1

Khandesh College Education Society’s

Moolji Jaitha College, Jalgaon

An “Autonomous College” Affiliated to

KBC North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon

SYLLABUS

Botany

M. Sc. I

(Semester I & II)

Under Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)

[w. e. f. Academic Year: 2019-20]

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Department of Botany M. J. College, Jalgaon

COURSE CODE COURSE TITLE TOTAL CREDITS Lecture

SEM-I

1. DSC-BOT-101 Diversity Lower

Cryptogams

04 60

2. DSC-BOT-102 Taxonomy of Angiosperms 04 60

3. BOT 103 Practical’s based on DSC-

BOT-101

04 8hrs

4. BOT 104 Practical’s based on DSC-

BOT-102

04 8hrs

5. DSE-BOT-105 Cell and Molecular

Biology

04 60

6. SEC-BOT-106 Plant Biotechnology 04 60

SEM- II

1. DSC -BOT-201 Diversity Higher

Cryptogams

04 60

2. DSC -BOT-202 Plant Physiology &

Biochemistry

04 60

3. BOT-203 Practical’s based on DSC -

BOT-201

04 8hrs

4. BOT-204 Practical’s based on DSC -

BOT-202

04 8hrs

5. DSE-BOT-205 Environmental Botany and

Phyto-Geography

04 60

6. GE-BOT-206 Techniques in Biology 04 60

SEM-III

1. DSC-BOT-301 Gymnosperms and

Paleobotany

04 60

2. DSC-BOT-302 Genetics and Plant

Breeding Special paper I

04 60

3. BOT-303 Practical Based on DSC-

BOT-301

04 8hrs

4. BOT-304 Practical Based on DSC-

BOT-302

04 8hrs

5. DSE-BOT-305 Reproductive Biology 04 60

6. SEC-BOT-306 Research Methodology 04 60

SEM-IV

1. DSC-BOT-401 Genetics and Plant

Breeding Special paper II

04 60

2. DSC-BOT-402 Genetics and Plant

Breeding Special paper III

04 60

3. BOT-403 Practical Based on DSC-

BOT-401 and DSC-BOT-

402

04 8hrs

4. BOT-404 Dissertation 04 8hrs

5. DSE-BOT-405 Seed Technology 04 60

6. GE-BOT-406 Biostatistics and

Bioinformatics

04 60

3

SEMESTER – I

DSC-BOT-101

DIVERSITY LOWER CRYPTOGAMS ALGAE (30 Lectures)

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Aims and Objectives:

i) To study the diversity of lower Cryptogams and Bryophytes. ii) To study the salient features of lower cryptogams and Bryophytes

iii) To study the life cycle patterns in lower cryptogams and Bryophytes.

iv) To study different classification systems of lower cryptogams and Bryophytes.

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Unit-1: Introduction and Classification of algae (04L)

i) Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic algae

ii) Classification of algae according to F. E. Fritsch (1945), G.W. Prescott and Parker (1982)

up to classes and subclasses.

Unit -2: Cyanophyceae: (04L)

i) General Characters

ii) Ecology of Blue green algae, thallus Organization,

iii) Ultra structure of Heterocyst, Nitrogen fixation and metabolism

iv) Reproduction

Unit -3: Chlorophyceae (05L)

i) General characteristics

ii) Range of thallus structure

iii) Method of reproduction and life cycle pattern

iv) Phylogeny& interrelationship

Unit -4: Phaeophyceae (05L)

i) General characters

ii) Range of thallus structure

iii) Method of reproduction and life cycle pattern

iv) Phylogeny & interrelationship

Unit -5: Rhodophyceae (05L)

i) General characters

ii) Range of thallus structure

iii) Method of reproduction and life cycle pattern

iv) Phylogeny& interrelationship

Unit -6: General characters of divisions with examples: (04L)

i) Xanthophyta : General characters

ii) Bacillariophyta: Cell structure, classification and reproduction.

iv) Euglenophyta: General characters

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FUNGI AND LICHENS (30 Lectures)

Unit-7: Introduction and Classification of fungi (03L)

i) Present status of fungi

ii) Classification of fungi up to classes as per- Ainsworth et al., (1973).

Unit-8: Myxomycotina: (03L)

i) Distinguishing characters ii) Structure of thallus and reproductive bodies

iii) Life cycle pattern.

Unit-9: -Mastigomycotina: (03L)

i) Distinguishing characters

ii) Thallus structure and reproduction (Asexual and sexual)

iii) Life cycle pattern

Unit-10:-Zygomycotina: (03L)

i) Distinguishing characters

ii) Thallus structure, Heterothallism

iii) Sexual reproduction, Evolution of Asexual reproduction

iv) Life cycle pattern

Unit-11:-Ascomycotina: (04L)

i) Distinguishing characters

ii) Thallus structure, structure of asci and ascocarps

iii) Life cycle pattern

Unit-12:-Basidiomycotina: (06L)

i) Distinguishing characters

ii) Thallus structure, Types and Structure of Basidia and basidiocarps

iii) Llife cycle pattern in Teliomycetes, Hymenomycetes and

Gasteromycetes.

Unit-13:- Deuteromycotina: (02L)

i) Distinguishing characters

ii) Thallus structure, fructifications

iii) Types of conidia, Life cycle patterns

Unit-14:-Lichens: (03L)

i) Types and Classification of lichens, Nature of association

ii) Morphology and anatomy of lichen thallus, reproduction

iii) Economic and Ecological importance.

Unit-15:- Fungi of special habitats: (03L)

i) Fungi in wood decay

ii) Mycorrhiza

iii) Predacious fungi

iv) Dermatophytes

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REFERENCE BOOKS:

Algae:

1. Bold, H and Wynne M. J. (1978) Algal structure and reproduction. Prentice Hall of India

Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, India.

2. Chapman, V.J. and Chapman D.J. (1979) The Algae. English Language Book Society and

Mc. millan, Co, London, U.K.

3. Fritsch, F.E.(1979) The Structure and reproduction of Algae Vol. I and II. Vikas Pub. House

Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, India.

4. Gupta J.S (1981) A Text Book of Algae, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Mumbai, India.

5. Khan M. (1970) Fundamentals of Phycology Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun,

India.

6. Lee, R.E. (1989) Phycology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K

7. Morris, I (1967) An Introduction totThe Algae, Hutchinson University Press, U.K.

8. Prescott, G.W. (1969). The Algae. Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd, Nashville, USA

9. Round, F.E. (1973) The Biology of the Algae. Edward Arnold, London, U.K.

10. Sharma, O.P.(1950)A text book of Algae. Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, India.

11. Smith, G.M. (1950). Fresh water Algae of United States. McGraw Hill Book

Company, New York, USA.

12. Sambamurty A. V. S. S. (2005) A Text Book of Algae. I. K. International Mumbai, India.

13. Vashishta B.R. (2010) Botany Part- I Algae S. Chand & Company Ltd. New Delhi, India.

Fungi:

1. Ainsworth, Sussman and Sparrow (1973) The fungi. Vol IV A & IV B. Academic Press.

London, U.K.

2. Alexopolous C. J., Minms C.W. and Blackwell M. (1999) (4th

edn) Introductory

Mycology. Willey, New York, USA.

3. Dube H.C. (2004) An Introduction To Fungi. Vikas Publishers. New Delhi, India.

4. Kendrick B. (1994) The Fifth Kingdom (paperback), North America, New York Publisher:

3rd

edn.

5. Kirk et al. (2008) Ainsworth and Bisby’s Dictionary of fungi, 10th

edn. CABI International,

Walling ford.UK.

6. Mehrotra R.S. and Aneja K.R. (1990) An Introduction To Mycology. New Age

Publishers, New Delhi, India

7. Sharma O.P. (2010) A Text Book of Fungi. S. Chand’s Publication, New Delhi, India

8. Sharma, P.D. (1998) The Fungi. Rastogi Publications, Merrut, India.

9. Udar, R.(1970) Introduction to Bryophytes. Shashidhar Malaviya Prakashan. Lucknow,

India.

10. Udar, R.(1975) Bryology in India. Chronica Botanica, New Delhi, India.

11. Watson, E.V. (1971) Structure and Life of Bryophytes.3rd

Edn. Hutchinson University

Library, London, UK.

12. Vashista, B.R., Sinha, A.K., Kumar, A.(2008) Botany for degree students-Bryophyta, S.

Chand Publication, New Delhi, India.

13. Eames, E.J. (1983) Morphology of Vascular Plants. Stanford University Press.USA.

14. Webster J. and Rpland W. (2007) Introduction to Fungi (3rd Edn) Cambridge University,

Press, U.K.

15. Cavers, F. (1976) The interrelationships of the Bryophytes. S.R. Technic, Ashok Rajpath,

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Patana, India.

16. Chopra, R.N. and Kumar, P.K. (1988) Biology of Bryophytes. John Wiley & Sons, New

York, USA.

17. Kashyap, S.R. (1929) Liverworts of the Western Himalayas and the Punjab Plain

(illustrated): Part 2. Chronica Botanica, New Delhi.

18. Parihar, N.S. (1980) Bryophytes: An introduction to Embryophyta. Vol.I.Central Book

Depot, Allahabad, India.

19. Prem Puri (1981) Bryophytes: Morphology, Growth and Differentiation. Atma Ram and

Sons, New Delhi, India.

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SEMESTER- I

DSC BOT-102

TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS

(60 Lectures)

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Aims and Objectives:

i) To study conceptual development of ‘taxonomy’.

ii) To study different systems of classifications of angiosperms iii) To study characters of biologically important families of angiosperms iv) To study range of variations in angiospermic families v) To study various rules, principles and recommendations of plant nomenclature vi) To know modern trends in taxonomy

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Unit – 1: Introduction: (03 L)

i) Taxonomy and Systematics : Conceptual Development

ii) Aims and Principles

iii) Diversity of angiosperms with respect to :

a) Form, structure and function

b) Evolutionary status of Angiosperms

Unit – 2:-Systems of classification: (06L)

i) Artificial system: Linnaeus

ii) Natural system: de Candolle, Bentham & Hooker

iii) Phylogenetic system: Engler and Prantl, Hutchinson and Dahlgren.

Unit – 3: ICBN – Principles of priority and their limitation (10 L)

i) Scientific names and Common names

ii) International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)

iii) Principles of the code I-V

iv) Type method (Typification )

v) Author citation

vi) Rejection of names

vii) Retention of names

viii) Conservation of names

ix) New Name

Taxonomic tools: Floras, Monographs, Herbarium (Major herbaria of the world and India)

Unit-4: General Evolutionary Trends in Angiosperms (07L)

i) Leaf structure : Simple and compound, phyllotaxy

ii) Evolution of inflorescence

iii) Primitive stamen

iv) Primitive carpel

v) Nature of inferior ovary

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vi) Evolution of gynoecium vii) Evolution of floral nectaries

Unit-5: Study of diagnostic characters and economic importance of following families:

(14 L)

Oleaceae, Magnoliaceae, Tiliaceae, Sapindaceae, Boraginaceae, Bignoniaceae, Casuarinaceae,

Amaryllidaceae, Orchidaceae, Rhamnaceae, Commelinaceae, Musaceae, Arecaceae, Cyperaceae

and Poaceae.

Unit-6 : Discussion with respect to salient features and points of biological importance

of the following families: (14 L)

Sarraceniaceae, Lentibulariaceae, Droseraceae, Nepenthaceae, Cuscutaceae,

Orobanchaceae, Balanophoraceae, Refflesiaceae, Santalaceae, Loranthaceae,

Podostemaceae, Rhizophoraceae, Cactaceae, Orchidaceae, Aristolochiaceae

Unit-7: Taxonomic evidence: (06L)

i) Chemotaxonomy – micromolecules - primary and secondary metabolites.

Macromolecules –protein, nucleic acids, polysaccharides.

ii) Taxonomy in relation to Anatomy, Embryology, Palynology, Ecology, Cytology and

serology.

iii) Molecular taxonomy – RFLP

REFERENCE BOOKS

1. Naik, V.N., 1984. Taxonomy of Angiosperms. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company

Ltd., New Delhi. 304pp.

2. Singh, G 1999. Plant Systematics – Theory and Practice. Oxford and IBH Publishing

Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. 35pp.

3. Sharma, O. P. 1958. Plant Taxonomy. Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Ltd.,

New Delhi.482pp.

4. Gurucharan Singh. 2008. Plant Sytematics – Theory and Practices. Oxford and IBH

Publishing Co. Pvt. Td. New Delhi.

5. Michael G. Simpson. 2010. Plant Systematics. Elsevier Academic Press. USA.

6. Pandey S.N. and Mishra. S.P. 2009. Taxonomy of Angiosperms. Ane Books Pvt. Ltd.

New Delhi.

7. Pandey, B.P. 2012. Taxonomy of Angiosperms. S. Chand and Company Ltd., New

Delhi.

8. Rajkumar Gupta. 2006. Text book of Systematic Botany. CBS Publishers. New Delhi.

9. Subrahmanyam, N.S. 1995. Modern Plant Taxonomy. Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

New Delhi.

10. Stuessy, T. F. 2002.Plant Taxonomy and Biosystematics. Edward Arnold, London.

11. Porter. C. L., 1982 – Taxonomy of Flowering Plants, Eurasia Publications House, New

Delhi

12. Cronquist, A. 1968. Evolution and Classification of Flowering Plants. Thomas &

Nelson (Pvt.) Ltd., London.

13. Davis, P.H. and Heywood, V. M. 1963. Principles of Angiosperm Taxonomy. Oliver &

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Boyed London.

14. Henry, A.N. and Chandra Bose, 1980. An aid to the International Code of Botanical

Nomenclature, Today & Tomorrow’s Printers & Publishers, Delhi.

15. Lawrence, G. H. M. 1961, Taxonomy of Vascular Plants. MacMillan and Co., New

Delhi.

16. Street, H.E., 1978. Essay in Plant Taxonomy, Academic press, London.

17. Bentham, G. 1988. Handbook of British Flora. (7th Ed., revised by A.B. Rendle in

1930).Ashford, Kent.

18. Cronquist, A. 1988. The Evolution and Classification of Flowering Plants. (2nd Ed.)

New Delhi. 482pp.

19. Darlington, C.D. and A. P. Wylie. 1955. Chromosome Atlas of Cultivated Plants. Allen

and Unwin, London.

20. Hutchinson, J. 1973. The Families of Flowering Plants. (3rd Ed.) Oxford Univ. Press.

21. Lawerence, G. H. M. 1951. Taxonomy of Vascular Plants. MacMillan, New York.

22. Rendle, A.B. 1904. Classification of Flowering plants. Cambridge , England. 2nd. Vol.1

930.

23. Stace, C.A. 1989. Plant Taxonomy and Biosystematics (2nd Ed.). Edward Arnold.

London.

24. Takhtajan, A.L. 1997. Diversity and Classification of Flowering Plants. Columbia

Univ. Press. New York, 642 pp.

10

DSC-BOT-103

Practical’s based on DSC-BOT101

ALGAE: (10 Practicals)

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Morphological observations, description and classification according to Fritsch with reasons.

(at least two genera from each order)

Practicals 1- 2: Cyanophyta: Any 10 forms

Practicals 3-6: Chlorophyta: Any 25 forms

Practical 7: Charophyceae- Chara, Nitella

Practicals8: Xanthophyceae – Vaucheria, Botrydium Bacillariophycece- Navicula, Pinnularia,

Fragillaria, Synedra, Nitzchia, Cymbella,Cyclotella, Pleurosigma, Gyrosigma, Coconeis,( any

4 forms)

Practical 9: Phaeophyta – Any 5 forms

Practical 10: Rhodophyta- Any 4 forms

FUNGI: (10 Practicals)

Practical 11: Preparation of cotton blue, Lactophenol and culture medium – PDA

Representative Genera belonging to following subdivisions of fungi with respect to

vegetative, reproductive structures and classification with reasons according to Ainsworth et

al. (1973).

Practical 12: Myxomycotina – (Any three genera)

Practical -13: Mastigomycotina – (Any threer genera)

Practical -14: Zygomycotina – (Any three genera)

Practicals 15-16: Ascomycotina - (Any Nine genera)

Practicals 17-18: Basidiomycotina- (Any Nine genera)

Practical 19: Deuteromycotina - (Any Six genera)

Practical 20: Visit to locality and observation of Algae and fungi in natural habitat and

preparation of field report.

Note: i) Excursion tour is compulsory to observe algae and fungi in nature. Tour report along

with photographs must be submitted at the time of practical examination. ii) Duly certified

journals are compulsory at the time of practical examination.

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DSC-BOT-104

Practical’s based on DSC-BOT102

Practical –II

ANGIOSPERM TAXONOMY)

(Total: 20 Practicals)

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Practicals1-15: Study of following families with respect to morphological characters using

botanical terms, floral formula, floral diagram and classification giving reasons as per Bentham

and Hooker’s system covering major groups of it (Any 20 families locally available as per

syllabus)

Practicals16-17: Identification of genus and species with the help of flora of the plant

materials from the families mentioned in syllabus.

Practicals18: Preparation of artificial, bracketed/indented dichotomous keys

based on vegetative and reproductive characters.

Practicals19-20: Study of Morphological and biological peculiarities of the following:

i) Insectivorous plants: Drosera, Utricularia, Nepenthes

ii) Parasitic plants: Striga, Cuscuta, Dendrophthoe, Viscum

iii) Aquatic plants: Limnophila, Pneumatophore

iv) Inflorescences: Spadix, Cyathium, Catkin

v) Flowers: Orchid and Cleistogamous flowers.

vi) Phyllode: Australian Acacia

vii) Velamen tissue of Epiphytic Orchid

Note: i) Botanical excursions and submission of duly signed scientific excursion reports from

One locality is compulsory. Submission of at least 10 herbarium specimens (only common wild

plants) is compulsory.

ii) Duly certified journals are compulsory at the time of practical examination.

Following floras may be consulted for practical purpose:

1.Cooke, T. (1958) Flora of Presidency of Bombay Vol. I-II, Botanical Survey of India,

Calcutta, India.

2. Hooker, J.D.(1872-1897) Flora of British India, Vol. I-VII, Reeves & Co., London.

3. Kamble, S.Y. and S.G. Pradhan (1988) Flora of Akola District, Maharashtra, Botanical

Survey of India, Calcutta, India.

4. Kshirsagar, S.R. and D. A. Patil (2008) Flora of Jalgaon District, Maharashtra, Bishen

Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India.

5. Kulkarni, B.G. (1988) Flora of Sindhudurg, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, India.

6. Lakshminarasimhan, P. & B.D. Sharma (1991) Flora of Nashik District, Botanical Survey

of India, Calcutta, India.

7. Naik, V.N. (1999) Flora of Marathwada, Vol. I-II, Amrut Prakashan, Station Road,

Aurangabad, India.

8. Patil, D. A. (2003) Flora of Dhule and Nandurbar District (Maharashtra). Bishen Singh

Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India.

9. Shah, G. L. (1978) Flora of Gujarat State, Vol. 1-2, Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat, India.

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SEC-BOT-105

PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY

(60 Lectures)

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UNIT-1: Fundamental of plant tissue culture: (04 L)

i) History, concepts of cell differentiation and totipotency.

ii) Requirements of plant tissue culture laboratory. Requirement for basal media.

iii) Growth hormones and their role, various media used for tissue culture technique.

UNIT-2: In vitro Culture (09 L)

i) Introduction and types of culture, its Importance and application

ii) Production of haploids and their application.

iii) Somatic and Gametic Embryogenesis, Microporpagation, Meristem culture,

Embryo rescue.

UNIT-3: Cybrid production: (07 L)

i) Isolation and culture of protoplasts, protoplast fusion and somatic hybridization.

ii) Selection systems for somatic hybrids / Cybrids and their characterization.

iii) Production of Secondary metabolites by plant cell cultures, commercial

production of secondary metabolites synthetic seed production.

iv) Somaclonal and Gametoclonal variations, cryopreservation and germplasm

storage.

UNIT4: -Fermentation Technology (06L) i) Introduction, Scope and Importance

ii) Principles of Microbial growth-Batch culture, Continuous culture and

Synchronous culture

iii) Microbes, Substrate, Process, Optimum conditions, Product recovery and uses of

Following----a) Citric Acid, b) Alcoholic Beverages-Beer production c) Vinegar,

d) Antibiotics(Penicillin), and e) Vitamins

UNIT-5: -Biomass Production (05 L) i) -Introduction ii) Concept of SCP, it’s need and applications

iii) Mass culture of Algae for Protein

iv) Mushroom Culture

UNIT- 6: -Biofertilizers (06 L) i) Introduction, definition and types and advantages

ii) Mass cultivation of Rhizobium biofertilizer & it’s application in agriculture

iii) Mass culture of BGA and its application in agriculture

iv) Azolla Biofertilizer

v) Mycorrhizal Biofertilizer

UNIT- 7: Recombinant DNA Technology: (17 L)

i) Introduction, Cloning vectors for recombinant DNA.

ii) Expression vectors and shuttle vectors, Restriction enzymes for cloning.

iii) Amplification of DNA and construction of Library: - Basics of PCR, Generation

of genomic and cDNA libraries in plasmid, phage, cosmid, BAC and YAC

vectors.

iv) Alien gene transfer: Agrobacterium biology and biotechnology; Plant -

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Agrobacterium interactions; direct gene transfer methods: particle bombardment,

electroporation, PEG- ediated. Transformation using pollen or pollen tube. Gene

libraries- genomic libraries, cDNA library and its construction, Molecular

markers-RFLP, RAPD, DNA finger printing.

UNIT-8: Transgenic plants: (06 L)

i) Transgenic crops in India, Resistance against Abiotic and biotic stress, Improved

crops productivity, Nutraceutical improved crops, transgenic plants for edible

vaccine and antibodies

Reference Books

1. Plant Biotechnology and Agriculture: Prospects for the 21st Century edited by A. Altman, eBook ISBN: 9780123814678

2. Altman & Hasegava. (2012). Introduction to Plant Biotechnology. Academic Press.

3. Ara Kirakosyan, Peter B. Kaufman, (2009.) Recent Advances in Plant Biotechnology,

Springer Science & Business Media,

4. P K Gupta, ( 2010).Elements of Biotechnology, Rastogi Publications,

5. S. Srivastava, A. Narula,( 2006) Plant Biotechnology and Molecular Markers, Springer

Science &Business Media, Anamaya publishers , New Delhi,

6. B. D. Singh (2006) Plant Biotechnology, Kalyani Publishers

7. S. S. Bhojwani, M.K. Razdan (1996) Plant Tissue Culture: Theory and Practice: Theory

and Practice, Elsevier.

8. K .G. Ramavat, (2008), Plant biotechnology S. Chand publication.

9. P K Gupta, (2006) Biotechnology and Genomics Rastogi Publications,

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DSE-BOT-106

CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

(60 Lectures)

Aims and Objectives:

i) To study modern tools and techniques used in plant system

ii) To study the components and their functions

iii) To study molecular biology in relation to genetic material, its inheritance, modification,

replication and repair.

iv) To study transcription, translation post translation modification and targeting sorting of

protein to organelles.

v) To study gene regulation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Unit – 1 Cell Biology (12 L)

i. Structure and Function – Oxidative Metabolism in the Mitochondrion – The Role

of Mitochondria in the formation of ATP –

ii. Translocation of Protons and the Establishment of a proton-motive force – The

Machinery for ATP formation – Peroxisomes.

iii. Genome studies of Mitochondria.

iv. Chloroplast structure and function – An overview of photosynthetic Metabolism,

Cytoskeleton – components of Cytoskeleton, Microtubules, Intermediate

filaments – Microfilaments,

v. Protein trafficking, Cell- to -Cell Signaling: Hormones and Receptors,

Intracellular signalling in Development and Disease,

vi. Transport across Cell Membranes,

vii. Protein Sorting: Organelle Biogenesis and Protein secretion

Unit – 2 Cell Components (12 L)

i. Cell components and their functions

ii. Dynamic structure, functions and biogenesis of cell wall and plasma membrane

iii. New insights in structure and function of cytoplasmic cell organelles and

biopolymers; nucleus; its components, chromatin structure in eukaryotes,

condensation and packaging of DNA in prokaryotes

Unit-3 DNA Structure and Replication (12 L)

i. DNA replication machinery in Prokaryotes and eukaryotes, Replication fork.

ii. Enzyme of DNA Replication: dNA polymerase (I, II, III), primases, ligases,

helicases, topoisomerases, gyrases and SSBP.

iii. Models of DNA Replication: theta mode of replication, rolling circle model of

replication, unidirectional replication, Bidirectional replication, replication of linear,

Regulation of DNA replication and inhibitors of DNA replication.

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iv. Concept of Operon: Structure and regulation of lac, ara, his and tryptophan operons.

Regulation of lytic and lysogenic pathway in lamda bacteriophage

v. Gene regulation in eukaryotes: DNA rearrangements, Chromatin modification, Cis-

acting site, RNA Silencing

Unit – 4 Transcription and Translation (12 L)

i. Types of RNA polymerase (prokaryotic and eukaryotic), Process of transcription

ii. mRNA processing, editing: capping, adenylation, splicing, RNA transport

iii. Transcriptional regulation: transcriptional bursting/pulsing, specificity factors,

enhancers, repressors, activators and general transcription factors

iv. Post-transcriptional modifications: RNA degradation, nuclear transport, mRNA

localization, anti-sigma factors, RNAi (siRNA, miRNA and CRISPR

mechanism)

v. Genetic code and its properties

vi. Ribosome (structure and composition), Activation of tRNA, tRNA synthetase

vii. Steps: Initiation: factors and their regulation, Elongation,Termination Inhibitors

viii. Post translational modification of proteins and protein degradation

ix. Translational regulation: Cytoplasmic polyadenylation, UTR sequence elements,

RNA binding proteins, ribosomal regulation, non-sense mediated RNA decay, 5`

de-capping Unit –5 DNA Damage and Repair (12 L)

i. DNA damage: deamination, oxidative damage, alkylation, pyrimidine dimmers, mechanical

and chemical damage

ii. DNA mutations: Spontaneous and inducible and mutagenic agents.

iii. DNA repair pathways: Methyl directed mismatch repair, very short patch repair,

nucleotide excision repair, base excision repair, recombination (Specific and

Nonspecific), mismatch, SOS

References

1. Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff Martin, Roberts K and Walter P. (2007)

Molecular Biology of the Cell. Garland Publ., NewYork.

2. Bonifacino JS, Dasso M, Harford JB, Liipincott-Schwartz J and Yamada KM. (2004)

Short Protocols in Cell Biology. John Wiley & Sons, NewJersey.

3. Bregman AA (1987) Laboratory Investigations in Cell Biology. John Wiley & Sons, New

York.

4. Hawes C and Satiat-Jeunemaitre B (2001) Plant Cell Biology: Practical Approach.

Oxford University Press,Oxford.

5. Hirt RP and Horner DS (2004) Organelles, Genomes and Eukaryote Phylogeny: An

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evolutionary synthesis in the age of genomics. CRCPress.

6. Karp G. (2008) Cell and Molecular Biology: Concepts and Experiments. John Wiley &

Sons.

7. Lodisch H, Berk A, Kaiser CA, Krieger M, Scott MP, Bretscher A, Ploegh H and

Matsudaire P (2008) Molecular Cell Biology. WH Freeman & Co., New York.

8. Ruzin SE (1999) Plant Micro-technique and Microscopy. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford.

9. Wischnitzer S. (1989) Introduction to Electron Microscopy. Pergamon Press,

10. Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff Martin, Roberts K and Walter P. (2007)

Molecular Biology of the Cell. Garland Publ., New York.

11. Bonifacino JS, Dasso M, Harford JB, Lippincott-Schwartz J and Yamada KM.

(2004) Short Protocols in Cell Biology. John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey.

12. Bregman A. A. (1987) Laboratory Investigations in Cell Biology. John Wiley & Sons,

New York.

13. Hawes C and Satiat-Jeunemaitre B (2001) Plant Cell Biology: Practical Approach.

Oxford University Press,Oxford.

14. Hirt R.P. and Horner D.S. (2004) Organelles, Genomes and Eukaryote Phylogeny: An

evolutionary synthesis in the age of genomics. CRCPress.

15. Karp G. (2008) Cell and Molecular Biology: Concepts and Experiments. John Wiley &

Sons.

16. Lodisch H, Berk A, Kaiser CA, Krieger M, Scott MP, Bretscher A, Ploegh H and

Matsudaire P (2008) Molecular Cell Biology. WH Freeman & Co., NewYork.

17. Ruzin S E (1999) Plant Micro-technique and Microscopy. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford.

18. Wischnitzer S. (1989) Introduction to Electron Microscopy. PergamonPress,

17

SEMESTER – II

DSC-BOT-201

DIVERSITY OF HIGHER CRYPTOGAMS

(60 Lectures)

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Aims and Objectives:

i) To study the higher cryptogams as a group in plant kingdom.

ii) To study habit and habitat of the higher cryptogams.

iii) To study distinguishing features, interrelationships, phylogeny and

evolutionary tendencies of selected orders with their affinities.

iv) To study economic importance of higher cryptogamic plants

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BRYOPHYTA (30 Lectures)

Unit-1: - Introduction (04L)

i. Classification of Bryophytes proposed by G. M. Smith with reasons

up to orders

ii. Distribution of Bryophytes in India and their micro climate

Unit-2: Distinguishing features,interrelationships,phylogeny and evolutionary tendencies of the

following orders of Hepaticae: (10L) i. Spherocarpales

ii. Marchantiales

iii. Jungermanniales

iv. Takakiales

v. Calobryales

Unit-3: Distinguishing features,interrelationships,phylogeny and evolutionary tendencies of the

following orders of Anthocerotae: (04L)

i. : Anthocerotales

Unit-4: Distinguishing features,interrelationships,phylogeny and evolutionary tendencies of the

following o rders of Musci : (06L) i. Sphagnales

ii. Andreales

iii. Polytrichales

Unit-5- General Topics: (06L)

i. Evolution of gametophytes and sporophytes of Bryophyta

ii. Economic importance of Bryophyta

PTERIDOPHYTES (30L)

Unit-1:-Introduction: (03L)

i) Classification of pteridophytes proposed by Reimers up to

orders with reasons

ii) Distribution of Pteridophytes in India

Unit-2:- Morphology, anatomy, and comparative discussion of sporophytes, gametophytes,

interrelationships, evolutionary tendencies and phylogeny of following living

orders : (22L)

i. Psilotales

18

ii. Lycopodiales

iii. Isoetales

iv. Selaginellales

v. Equisetales

vi. Marattiales

vii. Ophioglossales

viii. Osmundales

ix. Filicales (any two families)

x. Marsileales

xi. Salviniales

Unit-3 -General Topics: (05L)

i) Heterospory and seed habit

ii) Soral evolution

iii) Economic importance of Pteridophyta

REFERENCE BOOKS:

BRYOPHYTA

1. Udar, R.(1970) Introduction to Bryophytes. Shashidhar Malaviya Prakashan. Lucknow,

India.

2. Udar, R. (1975) Bryology in India. Chronica Botanica, New Delhi, India.

3. Watson, E.V. (1971) Structure and Life of Bryophytes.3rd

Edn. Hutchinson University

Library, London, UK.

4. Vashista, B.R., Sinha, A.K., Kumar, A.(2008) Botany for degree students-Bryophyta,

S.Chand Publication, New Delhi, India.

5. Eames, E.J. (1983) Morphology of Vascular Plants. Staford University Press.USA.

6. Cavers, F. (1976) The interalationships of the Bryophytes. S.R. Technic, Ashok Rajpath,

Patana, India.

7. Chopra, R.N. and Kumar, P.K. (1988) Biology of Bryophytes. John Wiley & Sons, New

York, USA.

8. Kashyap, S.R. (1929) Liverworts of the Western Himalayas and the Punjab Plain

(illustrated):Part 2. Chronica Botanica, New Delhi.

9. Parihar, N.S. (1980) Bryophytes: An introduction to Embryophyta. Vol.I.Central Book

Depot, Allahabad, India.

10. Prem Puri (1981) Bryophytes: Morphology, Growth and Differentiation. Atma Ram and

Sons, New Delhi, India.

PTERIDOPHYTA

1. A. Rashid (1999) An introduction to Pteriophyta. Vikas publishing house Pvt. Ltd. New

Delhi, India.

2. Gangulee and Kar (2006) College Botany. New Central Book Agency, Delhi, India.

3. Parihar, N.S. (1976) Biology and Morphology of Pteridophytes. Central Book Depot,

Delhi, India.

4. Sharma, O.P. (1990) Textbook of Pteridophyta. MacMillan India Ltd. Delhi, India.

19

5. Smith, G.M. (1995) Cryptogamic Botany Vol-II McGraw Hill. New York. USA.

6. Sporne, K.R. (1986) The morphology of Pteridophytes. HuschinsonUniversity

Library,London, UK.

7. Sundar Rajan S. (1999) Introduction to Preridophyta.New Age International

Publishers.New Delhi, India.

8. Vashishta,B.R. , Sinha, A.K. , Kumar, A.(2008) Botany for degree students

Pteridophyta, S. Chand Publications, New Delhi, India.

20

DSC-BOT-202

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY

(60 Lectures)

Aims and Objectives

i) To study the plant structures with respect to physiological functions of plants.

ii) To study the plant water relations.

iii) Tostudythemineralnutritioninplantsinandexflowofnutrientsinplants.

iv) To study the physiological details of photosynthesis and respiration.

v) To study plant growth, development, and its regulation.

vi) To study the thermodynamics of the enzymes action and the enzyme classification

vii) To study the primary and secondary metabolites in the plants

Unit –1: Water Potential (08 L)

i Biological significance, water relationship of the plants

ii osmosis, permeability, diffusion, chemical potential, water potential apoplast

and symplast concept.

iii Translocation of solutes.

Unit – 2 : Photosynthesis (15 L)

i. Photosynthetic pigments and their distribution

ii. Biosynthesis of chlorophyll a, b and carotenoids. PS I and PS II.

iii. Fluorescence and phosphorescence. Red drop and Emerson’s effect

iv. Photophosphorylation.

v. Mechanism of light and dark reaction.

vi. Carbon fixation – RUBISCO, C3, C4 cycles and CAM pathways and

their significance.

vii. Photorespiration and its significance.

Unit – 3: Respiration (15 L)

i. Aerobic and anaerobic respiration

ii. Glycolysis, Kreb’s cycle. electron transport system.

iii. Alternate oxidase, cyanide resistant respiration.

iv. Mechanism of phosphorylation.

v. Nitrogen metabolism – importance of N2 to plants and source. Reduction

of nitrate to NH3, enzymes in nitrogen reduction.

vi. Biological N2 fixation – asymbiotic and symbiotic fixation. Biochemistry

leghaemoglobin of N2 fixation.

21

vii. Reductive amination, transamination.

Unit – 4 Plant growth regulation (10 L)

i. Physiological effects of auxins, Gibbrellins, Cytokinins, ethylene, ABA

and IAA.

ii. Stress physiology – Physical, chemical and biological stress –

temperature, water, drought, salt and microbes and mechanism.

iii. Physiology of flowering - Photoperiodism, importance, induction,

florigen. Vernalization - hypothesis, mechanism, hormonal involvement

and significance.

iv. Biological clock.

Unit - 5 Thermodynamics (12 L)

i. Laws, enzyme as catalysts – enzyme kinetics

ii. Nomenclature, structure, properties and mode of action of enzymes.

iii. Classification, nomenclature, properties and mechanisms of enzyme action.

iv. Primary Metabolites - Classification and structure of carbohydrates, proteins,

amino acids and lipids.

v. Biosynthesis of fatty acids, beta oxidation.

vi. Secondary metabolites - phenolic compounds, alkaloids and flavonoids.

22

DSC-BOT-203

Practicals based on DSC-BOT--201

BRYOPHYTES (10 Practicals)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Morphological, Anatomical and Reproductive studies of the following:

Practicals 1 -4: Marchantiales: Plagiochasma, Targionia, Asterella Conocephallum &

Dumortiara. (At least 4)

Practicals 5-6: Jungermanniales: Pellia, Fossombronia, Pallavicinia, Porella and

Frullania.(Any two)

Practical 7: Anthocerotales – Anthoceros, Notothylus (Any one)

Practical 8-9: Musci: Sphagnales: Sphagnum

Polytrichales: Polytrichum, Pogonatum,

Practical 10: Study of saprophytic evolution with the help of permanent slide

PTERIDOPHYTES (10 Practicals) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Morphological, Anatomical and Reproductive studies of the following

Practical 11-12: Lycopodium, Isoetes

Practical 13-14: Ophioglossun, Osmunda

Practical 15-16: Gleichenia, Pteris, Adiantum. (any two)

Practical 17: Asplenium, Lygodium. (any one)

Practical 18: Pleopeltis, Cheilanthes (any one)

Practical 19-20: Marsilea, Salvinia, Azolla (Any two)

Note:

i) Excursion tour is compulsory to observe Bryophytes and Pteridophytes in nature.

Tour report along with photographs must be submitted at the time of practical

examination.

ii) Duly certified journals are compulsory at the time of practical examination.

23

DSC-BOT-204

Practicals based on DSC-BOT--202

Plant Physiology and Biochemistry (12 Practicals)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Practical1-2: Determine diurnal fluctuations in titrable acid number (TAN) values of

CAM succulents (e.g. Aloe, Bryophyllum, Kalanchoe-anyone)

Practical 3-4: Determine the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll pigments and estimate the

amount of Chl-a, Chl-b and total Chlorophylls by spectrophotometer method.

Practical5-6: Extraction and separation of free amino acid of germinating seed by circular

paper chromatography.

Practical7: Extraction and separation of free sugars from ripe fruits by ascending paper

chromatography.

Practical08: To extract and estimate the amount of Ascorbic acid present in green paper

(raw)/ lemon (Fresh).

Practicals9-10: Extraction and Detection of secondary plant metabolites from suitable

plant material i) Alkaloids ii) Phenols iii) Terpenoids iv) Proteins.

Practical11: Estimation of amount of CO2 evolved during respiration (Germinating Pea

seeds).

Practical12: Estimation of ether soluble fat oil of Ricinus /Arachis seeds by Sohxlet

apparatus.

Practical13: Estimation of total nitrogen in plants.

Practical14: Estimation of alcohol in fermented grape juice.

Practical’s 15-16: To study the activity of lipase enzyme

Practical’s 17-18: To study the activity of lipase enzyme

Practical-19: Estimation of microelement from plant Ash

Practical-20: Effect of Hormones on the germination of seeds

24

References Books

1. Mukjerjee S. and Ghosh A.K. (2009) Plant Physiology. New Central Book Agency; 3rd

Revised edition

2. Jain, A. K. (2003), “Textbook of Physiology”, Arichal Publishing Company. New Delhi.

3. Salisbury F.F. and Ross C.W. (1992). Plant Physiology. (IV edition)

Wordsworth Publishing Company. California, USA.

4. Hopkins W.G. (1995). Introduction to plant physiology, John Wiley and Sons, New

York,USA.

5. Moore T.C. (1989). Biochemistry a n d Physiology of plant h o r m o n e s , Springer

Verlag. New York, USA.

6. Taiz L. And Zieger E. (1998). Plant physiology, Sinauer Associates Inc. and publishers,

USA.

25

GE-BOT-205

TECHNIQUES IN BIOLOGY

(60 Lectures)

Aims and Objectives

To study the basic techniques in life sciences

To study the biophysical chemistry and thermodynamics in organisms

To study the microscopic, centrifugation, chromatographic, electrophoresis, spectrometric

and radiolabeling techniques in life sciences

Unit – 1 Basic Techniques (12 L)

i. Basic techniques in botany: Lab maintenance and sterilization techniques,

ii. Preservation of materials –types of fixatives, macerations, peeling, mounting.

iii. Microtome: - types of microtome, serial sectioning.

iv. Staining: - types and procedure of staining (double and multiple staining).

v. General principles of biophysical chemistry: -pH, pH meter, types of electrodes

and working.

vi. Thermodynamics, conductivity, buffer, turbidity.

Unit – 2 Advance Microscopy (12 L) i) Microscopic techniques historical microscopy, principle of microscopy

ii) Types and working of light microscope, electron microscope (SEM and

TEM), dark field microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, phase contrast

microscope, flow cytometry, confocal microscopy.

iii) Micrometry: - metric units, principles and techniques. Properties of light-

wavelengths and resolving power of microscope.

Unit – 3 Separation Techniques (12 L)

i) Centrifugation techniques: - principles and working of centrifuge

ii) RPM, rotors and its types, types of centrifuge (high speed centrifuge,

Ultra-centrifuge and gradient centrifuge)

iii) Chromatographic techniques: - basic principles of chromatography

iv) Rf value calculation, adsorption, absorption, solvents and solutes

v) Paper chromatography, column chromatography, gel filtration, ion

exchange chromatography, HPLC, gas chromatography.

vi) Electrophoresis: - Gel electrophoresis (one and two dimensional)

vii) SDS-PAGE, AGAROSE. Various methods and agents used in detection of

bands.

viii) Blotting techniques – southern blotting, northern blotting, and western

blotting, south western blotting.

Unit –4 Spectroscopy (12 L)

i) Spectroscopic techniques: - relation of wavelength and energy, principles

and working of visible spectrophotometer,

ii) U.V. spectrophotometer, I.R. spectrophotometer, flow cytometry, NMR and

mass spectrometry.

Unit –5 Radio-technique and Immunotechiques (12 L)

i. Radio labeling and radioactive techniques

ii. Properties of different types of radioisotopes in biological system, radio

degradation, half-life period, radio dating, radio labeling, auto radiography,

dosimetry, safety guidance.

26

iii. Rocket immune electrophoresis, and Ouchterlony double diffusion method

Reference Books:

1. Krishnamurthy K.V. (1988) Methods in Plant Histochemistry.S. Wiswanathan

Printers & Publishers

2. De Roberti’s and De Roberti’s (2005) Cell and Molecular Biology, Lippincott

Williams, Philadelphia. [B.I Publications Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi].

3. Powar C.B 2005 (Third Edition). Cell Biology, Himalaya Publishing, Mumbai.

4. Verma P.S and Agarwal V.K (2006) Cell Biology, Genetics, Molecular Biology,

Evolution, Ecology. S.Chand and Company, New Delhi.

5. Upadhyay, Upadhyay, Nath (2010) ‘’Biophysical chemistry Principals and

Techniques” Himalaya publication Mumbai.

6. Jacquelyn G Black (2011) “Microbiology principles and exploration 6th edition

2005 john Wiley and sons USA.

7. Sadasivam S., Manikam A. (2018) “Biochemical analysis” New age publication,

New Delhi.

27

DSE-BOT-206

ENVIRONMENTAL BOTANY AND PHYTOGEOGRAPHY

ENVIRONMENTAL BOTANY (48 Lectures)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Unit - 1- Environmental Botany: (05L)

i) Introduction, History, scope and Importance.

ii) Environmental Interrelationships; The interrelated Nature of Environmental Problems

iii) Physical environment, Biotic environment; Interrelated scientific Principles: Matter,

Energy and Environment; Interactions of Environment and Organisms

Unit - 2– Environmental Ethics (04L)

i) Environmental Attitudes

ii) Individual Environmental Ethics, Societal Environmental Ethics Corporate

Environmental Ethics, Global Environmental Ethics

iii) Environmental Justice

Unit - 2- Ecosystem Ecology: (02L)

i) Productivity of different ecosystems – Primary productivity and secondary productivity.

iv) Human Impact on Ecosystems and Resources

Unit - 3- Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and GIS: (06L)

i) Definition, concept and history of remote sensing, Electro -magnetic radiation (EMR),

Energy interaction with atmosphere, interaction with Earth’s surface materials.

ii) GIS: Definition, history and introduction, components of GIS, Concept of data,

information, knowledge Data: spatial and non-spatial data, raster and vector data, GIS file

formats.

iii) Applications of RS and GIS in Forestry and Ecology: forest density, Forest type

mapping, inventory of forests, delineation of degraded forests, damage assessment,

Landscape characterization, Biomass assessment, Forest ecosystem management

Unit – 4- Forestry: (04L)

i) Agro forestry ii) Social forestry iii) Forest conservation iv) Wetland Management

v) Water Management: a) The Water issue and hydrologic Cycle b) Kinds of Water use c)

Water use Planning Issues

Unit - 5- Solid Wastes: (03 L)

i) Introduction

ii) Types and Sources of Solid Wastes

iii) Solid Waste Management (Collection, Resource &Disposal Recovery and

sustainable management)

28

Unit - 6- Environmental Management: (05L)

i) Concept, Scope and Procedure of EIA

ii) Environment Management Plan (EMP)

iii) Environmental Auditing

iv) Green Belt

v) Kyoto Protocol

Unit - 7- Environmental Legislation: (05L)

i) Forest Conservation Act

ii) General account of legislation related to environment

iii) Wild life Protection Act – 1972

iv) Water Act – 1976

v) Environment Protection Act – 1985

Unit 8 - Global Environmental Issues and Conference: (04L)

i) Global Warming, Green House Effect, Acid Rain, Ozone layer depletion

ii) Earth Summit, The United Nations Conference on the Human &Environment, 1992,

United Nations conference on climate change 2009

PHYTOGEOGRAPHY (22 L)

Unit – 9 Principles of Phytogeography, Distribution (wides, endemic, discontinuous species)

(10 L)

i) Phytogeographic regions of India.

ii) Phytogeographic regions of World.

iii) Endemism – types and causes

Unit-10: Plant Biodiversity and its importance (12 L)

i) Definition, levels of biodiversity-genetic, species and ecosystem.

ii) Biodiversity hotspots- Criteria, Biodiversity hotspots of India.

iii) Loss of biodiversity – causes and conservation (In-situ and ex-situ methods).

iv) Seed banks - conservation of genetic resources and their importance

v) Biodiversity Act (2002)

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Ambasht, R. S. (1976) Principles of Ecology (Ist Eds.) Students Publications, Varanasi,

India.

2. Arumugam, N (1996) Concept of Ecology (VIIth

Eds.) Saras Publication, Kanyakumari,

India.

3. Bagyaraj, D. J. et.al. (1999) Modern Approaches and Innovation In Soil Management,

Rastogi Publications, Meerut, India

29

4. Cain, S. A. (1944): Foundations of Plant Geography Harper & Brothers, N.Y.

5. Dash, M. C. (1994) Fundamentals of Ecology. Tata McGraw Hill Publication Comp. Ltd.

New Delhi, India.

6. Good, R. (1997): The Geography of flowering Plants (2nd

Edn.) Longmans, Green & Co.,

Inc., London & Allied Science Publishers, New Delhi

7. Kumar H.D. (2000): Biodiversity & Sustainable Conservation Oxford & IBH Publishing

Co Ltd. New Delhi.

8. Kang-Tsung Chang. (2002) Introduction to Geographical Information System. McGraw

Hill, U.K.

9. Mani, M. S. (1974): Ecology & Biogeography of India Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The

Haque

10. Panda, B. C. (2005) Remote sensing Principles and applications, Viva Books Private,

New Delhi, India.

11. Rao, K. S. (1993) Practical Ecology, Anmol Publication, New Delhi, India.

12. Reddy M. A. (2006) Textbook of Remote sensing and geographical information systems,

B.S. Publications, Hyderabad, India. 13. Roy, P.S. and R. S. Dwivedi. Remote Sensing Applications, Technical Report of

NRSC/ISRO.

14. Santra, S. C. (2001) Environmental Science, New Central Book Agency Pvt. Ltd., Delhi,

India.

15. Saxena, M. M. (1990) Applied Environmental Biology (Resource and management) Agro

Botanical Publisher, Bikaner, India.

16. Seth, S.M., S. K. Jain and M. K. Jain (2002). Remote Sensing and GIS application

studies at National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, U.P., India.

17. Sharma, P. D. (1993) Ecology and Environment, Rastogi Publications, Meerut,

India.18.Sudhir, M. A., M. Alankara Masillamani, M. A. (2003) Environmental Issues,

Reliance Publishing House, New Delhi, India.

18. Tor Bernhardsen (2002) Geographic Information System- an introduction, 3rd edition,

Wiley Publication, New York, USA.

19. Triwedi, P. R. (1990) Encyclopedia of World Environment. A. P. H. Publishing

Corporation, Delhi, India. 20. Eldon D. Enger and Bradley F. Smith (1995) Environmental Science A Study of

Interrelationship (Vth

Eds.)Wm. C. Brown Publishers Chicago