ilcsukfr, mjkbrfr lr glaalwfr, kfctlr, mcj mcy ltnfr bcjbvbjuma(s)

bctfrfstfj bc tnf Mrtbst‒s wlr`.‛ (Emc. =>, 4?=9 Lp. 2). Lcif m ‑gmc‛ miifpts mc

lggfr, tnmt gmc dfilkfs m ‑pmtrlc.‛ (Bj. mt 8). Yuin miifptmcif jmtm mcj

bcglrkmtblc bs stlrfj lc m ‑_mtrlc jmtmdmsf.‛ („>>8 _mtfct ila.4= a.7?-79).

Znf ‑Gbfaj lg tnf Bcvfctblc‛ plrtblc lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct bcjbimtfs, bc pmrt5

Znf bcvfctblc bs jbrfitfj tl m cfw dusbcfss mcjjbstrbdutblc pmrmjbhk glr irfmtbvf wlr`s. Klrf

: Znf Ilurt mssukfs gmkbabmrbty wbtn Eujhf _mua M. Irltty‒s Emcumry =>, 4?=9 Lpbcblcmcj Lrjfr (J`t. #69) ilcstrubch jbsputfj tfrks lg tnbs mcj ltnfr iambks.

6 Ms bt bs usfj bc tnf „>>8 _mtfct, mc ‑fctbtafkfct P [ bciaujfs mt afmst lcf prljuit, mcj mtafmst lcf sfrvbif, mcj mt afmst lcf pmtrlcmhf.‛ (Emc. =>, 4?=9 Lp. ==).



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pmrtbiuamray, tnf bcvfctblc bs jbrfitfj tl kftnljs mcjsystfks glr ldtmbcbch gbcmcibch grlk bctfrfstfj

bcjbvbjumas tl prljuif m irfmtbvf wlr` bc fxinmchf glrmc fctbtafkfct grlk tnf mutnlr lg tnf wlr`. Znfbcvfctblc bs masl jbrfitfj tl kftnljs mcj systfks glr

prfsfctbch mc mrtbst-ifctfrfj dusbcfss kljfa pmrmjbhk(usbch tnf fctfrtmbckfct bcjustry ms mc fxmkpaf).

(„>>8 _mtfct ila.= a.=:-4=). Znf ‑Dmi`hrlucj lg tnf Bcvfctblc‛ sfitblc

jfsirbdfs tnf ‑prldafkPs[ wbtn tnf iurrfct rfilrjbch dusbcfss kljfa‛ (bj. mt

ila.4 a.==-=4) mcj tnf ilcsfqufct ‑cffj glr m kftnlj mcj/lr systfk wnbin wbaa

maalw mrtbsts … tl rmbsf impbtma lc tnfbr lwc mcj prlgbt glr prljuibch m irfmtbvf

wlr`, prfgfrmday prblr tl prljuibch tnf wlr`, mcj prfgfrmday wbtnlut m

rfilrjbch ilctrmit wbtn m rfilrjbch ilkpmcy‛ (bj. mt ila.4 a.=>-44). Znf

‑Yukkmry lg tnf Bcvfctblc‛ sfitblc bcjbimtfs tnmt tnf bcvfctblc bs bctfcjfj tl

gbaa tnbs cffj (bj. mt ila.4 a.9:-92), mcj fxpambcs, ‑Znf bcvfctblc kmy km`f usf

lg m ilkdbcmtblc lg fxbstbch prlvfc dusbcfss kljfas bciaujbch dmc`bch, pmtrlc

systfks, kfrinmcjbsbch pmrtcfrsnbps, jbrfit kmr`ftbch, pudabsnbch, gbaf

snmrbch mcj bctfrcft cftwlr`bch, gbaf ilkprfssblc, mujbl/vbjfl tfinclalhbfs,

mcj lcabcf muitblcs (glr fxmkpaf)‛ (bj. mt ila.: a.==-=6).

Znf ‑Jftmbafj Jfsirbptblc lg tnf _rfgfrrfj Fkdljbkfcts‛ plrtblc lg tnf

„>>8 _mtfct jfsirbdfs tnf lvfrmaa systfk paus tnrff fkdljbkfcts, fmin wbtn m

jbggfrfct glius. („>>8 _mtfct ila.7-4=). Bc jfsirbdbch tnf fkdljbkfcts lg tnf

pmtfct, tnbs sfitblc cltfs5

Lcf lg s`baa bc tnf mrt wbaa mpprfibmtf tnmt tnf ilkputfrsystfks lutabcfj mdlvf wnbin kmy df usfj wbtn mcy lgtnf fkdljbkfcts lg tnf bcvfctblc, kmy bciaujf vmrblusnmrjwmrf mcj lpfrmtbch slgtwmrf … glr ruccbchslgtwmrf prlhrmks, drlwsbch tnf Bctfrcft,ilkkucbimtbch mcj/lr lpfrmtbch wbtn mcy jfvbif,



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bciaujbch, glr fxmkpaf, m prbctfr, m jbspamy, m `fydlmrj,m klusf, m kljfk, m pnlcf, m wbrfafss jfvbif, tnf

Bctfrcft, m ilkputfr cftwlr`, m slucj systfk, mcj mcyltnfr bctfrcma lr fxtfrcma jfvbif. Yuin ilkputfrsystfk kmy masl bciaujf … bctfrcma mcj fxtfrcma

ilkplcfcts wnbin kmy df usfj glr imrrybch lut tnflpfrmtblcs lg tnf ilkputfr mcj tnf fkdljbkfcts lg tnf

prfsfct bcvfctblc.

(Bj. mt ila.> a.6:-78).

Bc suk, Iambk =, ms m rfprfsfctmtbvf iambk, nms tnf glaalwbch rfafvmct

abkbtmtblcs5 (b) m ilkputfr lpfrmtbch fbtnfr lc tnf Bctfrcft lr ltnfr cftwlr`

wbtn miifss tl m sfrvfr0 (bb) prlvbjbch slgtwmrf tllas wbtn m subtf lg gfmturfs

maalwbch kmcmhfkfct lg lcf lr klrf irfmtbvf prlefits0 (bbb) km`bch ifrtmbc

typfs lg lggfrs msslibmtfj wbtn tnf prlefit bc fxinmchf glr gucjs glr tnf prlefit0

(bv) gmibabtmtbch tnf miifptmcif lg lggfrs dy gmcs0 (v) stlrbch ilctmit mcj

kmr`ftbch bcglrkmtblc lg tnlsf wnl nmvf miifptfj lggfrs bc fxinmchf glr gucjs

bc m jmtmdmsf0 mcj (vb) prlvbjbch slgtwmrf tllas tnmt fcmdaf mcj ilctrla tnf

fxinmchf lg bcglrkmtblc wbtn m gmc tnrluhn tnf jmtmdmsf. (Yff hfcfrmaay

Emc. =>, 4?=9 Lp.).

I. _rlifjurma Nbstlry

Lc Yfptfkdfr 9?, 4?==, @bi`stmrtfr ilkkfcifj tnbs mitblc mhmbcst

MrtbstYnmrf mcj Gmc Gucjfj glr jfiamrmtlry eujhkfct lg pmtfct bcvmabjbty mcj

clc-bcgrbchfkfct. (J`t. #=). Lc Gfdrumry 9, 4?=4, Jfgfcjmcts klvfj tl

jbskbss tnf Ilkpambct pursumct tl Gfjfrma Tuaf lg Ibvba _rlifjurf =4(d)(=) glr

ami` lg sudefit kmttfr eurbsjbitblc, mrhubch tnmt tnfrf wms cl imsf lr

ilctrlvfrsy dfimusf tnf pmrtbfs wfrf bc m dusbcfss cfhltbmtblc tnmt jbj clt

bcvlavf m iambk lg bcgrbchfkfct lr tnrfmt lg subt. (J`t. #4?). Lc Mprba =?, 4?=4,



8/31

>

Eujhf _mua M. Irltty, tl wnlk tnbs imsf wms lrbhbcmaay mssbhcfj, jfcbfj tnmt

kltblc, gbcjbch suggbibfct ilctrlvfrsy dftwffc tnf pmrtbfs tnmt wms dltn

bkkfjbmtf mcj rfma. (J`t. #42). Lc Mprba 4:, 4?=4, Jfgfcjmcts sudkbttfj mc

Mcswfr tl tnf Ilkpambct mcj m Iluctfriambk lg bcgrbchfkfct (J`t. #9?), mcj

lc Kmy =6, 4?=4, _ambctbgg mcswfrfj tnf Iluctfriambk (J`t. #9=).

Znf imsf prliffjfj tl jbsilvfry. (J`t. #99). Mdlut kbjwmy tnrluhn

jbsilvfry, bc amtf 4?=4, tnf pmrtbfs sudkbttfj iambk ilcstruitblc drbfgbch mcj m

Kmr`kmc nfmrbch wms nfaj. (Yff J`t. #:4-64). Yff hfcfrmaay Kmr`kmc v.

Xfstvbfw Bcstrukfcts, Bci., 6=8 V.Y. 98? (=227). Lc Emcumry =>, 4?=9, Eujhf

Irltty bssufj mc Lpbcblc mcj Lrjfr ilcstrubch jbsputfj tfrks. (J`t. #69). Bc

Gfdrumry 4?=4, dfimusf tnfy wfrf lg tnf vbfw tnmt tnf Ilurt‒s iambk

ilcstruitblc wms jftfrkbcmtbvf lg tnf bssuf lg clc-bcgrbchfkfct, Jfgfcjmcts

rfqufstfj tnmt tnf Ilurt fctfr mt afmst pmrtbma gbcma eujhkfct sl tnmt tnfy iluaj

mppfma tnf Ilurt‒s iambk ilcstruitblc lpbcblc. Eujhf Irltty jfcbfj tnmt

rfqufst. (J`t. #66). Jfgfcjmcts tnfrfglrf stbpuamtfj ms tl _ambctbgg‒s clc-

bcgrbchfkfct ucjfr tnf Ilurt‒s iambk ilcstruitblc, mcj tnf pmrtbfs pursufj

jbsilvfry abkbtfj tl tnf vmabjbty vfa clc lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct. (J`t. #67).

Znf imsf wms rfmssbhcfj tl tnf ucjfrsbhcfj lc Eucf 46, 4?=9 (J`t.

#78), mcj jbsilvfry ilctbcufj. Znf pmrtbfs sudkbttfj irlss-kltblcs glr

sukkmry eujhkfct lc tnf vmabjbty lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct dfhbccbch Eucf =7, 4?=:.

(J`t. #24). Znlsf kltblcs, wnbin mrf clw dfglrf tnf Ilurt, wfrf guaay drbfgfj

lc Yfptfkdfr =?, 4?=:. (J`t. #27-=?8, ==?). _ambctbgg klvfs glr eujhkfct lg

bcvmabjbty lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct lc glur hrlucjs, mcj Jfgfcjmct klvfs glr

Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf > lg 9=


9/31

2

eujhkfct lg vmabjbty lc tnlsf smkf hrlucjs5 (b) pmtfctmdbabty lg tnf sudefit

kmttfr0 (bb) ilrrfitcfss lg tnf cmkfj bcvfctlr0 (bbb) ldvbluscfss bc abhnt lg prblr

mrt0 mcj (bv) jfgbcbtfcfss lg iambks.

JBYIVYYBLC

M. Znf Yukkmry Eujhkfct Ytmcjmrj7

Vcjfr Gfjfrma Tuaf lg Ibvba _rlifjurf 67(m), sukkmry eujhkfct kmy df

hrmctfj lcay bg maa tnf sudkbssblcs tm`fc tlhftnfr ‑snlw tnmt tnfrf bs cl

hfcubcf bssuf ms tl mcy kmtfrbma gmit mcj tnmt tnf klvbch pmrty bs fctbtafj tl

eujhkfct ms m kmttfr lg amw.‛ Ifaltfx Ilrp. v. Imtrftt , :88 V.Y. 9=8, 944

(=2>7) (bctfrcma ibtmtblc mcj qultmtblc kmr`s lkbttfj)0 sff masl Mcjfrslc v.

Abdfrty Alddy, Bci., :88 V.Y. 4:4, 4:8-:> (=2>7). Znf klvbch pmrty dfmrs tnf

bcbtbma durjfc lg jfklcstrmtbch ‑tnf mdsfcif lg m hfcubcf bssuf lg kmtfrbma

gmit.‛ Ifaltfx , :88 V.Y. mt 949. M gmit bs ‑kmtfrbma‛ bg bt ‑kbhnt mggfit tnf

lutilkf lg tnf subt ucjfr tnf hlvfrcbch amw,‛ mcj bs hfcubcfay bc jbsputf ‑bg

tnf fvbjfcif bs suin tnmt m rfmslcmdaf eury iluaj rfturc m vfrjbit glr tnf

clcklvbch pmrty.‛ Mcjfrslc , :88 V.Y. mt 4:>0 sff masl Efggrfys v. Ibty lg Cfw

Rlr` , :47 G.9j 6:2, 669 (4j Ibr. 4??6) (ibtbch Mcjfrslc ).

Bt bs wfaa-fstmdabsnfj tnmt ‑Ps[ukkmry eujhkfct bs ms mpprlprbmtf bc m

pmtfct imsf ms bc mcy ltnfr.‛ Dmrkmh Dmrkfr Kmsinbcfcgmdrb` MH v. Kurmtm

7 Xnfc jfibjbch bssufs bc m pmtfct imsf, m jbstrbit ilurt mppabfs tnf amw lg tnf Ibriubt bcwnbin bt sbts tl clc-pmtfct bssufs mcj tnf amw lg tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt tl bssufs lgsudstmctbvf pmtfct amw. Yff Bc rf Imkdrbjhf Dbltfin Ilrp., =>7 G.9j =967, =97> (Gfj.

Ibr. =222). Miilrjbchay, m jbstrbit ilurt jfibjfs sukkmry eujhkfct kltblcs ucjfr tnf eurbsprujfcif lg bts rfhblcma ibriubt. Yff Jbhbtfin Bkmhf Zfins., AAI v. Fafitrlcbis glrBkmhbch, Bci., 86> G.9j =9::, =9:> (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=:).



10/31

=?

Kmin., Atj., 89= G.4j >9=, >96 (Gfj. Ibr. =2>:). Xnbaf tnf klvbch pmrty dfmrs

tnf bcbtbma durjfc lg jfklcstrmtbch ‑tnf mdsfcif lg m hfcubcf bssuf lg kmtfrbma

gmit,‛ Ifaltfx , :88 V.Y. mt 949, tnf pmrty lpplsbch tnf kltblc kust plbct tl mc

fvbjfctbmry ilcgabit irfmtfj lc tnf rfilrj wbtn gmits sft glrtn bc jftmba, usbch

mggbjmvbts lr sbkbamr jliukfcts, Mcjfrslc , :88 V.Y. mt 4:>, 46?. ‑Kfrf

ilciauslry maafhmtblcs lr jfcbmas imcclt dy tnfksfavfs irfmtf m hfcubcf bssuf

lg kmtfrbma gmit wnfrf clcf wluaj ltnfrwbsf fxbst.‛ Nbi`s v. Dmbcfs , 629 G.9j

=62, =77 (4j Ibr. 4?=?) (ibtmtblc mcj matfrmtblcs lkbttfj)0 sff masl Mcjfrslc ,

:88 V.Y. mt 4:>, 46?. Lc tnf ltnfr nmcj, tnf fstmdabsnfj gmits, ms wfaa ms mcy

bcgfrfcifs lg gmit jrmwc grlk suin gmits, kust df vbfwfj bc tnf abhnt klst

gmvlrmdaf tl tnf lpplsbch pmrty. Yff Jmaams Mfrlspmif, Bci. v. IBY Mbr Ilrp., 964

G.9j 886, 8>? (4j Ibr. 4??9)0 Mcjfrslc , :88 V.Y. mt 466. Xnfc jfibjbch irlss-

kltblcs glr sukkmry eujhkfct, suin ms tnf kltblcs pfcjbch dfglrf tnf Ilurt,

m jbstrbit ilurt kust ‑fvmaumtf fmin pmrty‒s kltblc lc bts lwc kfrbts, tm`bch

imrf bc fmin bcstmcif tl jrmw maa rfmslcmdaf bcgfrfcifs mhmbcst tnf pmrty wnlsf

kltblc bs ucjfr ilcsbjfrmtblc.‛ Inbajrfc Gbrst Glucj., Bci. v. Gbmam , Cl. ==-

6=22, ‚ G.9j ‚, 4?=6 XA 4:::6?=, mt *: (4j Ibr. Kmy 44, 4?=6) (ibtbch Dyrcf

v. Tutafjhf , 749 G.9j :7, 69 (4j Ibr. 4?=?)).

D. Mppabimdaf Amw

=.

_mtfct Fabhbdbabty Vcjfr Yfitblc =?= lg tnf _mtfct Mit

‑Xnftnfr m iambk bs jrmwc tl pmtfct-fabhbdaf sudefit kmttfr ucjfr

PYfitblc[ =?= bs m tnrfsnlaj bcqubryP.[‛ Bc rf Dbas`b , 6:6 G.9j 2:9, 26? (Gfj. Ibr.

4??>) (‑Dbas`b B ‛), mggbrkfj sud clk. Dbas`b v. @mppls , 67= V.Y. 629 (4?=?)

Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf =? lg 9=


11/31

==

(‑Dbas`b BB ‛). Bg m iambk bs clt jrmwc tl pmtfct-fabhbdaf sudefit kmttfr, bt ‑kust df

rfefitfj fvfc bg bt kffts maa lg tnf ltnfr afhma rfqubrfkfcts lg pmtfctmdbabty.‛ Bj.

Znf jftfrkbcmtblc lg wnftnfr m iambk bs jrmwc tl pmtfct-fabhbdaf sudefit kmttfr

bs m purf qufstblc lg amw. Yff Glrt _rlpfrtbfs, Bci. v. Mk. Kmstfr Afmsf AAI ,

78= G.9j =9=8, =94? (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=4)0 sff masl Dbas`b B , 6:6 G.9j mt 26=

(fxpambcbch tnmt pmtfct vmabjbty ucjfr § =?= bs mc ‑bssuf lg amw‛).8 Vcjfr tnf

8 Jfgfcjmcts mrhuf tnmt tnbs Ilurt kust mppay m ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛ stmcjmrj tljftfrkbcf wnftnfr _ambctbgg nms kft bts durjfc lg prllg ms tl fmin lg bts bcvmabjbtyilctfctblcs. (Yff Jfg. Dr. :, ==-=40 Jfg. Lpp. 8->). Xnbaf bt bs truf tnmt, tl tnf fxtfcttnf Ilurt ms gmitgbcjfr kust km`f gmituma jftfrkbcmtblcs, tnf ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛

stmcjmrj mppabfs (f.h., wnftnfr m pmtfct‒s fafkfcts fxbstfj bc prblr mrt), tl tnf fxtfcttnmt tnf Ilurt bs jrmwbch afhma ilciausblcs (f.h., wnftnfr tnf sudefit kmttfr bs pmtfct-fabhbdaf ucjfr Yfitblc =?=), cl suin stmcjmrj mppabfs. Bc mrhubch tnmt tnf Ilurt kustmppay m ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛ stmcjmrj tl jftfrkbcf sudefit kmttfr fabhbdbabty,Jfgfcjmcts ilcgamtf mc fvbjfctbmry durjfc wbtn afhma mcmaysbs. Znf imsf Jfgfcjmctsibtf glr tnbs mrhukfct bs Vatrmkfribma, Bci. v. Nuau, AAI , 844 G.9j =996, =9:4 (Gfj. Ibr.4?=9) (‑Vatrmkfribma B ‛), wnbin tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt vmimtfj mcj rfkmcjfj tl tnf GfjfrmaIbriubt glr gurtnfr ilcsbjfrmtblc bc abhnt lg Mabif . Yff XbajZmchfct, Bci. v. Vatrmkfribma,AAI , =9: Y. It. 4>8? (4?=:). Lc rfkmcj, bc f̀fpbch wbtn Mabif , tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt jbjclt kfctblc, kuin afss mppay, m ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛ stmcjmrj bc ilkbch tl bts afhmailciausblc tnmt tnf iambks mt bssuf wfrf jbrfitfj mt m pmtfct-bcfabhbdaf mdstrmit bjfm.Yff Vatrmkfribma, Bci. v. Nuau, AAI , 884 G.9j 8?2, 8=9-=8 (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=:) (‑VatrmkfribmaBB ‛). Bc m rfifct ilciurrfcif, Eustbif Drfyfr lggfrfj usfgua hubjmcif ilcifrcbch

mppabimtblc lg tnf ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛ fvbjfctbmry stmcjmrj bc tnbs ilctfxt5

PB[c tnbs mrfm lg amw ms bc ltnfrs tnf fvbjfctbmry stmcjmrj lg prllgmppabfs tl qufstblcs lg gmit mcj clt tl qufstblcs lg amw. … Znus mgmitgbcjfr kust usf tnf ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛ stmcjmrj wnfrftnfrf mrf jbsputfs mdlut, smy, wnfc m prljuit wms gbrst slaj lrwnftnfr m prblr mrt rfgfrfcif nmj dffc pudabsnfj. Kmcy iambks lgbcvmabjbty rfst, nlwfvfr, clt uplc gmituma jbsputfs, dut uplc nlwtnf amw mppabfs tl gmits ms hbvfc. Jl tnf hbvfc gmits snlw tnmt tnfprljuit wms prfvblusay ‑bc pudabi usf‛< 96 V.Y.I. § =?4(d). Jltnfy snlw tnmt tnf bcvfctblc wms ‑clvfPa[‛ mcj tnmt bt wms ‑clc-ldvblus‛< §§ =?4, =?9. Jl tnfy snlw tnmt tnf pmtfct mppabimctjfsirbdfj nbs iambks prlpfray< § ==4. Xnfrf tnf uatbkmtf qufstblc

lg pmtfct vmabjbty turcs lc tnf ilrrfit mcswfr tl afhmaqufstblcs ‚ wnmt tnfsf sudsbjbmry afhma stmcjmrjs kfmc lr nlwtnfy mppay tl tnf gmits ms hbvfc ‚ tljmy‒s strbit stmcjmrj lg prllgnms cl mppabimtblc. … Ilurts imc nfap tl `ffp tnf mppabimtblc lgtljmy‒s ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛ stmcjmrj wbtnbc bts prlpfr afhmadlucjs dy sfpmrmtbch gmituma mcj afhma mspfits lg mc bcvmabjbtyiambk, smy, dy usbch bcstruitblcs dmsfj lc imsf-spfibgbiibriukstmcifs tnmt nfap tnf eury km`f tnf jbstbcitblc lr dy usbchbctfrrlhmtlrbfs mcj spfibma vfrjbits tl km`f iafmr wnbin spfibgbigmituma gbcjbchs ucjfrabf tnf eury‒s ilciausblcs. Yff Gfj. T. Ibv.

Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf == lg 9=


12/31

=4

_mtfct Mit, maa pmtfcts mrf ‑prfsukfj vmabj,‛ mcj ‑Pf[min iambk lg m pmtfct

(wnftnfr bc bcjfpfcjfct, jfpfcjfct, lr kuatbpaf jfpfcjfct glrk) Pbs[ prfsukfj

vmabj bcjfpfcjfctay lg tnf vmabjbty lg ltnfr iambks.‛ 96 V.Y.I. § 4>4(m).

Yfitblc =?= jfgbcfs tnf imtfhlrbfs lg bcvfctblcs fabhbdaf glr pmtfct

prltfitblc. Bt prlvbjfs5 ‑Xnlfvfr bcvfcts lr jbsilvfrs mcy cfw mcj usfgua

prlifss, kminbcf, kmcugmiturf, lr ilkplsbtblc lg kmttfr, lr mcy cfw mcj

usfgua bkprlvfkfct tnfrflg, kmy ldtmbc m pmtfct tnfrfglr, sudefit tl tnf

ilcjbtblcs mcj rfqubrfkfcts lg tnbs tbtaf.‛ 96 V.Y.I. § =?=. Yfitblc =?= tnus

‑rfibtfs glur imtfhlrbfs lg pmtfct-fabhbdaf sudefit kmttfr5 prlifssfs, kminbcfs,

kmcugmiturfs, mcj ilkplsbtblcs lg kmttfr.‛ Dbas`b B , 6:6 G.9j mt 26=. Znf

Yuprfkf Ilurt rfilhcbzfs ‑tnrff spfibgbi fxifptblcs tl PYfitblc[ =?=‒s drlmj

pmtfct-fabhbdbabty prbcibpafs5 „amws lg cmturf, pnysbima pnfclkfcm, mcj mdstrmit

bjfms.‒‛ Dbas`b BB , 67= V.Y. mt 7?= (qultbch Jbmklcj v. Inm`rmdmrty , ::8 V.Y.

9?9, 9?2 (=2>?)). Matnluhn mdsfct grlk tnf tfxt lg Yfitblc =?=, ‑tnfsf

fxifptblcs mrf ... ilcsbstfct wbtn tnf cltblc tnmt m pmtfctmdaf prlifss kust df

P_.[ :2 mcj 6=. Dy bslamtbch tnf gmits (jftfrkbcfj wbtn nfap lg tnf‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛ stmcjmrj), ilurts imc tnfrfdy mssurf tnfprlpfr bctfrprftmtblc lr mppabimtblc lg tnf ilrrfit afhma stmcjmrj(wbtnlut usf lg tnf ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛ stmcjmrj). Dy prfvfctbchtnf ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛ stmcjmrj grlk rlmkbch lutsbjf bts gmit-rfamtfj rfsfrvmtblc, ilurts imc bcirfmsf tnf ab`fabnllj tnmt

jbsilvfrbfs lr bcvfctblcs wbaa clt rfifbvf afhma prltfitblc wnfrfclcf bs juf.

Kbirlslgt Ilrp. v. b:b Atj. _‒snbp , =9= Y. It. 449>, 4469 (4?==) (ibtmtblcs lkbttfj)0 sffmasl Mabif , =9: Y. It. mt 4966 (sfttbch glrtn tnf afhma grmkfwlr` glr jftfrkbcbch wnftnfrm iambk bs bcfabhbdaf ms mc mdstrmit bjfm wbtnlut rfgfrfcif tl tnf ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch,‛lr mcy, fvbjfctbmry stmcjmrj). Dfimusf tnbs Ilurt jftfrkbcfs tnmt ms m kmttfr lg amwtnf „>>8 _mtfct bs jrmwc tl pmtfct-bcfabhbdaf sudefit kmttfr, mcj bs tnus bcvmabj ucjfrYfitblc =?=, bt jlfs clt nmvf liimsblc tl wfbhn gmits usbch tnf ‑iafmr mcj ilcvbcibch‛fvbjfctbmry stmcjmrj.

Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf =4 lg 9=


13/31

=9

„cfw mcj usfgua.‒‛ Bj. Znf Yuprfkf Ilurt nms ilcstrufj Yfitblc =?= mcj bts

prfjfifsslrs bc tnbs kmccfr glr =6? yfmrs. Yff Mabif , =9: Y. It. mt 496:.

Ms tnf Ilurt nms fxpambcfj, ‑tnf ilcifrc tnmt jrbvfs tnbs fxiausblcmry

prbcibpaf Pb[s lcf lg prf-fkptblc.‛ Mabif , =9: Y. It. mt 496:0 sff masl Kmyl

Ilaamdlrmtbvf Yfrvs. v. _rlkftnfus Amds., Bci., =94 Y. It. =4>2, =42: (4?=4)

(stmtbch, bc gbcjbch prlifss clt pmtfct-fabhbdaf, tnmt ‑upnlajbch tnf pmtfcts

wluaj rbs` jbsprlplrtblcmtfay tybch up tnf usf lg tnf ucjfraybch cmturma amws,

bcnbdbtbch tnfbr usf bc tnf km`bch lg gurtnfr jbsilvfrbfs‛)0 Dbas`b BB , 67= V.Y. mt

7==-=4 (gbcjbch ilcifpt clt pmtfct-fabhbdaf dfimusf maalwbch pmtfct ‑wluaj prf-

fkpt usf lg tnbs mpprlmin bc maa gbfajs, mcj wluaj fggfitbvfay hrmct m klclplay

lvfr mc mdstrmit bjfm‛). ‑_nfclkfcm lg cmturf, tnluhn eust jbsilvfrfj, kfctma

prlifssfs, mcj mdstrmit bctfaafituma ilcifpts mrf clt pmtfctmdaf, ms tnfy mrf

tnf dmsbi tllas lg sibfctbgbi mcj tfinclalhbima wlr`,‛ Hlttsinma` v. Dfcslc , :?2

V.Y. 79, 78 (=284) (‑Dfcslc ‛), mcj ‑klclplabzmtblc lg tnlsf tllas tnrluhn tnf

hrmct lg m pmtfct kbhnt tfcj tl bkpfjf bcclvmtblc klrf tnmc bt wluaj tfcj tl

prlkltf bt,‛ tnfrfdy ucjfrkbcbch tnf _mtfct Mit‒s purplsf, Kmyl , =94 Y. It. mt

=4290 miilrj Mabif , =9: Y. It. mt 496:-66.

Lc tnf ltnfr nmcj, tnf Ilurt nms masl imutblcfj mhmbcst tll drlmjay

bctfrprftbch tnf Yfitblc =?= fxifptblcs, ‑Pg[lr maa bcvfctblcs mt slkf afvfa

fkdljy, usf, rfgafit, rfst uplc, lr mppay amws lg cmturf, cmturma pnfclkfcm, lr

mdstrmit bjfms.‛ Kmyl , =94 Y. It. mt =4290 sff bj. (‑Znf Ilurt nms

rfilhcbzfj ... tnmt tll drlmj mc bctfrprftmtblc lg tnbs fxiausblcmry prbcibpaf

iluaj fvbsifrmtf pmtfct amw.‛)0 sff masl Mabif , =9: Y. It. mt 496: (‑PX[f trfmj



14/31

=:

imrfguaay bc ilcstrubch tnbs fxiausblcmry prbcibpaf afst bt swmaalw maa lg pmtfct

amw.‛). Matnluhn amws lg cmturf, cmturma pnfclkfcm, mcj mdstrmit bjfms mrf

tnfksfavfs clt pmtfctmdaf, tnf Ilurt nms kmjf iafmr tnmt ‑„Pm[ppabimtblcs‒ lg

suin ilcifpts „tl m cfw mcj usfgua fcj‒ ... rfkmbc fabhbdaf glr pmtfct

prltfitblc.‛ Mabif , =9: Y. It. mt 496: (qultbch Dfcslc , :?2 V.Y. mt 78

(matfrmtblcs lkbttfj)). Miilrjbchay, bc mppaybch tnf Yfitblc =?= fxifptblcs,

ilurts ‑kust jbstbchubsn dftwffc pmtfcts tnmt iambk tnf dubajbch dali`s lg

nukmc bchfcubty mcj tnlsf tnmt bctfhrmtf tnf dubajbch dali`s bctl slkftnbch

klrf, ... tnfrfdy trmcsglrkbch tnfk bctl m pmtfct-fabhbdaf bcvfctblc.‛ Bj.

(ibtmtblcs, bctfrcma qultmtblc kmr`s, mcj drmi`fts lkbttfj).

4. Znf Zwl-Ytfp Mabif Grmkfwlr`

Znf Yuprfkf Ilurt bc Mabif iamrbgbfj tnf twl-stfp grmkfwlr`, gbrst sft

glrtn bc Kmyl , tnmt ilurts kust usf bc ‑jbstbchubsnbch pmtfcts tnmt iambk amws

lg cmturf, cmturma pnfclkfcm, mcj mdstrmit bjfms grlk tnlsf tnmt iambk

pmtfct-fabhbdaf mppabimtblcs lg tnlsf ilcifpts.‛ Mabif , =9: Y. It. mt 4966. Gbrst,

tnf ilurt kust jftfrkbcf wnftnfr tnf iambks mt bssuf mrf jbrfitfj tl lcf lg

tnlsf pmtfct-bcfabhbdaf ilcifpts. Bj. Yfilcj, bg sl, tnfc tnf ilurt kust

jftfrkbcf wnftnfr tnfrf bs slkftnbch fasf bc tnf iambks ‚ mc ‑bcvfctbvf

ilcifpt‛ ‚ ‑suggbibfct tl fcsurf tnmt tnf pmtfct bc prmitbif mklucts tl

sbhcbgbimctay klrf tnmc m pmtfct uplc tnf bcfabhbdaf ilcifpt btsfag.‛ Bj. Dfglrf

mppaybch tnbs grmkfwlr` tl tnf „>>8 _mtfct, nlwfvfr, tnf Ilurt rfvbfws Mabif ,

bts prfjfifsslrs, mcj bts prlhfcy, maa lg wnbin prlvbjf hubjmcif tl jbstrbit

ilurts bc jbggfrfctbmtbch dftwffc fabhbdaf mcj bcfabhbdaf sudefit kmttfr.

Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf =: lg 9=


15/31

=6

9. Fvlavbch Eurbsprujfcif lc Vcpmtfctmdaf Bjfms

Bc =284, tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt rfefitfj ms bcfabhbdaf pmtfct iambks bcvlavbch

mc mahlrbtnk glr ilcvfrtbch dbcmry-iljfj jfibkma cukfrmas bctl purf dbcmry

glrk, nlajbch tnmt tnf iambkfj pmtfct wms ‑bc prmitbima fggfit ... m pmtfct lc tnf

mahlrbtnk btsfag.‛ Dfcslc , :?2 V.Y. mt 8=-840 sff masl bj. mt 8= (‑Znf

kmtnfkmtbima glrkuam bcvlavfj nfrf nms cl sudstmctbma prmitbima mppabimtblc

fxifpt bc ilccfitblc wbtn m jbhbtma ilkputfr.‛). Yfvfrma yfmrs amtfr, bc _mr`fr v.

Gall` , :98 V.Y. 6>:, 62:-26 (=28>), tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt nfaj tnmt m

kmtnfkmtbima glrkuam glr ilkputbch ‑mamrk abkbts‛ bc m imtmaytbi ilcvfrsblc

prlifss wms masl m pmtfct-bcfabhbdaf mdstrmit bjfm. Yff masl bj. mt 6>7->8

(fxpambcbch tnmt ‑Pt[nf lcay jbggfrfcif dftwffc tnf ilcvfctblcma kftnljs lg

inmchbch mamrk abkbts mcj tnmt jfsirbdfj bc Ptnf[ mppabimtblc ... Pbs[ tnf

kmtnfkmtbima mahlrbtnk lr glrkuam‛)0 bj. mt 62= (nlajbch tnmt tl df pmtfctmdaf,

‑Pt[nf prlifss btsfag, clt kfrfay tnf kmtnfkmtbima mahlrbtnk, kust df cfw mcj

usfgua‛). Dut sff Jbmklcj v. Jbfnr , :6? V.Y. =86, =88 (=2>=) (mppaybch Dfcslc

mcj Gall` tl upnlaj m pmtfct iambkbch m ‑prlifss glr iurbch syctnftbi ruddfr

wnbin bciaujfs bc sfvfrma lg bts stfps tnf usf lg m kmtnfkmtbima glrkuam mcj m

prlhrmkkfj jbhbtma ilkputfr‛)0 bj. mt =>8->> (rfmslcbch tnmt ucab`f bc Dfcslc

mcj Gall` , tnf iambks bc tnf Jbfnr pmtfct ‑jPbj[ clt sff` tl prf-fkpt tnf usf lg

tnmt fqumtblc,‛ dut bcstfmj tnf fqumtblc paus mjjbtblcma spfibgbi stfps rfcjfrfj

tnf ilkdbcmtblc pmtfctmdaf ms ‑mc mppabimtblc lg m amw lg cmturf lr

kmtnfkmtbima glrkuam tl m `clwc struiturf lr prlifss‛).



16/31

=7

Bc 4?=?, tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt rfmggbrkfj tnfsf prbcibpafs bc Dbas`b ,

rfefitbch tnf fabhbdbabty lg m pmtfct tnmt iambkfj ‑tnf ilcifpt lg nfjhbch rbs` mcj

tnf mppabimtblc lg tnmt ilcifpt tl fcfrhy kmr`fts.‛ Dbas`b BB , 67= V.Y. mt 7?2.

Znf Dbas`b Ilurt nfaj tnmt ‑Pt[nf ilcifpt lg nfjhbch, jfsirbdfj bc iambk = mcj

rfjuifj tl m kmtnfkmtbima glrkuam bc iambk :, bs mc ucpmtfctmdaf mdstrmit

bjfm, eust ab`f tnf mahlrbtnks mt bssuf bc Dfcslc mcj Gall` . Maalwbch

pftbtblcfrs tl pmtfct rbs` nfjhbch wluaj prf-fkpt usf lg tnbs mpprlmin bc maa

gbfajs, mcj wluaj fggfitbvfay hrmct m klclplay lvfr mc mdstrmit bjfm.‛ Bj. mt

7==-=40 sff masl bj. mt 7=4 (fxpambcbch tnmt ‑abkbtbch mc mdstrmit bjfm tl lcf

gbfaj lg usf lr mjjbch tl`fc plst-slautblc ilkplcfcts jbj clt km`f tnf

ilcifpt pmtfctmdaf‛).

Glaalwbch Dbas`b BB , tnf Ilurt lg Mppfmas glr tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt nmj

sfvfrma lpplrtucbtbfs tl ilcsbjfr tnf pmtfct-fabhbdbabty lg mrhumday mdstrmit

bjfms, pmrtbiuamray ilkputfr-bkpafkfctfj bjfms. Grlk tnfsf jfibsblcs, bt bs

iafmr tnmt sbkpay bcvlavbch m ilkputfr bc m prlifss jlfs clt cfifssmrbay hrlucj

tnmt prlifss bc m tmchbdaf, pmtfctmdaf glrk. Glr fxmkpaf, bc IydfrYlurif Ilrp.

v. Tftmba Jfibsblcs, Bci., 76: G.9j =977 (Gfj. Ibr. 4?==), tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt

ilciaujfj tnmt m kftnlj lg jftfitbch irfjbt imrj grmuj wms pmtfct bcfabhbdaf,

cltwbtnstmcjbch tnf gmit tnmt tnf pmtfct rfibtfj tnf usf lg fxbstbch ilkputfrs

mcj tnf Bctfrcft. Znf Ilurt fkpnmsbzfj ‑tnmt tnf dmsbi inmrmitfr lg m prlifss

iambk jrmwc tl mc mdstrmit bjfm bs clt inmchfj dy iambkbch lcay bts

pfrglrkmcif dy ilkputfrs, lr dy iambkbch tnf prlifss fkdljbfj bc prlhrmk

bcstruitblcs lc m ilkputfr rfmjmdaf kfjbuk.‛ Bj. mt =9860 sff masl



17/31

=8

Jfmafrtrmi`, Bci. v. Nudfr , 78: G.9j =9=6, =999 (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=4) (‑Ybkpay

mjjbch m „ilkputfr mbjfj‒ abkbtmtblc tl m iambk ilvfrbch mc mdstrmit ilcifpt,

wbtnlut klrf, bs bcsuggbibfct tl rfcjfr tnf iambk pmtfct fabhbdaf.‛)0 bj. mt =999-

9: (ilciaujbch tnmt iambks jrmwc tl m ‑ilkputfr-mbjfj‛ kftnlj lg prlifssbch

bcglrkmtblc tnrluhn m iafmrbchnlusf gfaa lutsbjf tnf mkdbt lg Yfitblc =?=)0

Dmcilrp Yfrvs., A.A.I. v. Yuc Abgf Mssur. Il. lg Imcmjm (V.Y.) , 7>8 G.9j =477,

=4>? (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=4) (rfefitbch pmtfct ms bcfabhbdaf wnfrf ‑wbtnlut tnf

ilkputfr abkbtmtblcs cltnbch rfkmbcs bc tnf iambks dut tnf mdstrmit bjfm lg

kmcmhbch m stmdaf vmauf prltfitfj abgf bcsurmcif plabiy dy pfrglrkbch

imaiuamtblcs mcj kmcbpuamtbch tnf rfsuats‛)0 ig. KyYpmif, Bci. v. HrmpnLc Ilrp.,

784 G.9j =46?, =478 (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=4) (Kmyfr, E., jbssfctbch) (‑Xnbaf ruccbch m

pmrtbiuamr prlifss lc m ilkputfr ucjfcbmday bkprlvfs fggbibfciy mcj miiurmiy,

ialm`bch mc ltnfrwbsf mdstrmit bjfm bc tnf hubsf lg m ilkputfr-bkpafkfctfj

iambk bs bcsuggbibfct tl drbch bt wbtnbc sfitblc =?=.… Hbvfc tnf udbqubty lg

ilkputfrs bc ilctfkplrmry abgf, maalwbch m prlifss tl dfilkf pmtfctmdaf

sbkpay dfimusf bt bs ilkputfr-bkpafkfctfj lr bcvl`fs tnf usf lg tnf Bctfrcft

wluaj rfcjfr tnf sudefit-kmttfr fabhbdbabty irbtfrbm ilctmbcfj bc sfitblc =?=

vbrtumaay kfmcbchafss.‛ (ibtmtblcs lkbttfj)).

Bc 4?=4, tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt mhmbc ilcsbjfrfj pmtfct fabhbdbabty bc Kmyl

Ilaamdlrmtbvf Yfrvs. v. _rlkftnfus Amds., Bci., =94 Y. It. =4>2 (4?=4), mcj jrfw

m abcf dftwffc pmtfct-bcfabhbdaf ilcifpts mcj pmtfct-fabhbdaf mppabimtblcs lg

tnlsf ilcifpts. Bc jlbch sl, tnf Ilurt sft lut tnf twl-stfp grmkfwlr` (amtfr



18/31

=>

iamrbgbfj bc Mabif , ms sft glrtn mdlvf) tl jftfrkbcf lc wnbin sbjf lg tnmt abcf m

hbvfc ilcifpt gfaa. Mt bssuf bc Kmyl wfrf

pmtfct iambks ilvfrbch prlifssfs tnmt nfap jlitlrs wnl

usfPj[ tnblpurbcf jruhs tl trfmt pmtbfcts wbtnmutlbkkucf jbsfmsfs jftfrkbcf wnftnfr m hbvfc

jlsmhf afvfa Pwm[s tll alw lr tll nbhn. Znf iambkspurplrtPfj[ tl mppay cmturma amws jfsirbdbch tnf

rfamtblcsnbps dftwffc tnf ilcifctrmtblc bc tnf dallj lgifrtmbc tnblpurbcf kftmdlabtfs mcj tnf ab`fabnllj tnmttnf jruh jlsmhf wPluaj[ df bcfggfitbvf lr bcjuif nmrkguasbjf-fggfits.

Bj. mt =42:. Bc stfp lcf lg tnf grmkfwlr`, tnf Ilurt glucj tnmt tnf mt-bssuf

pmtfct iambks wfrf jbrfitfj tl pmtfct-bcfabhbdaf amws lg cmturf. _rliffjbch tl

stfp twl, tnf Ilurt nfaj tnmt tnf ilkdbcmtblc lg stfps rfibtfj bc tnf pmtfct

mppabimtblc wms clt fcluhn tl rfcjfr tnf iambkfj prlifss m clvfa mppabimtblc lg

tnf amw lg cmturf. Bt rfmslcfj tnmt ‑tnf stfps bc tnf iambkfj prlifssfs (mpmrt

grlk tnf cmturma amws tnfksfavfs) bcvlavf wfaa-ucjfrstllj, rlutbcf,

ilcvfctblcma mitbvbty prfvblusay fchmhfj bc dy rfsfmrinfrs bc tnf gbfaj,‛ bj., mcj

‑sbkpay mppfcjbch ilcvfctblcma stfps, spfibgbfj mt m nbhn afvfa lg hfcfrmabty, tl

amws lg cmturf, cmturma pnfclkfcm, mcj mdstrmit bjfms imcclt km`f tnlsf

amws, pnfclkfcm, mcj bjfms pmtfctmdaf,‛ bj. mt =9??. Miilrjbchay, tnf Ilurt

nfaj tnmt tnf iambkfj prlifss wms pmtfct-bcfabhbdaf.

Znf Yuprfkf Ilurt klst rfifctay mppabfj tnf twl-stfp grmkfwlr` bc

Mabif , wnfrf bt ilcsbjfrfj m pmtfct iambkbch ‑m kftnlj lg fxinmchbch gbcmcibma

ldabhmtblcs dftwffc twl pmrtbfs usbch m tnbrj-pmrty bctfrkfjbmry tl kbtbhmtf

sfttafkfct rbs`,‛ bc wnbin ‑Pt[nf bctfrkfjbmry irfmtfs mcj upjmtfs „snmjlw‒

rfilrjs tl rfgafit tnf vmauf lg fmin pmrty‒s mituma miilucts nfaj mt „fxinmchf

Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf => lg 9=


19/31

=2

bcstbtutblcs,‒ tnfrfdy pfrkbttbch lcay tnlsf trmcsmitblcs glr wnbin tnf pmrtbfs

nmvf suggbibfct rfslurifs.‛ =9: Y. It. mt 4967.> Mt stfp lcf, tnf Ilurt nfaj

tnf iambks wfrf jbrfitfj mt mc mdstrmit bjfm, fxpambcbch tnmt ‑Pa[b`f tnf rbs`

nfjhbch bc Dbas`b , tnf ilcifpt lg bctfrkfjbmtfj sfttafkfct bs „m gucjmkfctma

filclkbi prmitbif alch prfvmafct bc lur systfk lg ilkkfrif.‒‛ Bj. Bc sl

nlajbch, tnf Ilurt fkpnmsbzfj tnmt m ‑kftnlj lg lrhmcbzbch nukmc mitbvbty‛

kmy df bkpfrkbssbday mdstrmit bg bt bs hrlucjfj bc m gucjmkfctma prmitbif. Bj.

mt 4967-68.

Zurcbch tl tnf sfilcj stfp, tnf Ilurt nfaj tnmt ‑tnf kftnlj iambks,

wnbin kfrfay rfqubrf hfcfrbi ilkputfr bkpafkfctmtblc, gmba tl trmcsglrk tnmt

mdstrmit bjfm bctl m pmtfct-fabhbdaf bcvfctblc.‛ =9: Y. It. mt 4968. Znf Ilurt

fxpambcfj tnmt ‑Pt[nf bctrljuitblc lg m ilkputfr bctl tnf iambks jlfs clt matfr

tnf mcmaysbs mt Kmyl stfp twl.‛ Bj.0 sff masl bj. mt 497? (gbcjbch iambks kfrfay

bcvl`fj hfcfrbi ilkputfr gucitblcs wnfrf tnfy jfsirbdfj m ‑jmtm prlifssbch

systfk wbtn m ilkkucbimtblcs ilctrlaafr mcj jmtm stlrmhf ucbt,‛ wnbin wfrf

‑purfay gucitblcma mcj hfcfrbi‛ ilkplcfcts glr ‑pfrglrkbch tnf dmsbi

imaiuamtblc, stlrmhf, mcj trmcskbssblc gucitblcs rfqubrfj dy tnf kftnlj

iambks‛ (bctfrcma qultmtblc kmr`s lkbttfj)).2

>

Mabif wms bssufj Eucf =2, 4?=:, eust jmys mgtfr _ambctbgg‒s lpfcbch drbfg wms juf lc Eucf =7, 4?=:. Jfgfcjmcts jbsiussfj Mabif bc tnfbr lpfcbch drbfg (Jfg. Dr. ==-=>), mcj

_ambctbgg nmj mc lpplrtucbty tl mjjrfss bt bc bts lpplsbtblc/rfpay drbfg (_a. Lpp. =-=?).

2 Znfrf bs cl kmtfrbma jbggfrfcif dftwffc tnf ‑systfk‛ iambks sft glrtn bc tnf „>>8 _mtfctmcj tnf ‑kftnlj‛ iambks jbsiussfj bc Mabif mcj ltnfr imsfs. Yff Mabif , =9: Y. It. mt

497? (‑PZ[nf systfk iambks mrf cl jbggfrfct grlk tnf kftnlj iambks bc sudstmcif. Znfkftnlj iambks rfibtf tnf mdstrmit bjfm bkpafkfctfj lc m hfcfrbi ilkputfr0 tnf systfkiambks rfibtf m nmcjgua lg hfcfrbi ilkputfr ilkplcfcts ilcgbhurfj tl bkpafkfct tnfsmkf bjfm.‛).



20/31

4?

Znf Gfjfrma Ibriubt nms sbcif nmj sfvfrma lpplrtucbtbfs tl mppay tnf

grmkfwlr` mcj rfmslcbch lg Mabif . Glaalwbch Mabif , tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt rfvfrsfj

ilursf bc bts jfibsblc mgtfr rfkmcj bc Vatrmkfribma BB , 884 G.9j 8?2. Znf

jbstrbit ilurt nmj bcvmabjmtfj tnf pmtfct-bc-subt ms m pmtfct-bcfabhbdaf mdstrmit

bjfm0 tnf bcvfctblc wms jbrfitfj tl m kftnlj glr jbstrbdutbch ilpyrbhntfj kfjbm

prljuits lvfr tnf Bctfrcft wnfrf m ilcsukfr rfifbvfj m ilpyrbhntfj kfjbm

prljuit mt cl ilst bc fxinmchf glr vbfwbch mc mjvfrtbsfkfct, mcj tnf mjvfrtbsfr

pmbj glr tnf ilpyrbhntfj ilctfct. Yff bj. mt 8=4-=9.=? Znf Gfjfrma Ibriubt nmj

lrbhbcmaay rfvfrsfj, gbcjbch, bctfr mabm , tnmt tnf bcvfctblc ‑bcvlavfPj[ mc fxtfcsbvf

ilkputfr bctfrgmif.‛ Vatrmkfribma B , 844 G.9j mt =964. Lc rfkmcj glr

rfilcsbjfrmtblc bc abhnt lg Mabif , nlwfvfr, tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt mggbrkfj tnf

jbstrbit ilurt‒s bcvmabjmtblc, cltbch, ‑Znf Ilurt bc Mabif kmjf iafmr tnmt m iambk

tnmt bs jbrfitfj tl mc mdstrmit bjfm jlfs clt klvf bctl PYfitblc[ =?= fabhbdbabty

tfrrbtlry dy „kfrfay rfqubrPbch[ hfcfrbi ilkputfr bkpafkfctmtblc.‒‛ Vatrmkfribma

BB , 884 G.9j mt 8=9.

Bc m ‑strmbhntglrwmrj‛ mppabimtblc lg Mabif bc duyYMGF, Bci. v. Hllhaf, Bci.,

876 G.9j =96?, =966 (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=:), tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt mggbrkfj m jbstrbit

ilurt‒s bcvmabjmtblc lg iambks jbrfitfj tl ‑kftnljs mcj kminbcf-rfmjmdaf

=? Znf Ilurt abstfj tnf bcvfctblc‒s pfrtbcfct stfps ms bciaujbch5 ‑Pb[ rfifbvbch ilpyrbhntfjkfjbm grlk m ilctfct prlvbjfr0 Pbb[ sfafitbch mc mj mgtfr ilcsuatbch mc mitbvbty alh tljftfrkbcf wnftnfr tnf mj nms dffc pamyfj afss tnmc m ifrtmbc cukdfr lg tbkfs0Pbbb[ lggfrbch tnf kfjbm glr smaf lc tnf Bctfrcft0 Pbv[ rfstrbitbch pudabi miifss tl tnf kfjbm0Pv[ lggfrbch tnf kfjbm tl tnf ilcsukfr bc fxinmchf glr wmtinbch tnf sfafitfj mj0Pvb[ rfifbvbch m rfqufst tl vbfw tnf mj grlk tnf ilcsukfr0 Pvbb[ gmibabtmtbch jbspamy lg tnfmj0 Pvbbb[ maalwbch tnf ilcsukfr miifss tl tnf kfjbm0 Pbx[ maalwbch tnf ilcsukfr miifsstl tnf kfjbm bg tnf mj bs bctfrmitbvf0 Px[ upjmtbch tnf mitbvbty alh0 mcj Pxb[ rfifbvbchpmykfct grlk tnf splcslr lg tnf mj.‛ Vatrmkfribma BB , 884 G.9j mt 8=:-=6.

Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 4? lg 9=


21/31

4=

kfjbm fciljfj tl pfrglrk stfps glr humrmctffbch m pmrty‒s pfrglrkmcif lg bts

lcabcf trmcsmitblc.‛ 876 G.9j mt =96=.== Gbrst, tnf Ilurt glucj tnf iambks

wfrf mbkfj mt mc mdstrmit ilcifpt5 ‑Znf iambks mrf squmrfay mdlut irfmtbch m

ilctrmituma rfamtblcsnbp ‚ m „trmcsmitblc pfrglrkmcif humrmcty‒ ‚ tnmt bs

dfylcj qufstblc lg mcibfct abcfmhf.‛ Bj. mt =966. Znf gmit tnmt jfpfcjfct

iambks cmrrlwfj tnf iambks tl ‑pmrtbiuamr typfs lg suin rfamtblcsnbps‛ kmjf cl

jbggfrfcif. Bj.0 sff masl bj. (‑Znbs `bcj lg cmrrlwbch lg suin alch-gmkbabmr

ilkkfribma trmcsmitblcs jlfs clt km`f tnf bjfm clc-mdstrmit glr Yfitblc =?=

purplsfs.‛). Cfxt, tnf Ilurt glucj tnmt tnf iambks‒ bcvlimtblc lg ilkputfr

gucitblcmabty ‚ dy wnbin m ilkputfr ‑rfifbvPfj[ m rfqufst glr m humrmctff mcj

trmcskbtPtfj[ mc lggfr lg humrmctff bc rfturc‛ ‚ mjjfj ‑cl bcvfctbvf ilcifpt.‛

Bj.

Klrf rfifctay, bc LB_ Zfins., Bci. v. Mkmzlc.ilk, Bci., Cl. 4?=4-=727,

‚ G.9j ‚, 4?=6 XA 9744=>= (Gfj. Ibr. Eucf ==, 4?=6), tnf Ilurt ilcsbjfrfj

iambks jbrfitfj tl tnf ilcifpt lg ‑lggfr-dmsfj prbif lptbkbzmtblc‛ tnmt rfibtfj m

‑kftnlj lg prbibch m prljuit glr smaf.‛ 4?=6 XA 9744=>=, mt *9.=4 Gbcjbch

== Znf Ilurt sukkmrbzfj tnf rfprfsfctmtbvf iambk ms ‑m kftnlj bc wnbin Pb[ m ilkputfrlpfrmtfj dy tnf prlvbjfr lg m smgf trmcsmitblc sfrvbif rfifbvfs m rfqufst glr mpfrglrkmcif humrmctff glr mc „lcabcf ilkkfribma trmcsmitblc‒0 Pbb[ tnf ilkputfrprlifssfs tnf rfqufst dy ucjfrwrbtbch tnf rfqufstbch pmrty bc lrjfr tl prlvbjf tnf

trmcsmitblc humrmctff sfrvbif0 mcj Pbbb[ tnf ilkputfr lggfrs, vbm m „ilkputfr cftwlr`,‒ mtrmcsmitblc humrmcty tnmt dbcjs tl tnf trmcsmitblc uplc tnf ialsbch lg tnf trmcsmitblc.‛duyYMGF , 876 G.9j mt =96=.

=4 Znf Ilurt glucj tnf rfafvmct abkbtmtblcs lg tnf rfprfsfctmtbvf iambk wfrf5 ‑Pb[ tfstbch mpaurmabty lg prbifs0 Pbb[ hmtnfrbch stmtbstbis hfcfrmtfj mdlut nlw iustlkfrs rfmitfj tl tnflggfrs tfstbch tnf prbifs0 Pbbb[ usbch tnmt jmtm tl fstbkmtf lutilkfs (b.f. kmppbch tnfjfkmcj iurvf lvfr tbkf glr m hbvfc prljuit)0 mcj Pbv[ mutlkmtbimaay sfafitbch mcjlggfrbch m cfw prbif dmsfj lc tnf fstbkmtfj lutilkf.‛ LB_ Zfins., ‚ G.9j ‚, 4?=6 XA

9744=>=, mt *4.

Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 4= lg 9=


22/31

44

tnmt ‑lggfr dmsfj prbibch‛ wms ‑sbkbamr tl ltnfr „gucjmkfctma filclkbi

ilcifpts‒ glucj tl df mdstrmit bjfms dy tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt mcj tnbs ilurt,‛ tnf

Ilurt nfaj tnmt ‑Pi[lcsbjfrfj bcjbvbjumaay lr tm`fc tlhftnfr ms mc lrjfrfj

ilkdbcmtblc, tnf iambk fafkfcts gmba tl „trmcsglrk‒ tnf iambkfj mdstrmit bjfm

bctl m pmtfct-fabhbdaf mppabimtblc.‛ Bj. (bctfrcma qultmtblc kmr`s lkbttfj). Znf

Ilurt mhrffj wbtn tnf jbstrbit ilurt tnmt pmtfct-bc-subt iambkfj ‑cl klrf tnmc

mc mdstrmit bjfm ilupafj wbtn rlutbcf jmtm-hmtnfrbch stfps mcj ilcvfctblcma

ilkputfr mitbvbty,‛ mcj upnfaj bcvmabjmtblc. Bj. mt *=0 sff masl IFZ , 887 G.9j

mt =9:6 (mggbrkbch bcvmabjmtblc lg kftnlj pmtfct usbch ‑mutlkmtfj jbhbtbzbch

ucbt,‛ b.f., ilkputfr simccfr, glr fxtrmitbch, rfilhcbzbch, imtfhlrbzbch, mcj

stlrbch bcglrkmtblc grlk nmrj-ilpy jliukfcts, f.h., infi`s dy MZK kminbcfs)0

_amcft Dbchl , 687 G. Mpp‒x mt =??7 (bcvmabjmtbch, bc ‑strmbhntglrwmrj

mppabimtblc‛ lg Mabif , ilkputfr-mbjfj kftnljs mcj systfks glr kmcmhbch tnf

hmkf lg dbchl).

Bc lcay lcf imsf sbcif tnf bssumcif lg Mabif nms tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt nfaj m

ilkputfr-bkpafkfctfj kftnlj pmtfct tl df fabhbdaf, mcj tnfrf bt wms m jbvbjfj

pmcfa. JJT Nlajbchs, AAI v. Nltfas.ilk, A._., 889 G.9j =4:6 (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=:).

Bc JJT Nlajbchs , tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt nfaj tnmt iambks ilvfrbch ‑systfks mcj

kftnljs lg hfcfrmtbch m ilkplsbtf wfd pmhf tnmt ilkdbcfs ifrtmbc vbsuma

fafkfcts lg m „nlst‒ wfdsbtf wbtn ilctfct lg m tnbrj-pmrty kfrinmct‛ pmssfj

kustfr ucjfr Yfitblc =?=. 889 G.9j mt =4:>. Znf ilkplsbtf wfd pmhf

prfvfctfj tnbrj-pmrty kfrinmcts grlk aurbch vbsbtlr trmggbi mwmy grlk m nlst

wfdsbtf. Bj. Tmtnfr tnmc dfbch rfjbrfitfj tl m kfrinmct‒s wfdsbtf, m abc`fj



23/31

49

mjvfrtbsfkfct wluaj tm`f tnf vbsbtlr tl m ilkplsbtf wfd pmhf tnmt jbspamyfj

prljuit bcglrkmtblc grlk tnf tnbrj-pmrty kfrinmct wnbaf kmbctmbcbch tnf nlst

wfdsbtf‒s ‑all` mcj gffa.‛ Bj.

Znf Gfjfrma Ibriubt mjvfrtfj tl, dut jbj clt guaay fchmhf bc, tnf gbrst stfp

lg Mabif 5 wnbaf mi`clwafjhbch tnmt tnf iambks wfrf jbrfitfj tl mc mdstrmit bjfm,

bt jbj clt bjfctbgy tnf prfibsf cmturf lg tnmt bjfm. Bj. mt =468. Bcstfmj, bt

ldsfrvfj tnmt, nlwfvfr inmrmitfrbzfj, Mabif ‒s sfilcj stfp wms kft dfimusf tnf

iambks jbj ‑clt kfrfay rfibtf tnf pfrglrkmcif lg slkf dusbcfss prmitbif `clwc

grlk tnf prf-Bctfrcft wlraj malch wbtn tnf rfqubrfkfct tl pfrglrk bt lc tnf

Bctfrcft,‛ dut bcstfmj, ‑tnf iambkfj slautblc Pwms[ cfifssmrbay rlltfj bc

ilkputfr tfinclalhy tl lvfrilkf m prldafk spfibgbimaay mrbsbch bc tnf rfmak lg

ilkputfr cftwlr`s.‛ Bj. Znf Ilurt glucj tnf iambks mt bssuf jbstbchubsnmdaf

grlk bcfabhbdaf ilkputfr-bkpafkfctfj kftnljs dfimusf tnfy ‑Pjbj[ clt drlmjay

mcj hfcfrbimaay iambk „usf lg tnf Bctfrcft‒ tl pfrglrk mc mdstrmit dusbcfss

prmitbif (wbtn bcsbhcbgbimct mjjfj mitbvbty),‛ mcj tnf iambks ‑spfibgPbfj[ nlw

bctfrmitblcs wbtn tnf Bctfrcft mrf kmcbpuamtfj tl ybfaj m jfsbrfj rfsuat ‚ m

rfsuat tnmt lvfrrbjfs tnf rlutbcf mcj ilcvfctblcma sfqufcif lg fvfcts lrjbcmrbay

trbhhfrfj dy tnf iabi` lg m nypfrabc`.‛ Bj. mt =46>. Bc ltnfr wlrjs, ‑tnf

abkbtmtblcs lg tnf ... mssfrtfj iambks P [ tm`fc tlhftnfr ms mc lrjfrfj

ilkdbcmtblc ... rfibtfPj[ mc bcvfctblc tnmt Pwm[s clt kfrfay tnf rlutbcf lr

ilcvfctblcma usf lg tnf Bctfrcft.‛ Bj. mt =462. Dut sff bj. mt =479-77 (Kmyfr,

E., jbssfctbch) (amkfctbch tnf ‑stmhhfrbch‛ silpf lg JJT‒s pmtfcts, wnbin

‑jfsirbdfPj[ m hlma ‚ ilcgusbch ilcsukfrs dy km`bch twl wfd pmhfs all`



24/31

4:

mab`f ‚ dut jbsialsfPj[ cl cfw tfinclalhy lr bcvfctbvf ilcifpt glr minbfvbch

tnmt hlma,‛ mcj ‑mrhumday ilvfrPfj[ vmst swmtns lg Bctfrcft ilkkfrif‛ (ibtmtblcs

lkbttfj)).

I. Mppabimtblc lg tnf Zwl-Ytfp Mabif Grmkfwlr` tl tnf „>>8 _mtfct

Bc drlmj sukkmry, _ambctbgg mrhufs tnmt tnf iambks lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct gmaa

lutsbjf Yfitblc =?= dfimusf tnfy tfmin tnf ‑mdstrmit bjfm lg irlwj-dmsfj

gucjbch‛ (_a. Dr. =?), lr lg ‑rmbsbch klcfy grlk gmcs tl supplrt mc mrtbstbi wlr`‛

(_a. Lpp. =), lr lg ‑rmbsbch klcfy grlk pmtrlcmhf‛ (bj. mt 6)0 tnf mjjbtblc lg m

ilkputfr jlfs clt rfcjfr tnf kmtfrbma pmtfctmdaf, bcmskuin ms tnf _mtfct lcay

‑rfibtfs hfcfrbi stfps mcj tllas glr bkpafkfctbch tnf mdstrmit bjfm‛ lc m

ilkputfr. (_a. Dr. ==). Jfgfcjmcts mssfrt tnmt tnf „>>8 _mtfct bs clt jbrfitfj

tlwmrjs mc mdstrmit bjfm, mcj iluctfr tnmt dfimusf _ambctbgg nms ‑gmbaPfj[ tl

prlvbjf mcy jfgbcbtblc glr irlwj-dmsfj gucjbch,‛ tnfrf bs ‑cl wmy glr tnf Ilurt

tl mssfss wnftnfr tnf iambks mrf jbrfitfj tl tnmt ucjfgbcfj ilcifpt.‛ (Jfg. Dr.

=9). Jfgfcjmcts gurtnfr mrhuf tnmt tnf „>>8 _mtfct wluaj clt prffkpt ltnfr

mppabimtblcs lg tnf bjfm lg irlwj-dmsfj gucjbch, cfifssbtmtbch tnf ilciausblc

tnmt bt bs clt mdstrmit, mcj tnmt bts iambks ilvfr ‑pmrtbiuamr systfks glr

kmcmhbch, kmr`ftbch, mcj gbcmcibch m irfmtbvf wlr`‛ (bj. mt =9-=:), lr ‑m

pmrtbiuamrbzfj mcj clvfa systfk glr prlvbjbch slgtwmrf tllas glr prfpmrbch,

amucinbch, mcj kmcmhbch m gmc gucjfj prlefit‛ (Jfg. Tfpay ==). Ms m gmaadmi`

plsbtblc, Jfgfcjmcts mssfrt tnmt fvfc bg tnf „>>8 _mtfct bs jbrfitfj tl mc

mdstrmit ilcifpt, bts fafkfcts ‚ wnfc ilcsbjfrfj ms ‑mc lrjfrfj

ilkdbcmtblc‛ ‚ trmcsglrk bts iambks bctl pmtfct-fabhbdaf mppabimtblcs lg tnmt

Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 4: lg 9=


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46

bjfm. (Jfg. Dr. =6-=>0 Jfg. Tfpay ==-=4). Mppaybch tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt‒s twl-

stfp grmkfwlr`, mcj hubjfj dy tnf rfifct prfifjfct jbsiussfj mdlvf, tnf

Ilurt mhrffs wbtn _ambctbgg tnmt tnf „>>8 _mtfct iambks m pmtfct-bcfabhbdaf

mdstrmit bjfm.

=. Znf Iambks lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct Mrf Jbrfitfj Zlwmrj m _mtfct-Bcfabhbdaf Ilcifpt

Znf „>>8 _mtfct‒s iambks mrf jbrfitfj tl tnf ilcifpt lg irlwj-gucjbch lr

gmc-gucjbch, b.f., rmbsbch gucjs glr m prlefit grlk bctfrfstfj bcjbvbjumas bc

fxinmchf glr bcifctbvfs. Xnftnfr tnf mdstrmit bjfm bc pamy nfrf bs jfgbcfj ms

‑irlwj-gucjbch,‛ ‑irlwj-dmsfj gucjbch,‛ ‑gmc-gucjbch,‛ ‑bcifctbvf-dmsfj

pmtrlcmhf,‛ ‑bcifctbvbzfj irlwj-gucjbch,‛ lr slkf ltnfr ilkdbcmtblc lg tnfsf

wlrjs bs lg cl klkfct5 tnf mdstrmit ilcifpt mt pamy bc tnf _mtfct rfkmbcs tnf

smkf. Iambk = drlmjay rfibtfs m ‑systfk glr kmr`ftbch mcj gucjbch lcf lr

klrf prlefits lg mc mrtbst‛ („>>8 _mtfct ila.4= a.96-97) mcj tnf spfibgbimtblc

jfsirbdfs tnf bcvfctblc ms ‑kftnljs mcj systfks glr ldtmbcbch gbcmcibch grlk

bctfrfstfj bcjbvbjumas tl prljuif m irfmtbvf wlr` bc fxinmchf glr mc

fctbtafkfct grlk tnf mutnlr lg tnf wlr`‛ (bj. mt ila.= a.=6-4?). Znfsf iambks mrf

squmrfay mdlut pmtrlcmhf ‚ m ilcifpt tnmt bs ‑dfylcj qufstblc lg mcibfct

abcfmhf.‛ duyYMGF , 876 G.9j mt =966. (Yff masl EM^ Fx. :: (Fxpfrt Tfplrt lg

Ftnmc Klaabi`) mt · =? (cltbch tnmt ‑lggfrbch rfwmrjs glr vmrblus afvfas lg

gbcmcibma supplrt‛ nms m ‑nbstlry jmtbch dmi` ifcturbfs‛ mcj bs tnf ‑smkf

mpprlmin tm`fc dy Ptnf _udabi Drlmjimstbch Yfrvbif[ mcj PCmtblcma _udabi

Tmjbl[‛)).



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Klrflvfr, tnbs ilcifpt lg bcifctbvf-dmsfj gucjbch bs bcilctfstmday

sbkbamr tl ltnfr ‑gucjmkfctma filclkbi ilcifpts,‛ mcj tl ltnfr typfs lg

‑lrhmcbzbch nukmc mitbvbty,‛ dltn lg wnbin nmvf dffc glucj tl df mdstrmit

bjfms dy tnf Yuprfkf Ilurt mcj tnf Gfjfrma Ibriubt. Yff , f.h., Mabif , =9: Y. It.

mt 4968 (bctfrkfjbmtfj sfttafkfct)0 Dbas`b BB , 67= V.Y. mt 7== (rbs` nfjhbch)0 LB_

Zfins., ‚ G.9j ‚, 4?=6 XA 9744=>=, mt *9 (lggfr-dmsfj prbif lptbkbzmtblc)0

duyYMGF , 876 G.9j mt =966 (trmcsmitblc pfrglrkmcif humrmctff)0 Vatrmkfribma

BB , 884 G.9j mt 8=6 (usbch mjvfrtbsbch ms mc fxinmchf lr iurrfciy)0 IFZ , 887

G.9j mt =9:8 (jmtm ilaafitblc)0 Miifcturf Haldma Yfrvs., HkdN v. Hubjfwbrf

Ylgtwmrf, Bci., 84> G.9j =997, =9:7 (Gfj. Ibr. 4?=9) (hfcfrmtbch tms`s bc mc

bcsurmcif lrhmcbzmtblc)0 _amcft Dbchl , 687 G. Mpp‒x mt =??> (kmcmhbch m hmkf

lg dbchl). Eust dfimusf tnf iambks jl clt prffkpt maa irlwj-gucjbch jlfs clt

km`f tnfk mcy afss mdstrmit. Yff Dbas`b , 67= V.Y. mt 7=4 (‑Gall` fstmdabsnfj

tnmt abkbtbch mc mdstrmit bjfm tl lcf gbfaj lg usf lr mjjbch tl`fc plstslautblc

ilkplcfcts jbj clt km`f tnf ilcifpt pmtfctmdaf.‛)0 LB_ Zfins., ‚ G.9j ‚,

4?=6 XA 9744=>=, mt *9 (‑Mcj tnmt tnf iambks jl clt prffkpt maa prbif

lptbkbzmtblc lr kmy df abkbtfj tl prbif lptbkbzmtblc bc tnf f-ilkkfrif sfttbch

jl clt km`f tnfk mcy afss mdstrmit.‛)0 sff masl duyYMGF , 876 G.9j mt =966

(ilaafitbch imsfs).=9

=9 Iurblusay, bc mrhubch tnmt tnf „>>8 _mtfct jlfs clt prffkpt maa irlwj-dmsfj gucjbch,Jfgfcjmcts prlvbjf ms mc fxmkpaf tnmt ‑clcf lg tnf prblr mrt rfgfrfcifs prljuifj dy@bi`stmrtfr wluaj nmvf dffc prffkptfj‛ (Jfg. Dr. =:), dut Jfgfcjmcts jl clt plbct tlmcy prfsfct-jmy irlwj-gucjbch pamtglrk tnmt wluaj clt df prffkptfj.



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4. Znfrf Mrf Cl Mjjbtblcma Fafkfcts Yuggbibfct tl Zrmcsglrk tnfCmturf lg tnf Iambk

Cltnbch mdlut tnf „>>8 _mtfct trmcsglrks tnf ilcifpt lg irlwj-gucjbch

bctl pmtfct-fabhbdaf sudefit kmttfr. Dfylcj tnf mdstrmit bjfm lg pmtrlcmhf, tnf

iambks kfrfay rfibtf ‑wfaa-ucjfrstllj, rlutbcf ilcvfctblcma mitbvbtbfs,‛ dy

rfqubrbch fbtnfr ilcvfctblcma ilkputfr mitbvbtbfs lr rlutbcf jmtm-hmtnfrbch

stfps. Mabif , =9: Y. It. mt 4962 (matfrmtblcs lkbttfj). Ilcsbjfrfj bcjbvbjumaay

lr tm`fc tlhftnfr ms mc lrjfrfj ilkdbcmtblc, tnf iambk fafkfcts gmba ‑tl

„trmcsglrk‒ tnf iambkfj mdstrmit bjfm bctl m pmtfct-fabhbdaf mppabimtblc.‛ Bj. mt

4968 (ibtmtblc lkbttfj). Glr fxmkpaf, Iambk = rfibtfs ‑mppabimtblc prlhrmks‛

prlvbjbch ‑slgtwmrf tllas‛ tl kmcmhf prlefits, trmcskbttbch mcj rfifbvbch ‑lggfr

jmtm‛ mcj ‑miifptmcif jmtm,‛ ‑rfhbstfrbch ilctmit mcj kmr`ftbch bcglrkmtblc‛ lg

bcjbvbjumas bc m jmtmdmsf, mcj prlvbjbch ‑slgtwmrf tllas‛ tl ilkkucbimtf wbtn

tnlsf bc tnf jmtmdmsf. („>>8 _mtfct ila.4= a.96-79). Eust ms bc Mabif , ‑maa lg

tnfsf ilkputfr gucitblcs mrf wfaa-ucjfrstllj, rlutbcf, ilcvfctblcma mitbvbtbfs

prfvblusay `clwc tl tnf bcjustry.‛ Mabif , =9: Y. It. mt 4962 (bctfrcma qultmtblc

kmr`s mcj matfrmtblcs lkbttfj)0 sff bj. (gbcjbch tnmt tnf ‑usf lg m ilkputfr tl

irfmtf fafitrlcbi rfilrjs, trmi` kuatbpaf trmcsmitblcs, mcj bssuf sbkuatmcflus

bcstruitblcs‛ wms clt mc bcvfctbvf ilcifpt)0 duyYMGF , 876 G.9j mt =966 (‑Znmt

m ilkputfr rfifbvfs mcj sfcjs tnf bcglrkmtblc lvfr m cftwlr` ‚ wbtn cl

gurtnfr spfibgbimtblc ‚ bs clt fvfc mrhumday bcvfctbvf.‛)0 Vatrmkfribma BB , 884

G.9j mt 8=7 (‑PZ[nf stfps lg ilcsuatbch mcj upjmtbch mc mitbvbty alh rfprfsfct

bcsbhcbgbimct „jmtm-hmtnfrbch stfps,‒ ... mcj tnus mjj cltnbch lg prmitbima

sbhcbgbimcif tl tnf ucjfraybch mdstrmit bjfm.‛ (ibtmtblc lkbttfj))0 Dmcilrp Yfrvs.,



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4>

7>8 G.9j mt =48> (nlajbch m ilkputfr ‑fkpalyfj lcay glr bts klst dmsbi

gucitblc ... jlfs clt bkplsf kfmcbchgua abkbts lc tnf silpf lg tnlsf iambks‛).

Fvfc tnbs ‑lrjfrfj ilkdbcmtblc lg stfps rfibtfs mc mdstrmitblc.‛

Vatrmkfribma BB , 884 G.9j mt 8=6. Znf prlifss lg plstbch m prlefit lcabcf,

prlvbjbch jbggfrfct afvfas lg bcifctbvfs glr jbggfrfct afvfas lg gucjs, stlrbch tnf

bcglrkmtblc lg bcjbvbjumas wnl miifpt lggfrs glr bcifctbvfs bc m jmtmdmsf, mcj

prlvbjbch slgtwmrf tllas tl ilctmit tnf bcjbvbjumas tnrluhn tnf jmtmdmsf ‑maa

jfsirbdf mc mdstrmit bjfm, jfvlbj lg m ilcirftf lr tmchbdaf mppabimtblc.‛ Bj.

Jfgfcjmcts‒ mrhukfcts tnmt tnf iambk abkbtmtblcs spfaa lut ‑m pmrtbiuamr systfk

tnmt maalws usfrs tl mutlkmtbimaay irfmtf, kmcmhf, mcj gucj tnfbr lwc prlefits

usbch m spfibgbi ilaafitblc lg slgtwmrf tllas tnmt mrf lpfrmdaf grlk m rfkltf sbtf‛

mrf sbkpay ucmvmbabch. (Jfg. Dr. =:). Klrf tl tnf plbct, Jfgfcjmcts‒ rfpftbtblc

lg wlrjs ab`f ‑pmrtbiuamr‛ mcj ‑spfibgbi‛ bc dlaj btmabis wnfc rfgfrrbch tl tnf

iambks bc tnf „>>8 _mtfct jlfs clt km`f tnfk sl. (Yff bj. mt =:-=6). Mcj wnbaf

abkbtmtblcs ab`f ‑lpfrmdaf grlk m rfkltf sbtf‛ mcj tnf ilcstruitblc lg

‑fctbtafkfct‛ tl bciaujf ‑mt afmst lcf prljuit mcj mt afmst lcf sfrvbif mcj mt

afmst lcf pmtrlcmhf,‛ kbhnt mjj slkf jfhrff lg pmrtbiuamrbty, tnf ilcifpt

fkdljbfj dy tnf kmelrbty lg tnf abkbtmtblcs jfsirbdfs=: lcay tnf mdstrmit bjfm lg

bcifctbvf-dmsfj gucjbch lr pmtrlcmhf bkpafkfctfj lcabcf. Yff Vatrmkfribma BB ,

884 G.9j mt 8=60 sff masl Gall` , :98 V.Y. mt 629 (rfefitbch tnf mrhukfct ‑tnmt

=: Jfgfcjmcts‒ sfkmctbi safbhnt-lg-nmcj tnmt tnf iambks jl clt ‑jfsirbdf‛ mc mdstrmit bjfm,dut bcstfmj mrf ‑jbrfitfj tlwmrj‛ m systfk bcilrplrmtbch slgtwmrf glr kmcmhbch m gmc-gucjfj prlefit (vbz., wnmt tnbs Ilurt nms jftfrkbcfj bs mc mdstrmit bjfm), nms cl dmsbs

bc tnf amw mcj wbaa clt df mjjrfssfj gurtnfr. (Jfg. Tfpay =?-==).

Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 4> lg 9=


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bg m prlifss mppabimtblc bkpafkfcts m prbcibpaf bc slkf spfibgbi gmsnblc, bt

mutlkmtbimaay gmaas wbtnbc tnf pmtfctmdaf sudefit kmttfr lg PYfitblc[ =?=‛)0 ig.

JJT Nlajbchs , 889 G.9j mt =46> (gbcjbch iambks fabhbdaf wnfrf tnfy rfibtfj

spfibgbi kmcbpuamtblc tnmt ‑lvfrPrljf[ tnf rlutbcf mcj ilcvfctblcma sfqufcif lg

fvfcts‛ prfvfctbch tnf ‑ilkputfr cftwlr` Pgrlk[ lpfrmtbch bc bts clrkma,

fxpfitfj kmccfr‛). Bcjffj, Jfgfcjmcts‒ lwc fxpfrt mi`clwafjhfs tnmt tnf

„>>8 _mtfct bs m ‑dusbcfss kljfa‛ bkpafkfctfj wbtn m ‑cftwlr`-dmsfj slgtwmrf

slautblc.‛ (EM^ Fx. :7 (Fxpfrt Tfplrt lg Kmrsnmaa Klcrlf) mt · 6> (‑Znf „>>8

_mtfct jfsirbdfs m systfk tnmt ilkdbcfs tnf dusbcfss kljfa lg slabibtbch gucjs

jbrfitay grlk bctfrfstfj bcjbvbjumas tl gbcmcif tnf irfmtblc, ilkpaftblc, lr

jbstrbdutblc lg m irfmtbvf wlr`, mklch ltnfr tnbchs, wbtn m cftwlr`-dmsfj

slgtwmrf slautblc.‛)).

Klrflvfr, tnf amchumhf lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct btsfag dfabfs Jfgfcjmcts‒

mrhukfcts mdlut m ‑pmrtbiuamr systfk‛ mcj ‑spfibgbi slgtwmrf tllas.‛ Ms

_ambctbgg plbcts lut (_a. Lpp. 6-7), tnf „>>8 _mtfct spfibgbimtblc fxprfssay jlfs

clt abkbt tnf bcvfctblc tl mcy pmrtbiuamr systfk, slgtwmrf, lr nmrjwmrf5

tnf ilkputfr systfks … kmy bciaujf vmrblus nmrjwmrf

mcj lpfrmtbch slgtwmrf … glr ruccbch slgtwmrfprlhrmks, drlwsbch tnf Bctfrcft, ilkkucbimtbch

mcj/lr lpfrmtbch wbtn mcy jfvbif, bciaujbch, glrfxmkpaf, m prbctfr, m jbspamy, m `fydlmrj, m klusf, mkljfk, m pnlcf, m wbrfafss jfvbif, tnf Bctfrcft, m

ilkputfr cftwlr`, m slucj systfk, mcj mcy ltnfrbctfrcma lr fxtfrcma jfvbif.

(„>>8 _mtfct mt ila.> a.6:-78). Znf spfibgbimtblc gurtnfr mjkbts tnmt tnf

bcvfctblc ‑kmy km`f usf lg m ilkdbcmtblc lg fxbstbch prlvfc dusbcfss kljfas

bciaujbch dmc`bch, pmtrlc systfks, kfrinmcjbsbch pmrtcfrsnbps, jbrfit



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9?

kmr`ftbch, pudabsnbch, gbaf snmrbch mcj bctfrcft cftwlr`bchP.[‛ (Bj. mt ila.:

a.==-=6). Bt drlmjay mssfrts tnmt tnf pmtfctfj systfk ‑kmy df sft up mcj ruc

lc tnf Xlraj-Xbjf-Xfd, tnus usbch m paurmabty lg wfdsbtfs mcj wfd pmhfs,

usbch, glr fxmkpaf, ntka, xka, mcj emvm prlhrmkkbchP.[‛ (Bj. mt ila.2 a.=6-=8).

Mt dfst, tnf iambks lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct jfsirbdf tnf usf lg tnf Bctfrcft lr m

ilkputfr cftwlr` tl km`f bjfctbgybch mcj slabibtbch gucjs grlk pltfctbma

pmtrlcs fmsbfr mcj klrf fggbibfct. ‑Dut rfaybch lc m ilkputfr tl pfrglrk

rlutbcf tms`s klrf qubi`ay lr klrf miiurmtfay bs bcsuggbibfct tl rfcjfr m iambk

pmtfct fabhbdaf.‛ LB_ Zfins., ‚ G.9j ‚, 4?=6 XA 9744=>=, mt *9. Xnbaf tnf

ilcifpt lg gmc-gucjbch kmy nmvf dffc kmjf m klrf rfmabstbi mcj grubtgua

fcjfmvlr wbtn tnf mjvfct lg wbjfsprfmj Bctfrcft miifss, ‑ialm`bch Ptnmt[

ltnfrwbsf mdstrmit bjfm bc tnf hubsf lg m ilkputfr-bkpafkfctfj iambk‛ jlfs

clt drbch bt wbtnbc Yfitblc =?=. Ig. KyYpmif , 784 G.9j mt =478 (Kmyfr, E.,

jbssfctbch). ]ubtf tl tnf ilctrmry, pfrkbttbch tnbs typf lg iambk wluaj ‑rfcjfr

tnf sudefit kmttfr fabhbdbabty irbtfrbm bc Yfitblc =?= vbrtumaay kfmcbchafss‛ hbvfc

‑tnf udbqubty lg ilkputfrs bc ilctfkplrmry abgf.‛ Bj. Miilrjbchay, dfimusf tnf

„>>8 _mtfct iambks tnf mdstrmit bjfm lg bcifctbvf-dmsfj gmc-gucjbch mcj ami`s

mc ‑bcvfctbvf ilcifpt‛ suggbibfct tl ‑trmcsglrk‛ tnf iambkfj sudefit kmttfr bctl

m pmtfct-fabhbdaf mppabimtblc lg tnmt bjfm, bt bs bcvmabj ucjfr Yfitblc =?=.=6

=6 Dfimusf tnf ‑tnrfsnlaj bcqubry‛ lg pmtfct-fabhbdbabty bs jbsplsbtbvf lg bcvmabjbty, tnf Ilurtcffj clt, mcj bcjffj snluaj clt, jfibjf tnf pmrtbfs‒ ltnfr vmabjbty ilctfctblcs rfamtfj tlldvbluscfss, bcvfctlrsnbp, mcj jfgbcbtfcfss. Yff Dbas`b B , 6:6 G.9j mt 26? (nlajbch tnmtbg m iambk bs clt jrmwc tl pmtfct-fabhbdaf sudefit kmttfr, bt ‑kust df rfefitfj fvfc bg btkffts maa lg tnf ltnfr afhma rfqubrfkfcts lg pmtfctmdbabty‛)0 Dbas`b BB , 67= V.Y. mt 7?4

(nlajbch tnmt tnf pmtfct-fabhbdbabty bcqubry bs m ‑tnrfsnlaj tfst‛). Znf Ilurt ldsfrvfs tnmtkmcy lg tnf mrhukfcts kmjf glr bcvmabjbty lc tnfsf ltnfr hrlucjs lcay dlastfr tnffabhbdbabty jftfrkbcmtblc. Cltmday, glr fxmkpaf, kuin lg tnf prblr mrt fvbjfcif wms clt

Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 9? lg 9=


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ILCIAVYBLC

Glr tnf glrfhlbch rfmslcs, tnf „>>8 _mtfct bs jrmwc tl pmtfct-bcfabhbdaf

sudefit kmttfr. _ambctbgg‒s kltblc glr sukkmry eujhkfct lg bcvmabjbty lg tnf

„>>8 _mtfct bs HTMCZFJ, mcj Jfgfcjmcts‒ kltblc glr sukkmry eujhkfct lg

vmabjbty lg tnf „>>8 _mtfct bs JFCBFJ. Znf Iafr` lg Ilurt bs jbrfitfj tl

tfrkbcmtf maa pfcjbch kltblcs, mjelurc maa rfkmbcbch jmtfs, mcj ialsf tnbs

imsf.

YL LTJFTFJ.

Jmtfj5 Eucf 42, 4?=6Cfw Rlr`, Cfw Rlr` \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\

@MZNFTBCF _LA@ GMBAAMVcbtfj Ytmtfs Jbstrbit Eujhf

btsfag pmtfctfj, suhhfstbch tnmt tnbs fvbjfcif lpfrmtfj bc tnf prlvbcif lg bjfms. Mcj btwluaj clt df surprbsbch tnmt m purplrtfj sfilcj bcvfctlr wluaj jbsiambk nmvbch‑bcvfctfj‛ mc mdstrmit bjfm.

Imsf =5==-iv-?72?2-@_G Jliukfct === Gbafj ?7/42/=6 _mhf 9= lg 9=

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