key elements of the research proposal

Key Elements of the Research Proposal

These are the key elements of a research proposal. Click on each to learn more about each element.

Title Page | Introduction | Procedure or Methodology | References | Appendices

The title page provides the first impression for your audience of your proposal. Your title must be complete and itshould provide the focus of your investigation. Be sure that the title gives a glimpse of the nature of the proposedinvestigation and includes the key ideas.

1. Your title should serve as a mini-abstract of your investigation and should put the most important words first.

For example:

Title No. 1 "Left-handness in students and its relationship to learning preferences" implies that thefocus will be on "left-handness."

Title No. 2 "Learning preferences in students and the connection to left-handness" implies that thefocus will be on "learning preferences."

2.Word choice and syntax are so precise in a research proposal title that some researchers create the titlesfor their projects last in the proposal writing process. They do this so that they can be as precise aspossible in their wording and sentence structure in order to best represent their investigation.

The following list contains example of research proposal titles in a variety of fields ofinvestigation. Review each to see the phrasing and terms that are commonly used on titlepages.

A linguistic analysis of slang used in Eminem album song lyrics A study of the role of cultural materials in contemporary graphic design Changing factors for team support in English football: How geographic determinants play a role indetermining match attendance You Looks Like Youse Yo Own Daughter: Figuring (in)fertility and maternity in Their Eyes WereWatching GodThe effects of estrogen, alcohol, and age on the astrocytes in female rats following an inflammatorystimulus

3. When a title page is created, it often is arranged in this format: Example of title page.pdf

4. This website provides formatting tips to assist you in the general layout and design of a research proposaltitle page. It also contains general guidelines and further descriptions for the parts of a research proposal.

REFLECTION: In your Reflection Journal, explain why the title is so important to a research proposal. You may include information from above or from your own ideas and experiences. Your responseshould be 2-3 paragraphs in length.

Your introduction is very important, actually the most important part of your proposal. If your introduction gets youraudience's attention, they will stay with you throughout your proposal. An effective introduction discusses the

Clear Statement of theProblem

Purpose of the Study

Definitions

Significance of theInvestigation

Literature Review

Questions or Hypothesis

audience's attention, they will stay with you throughout your proposal. An effective introduction discusses themeaningfulness of the study with presentation of problem or issue. It also serves as an argument advocating theneed of study for your chosen object and gives a clear insight into your intentions. Thus the introduction presents abackground and statement of context for your investigation.

The rest of your proposal supports this section. It doesnt need to be overly long, a few paragraphs should beenough, but it is the most critical as it establishes the nature, context, and scope of your project. Key parts of theIntroduction often become a part of a research abstract that may be used when you present your completedinvestigation and conclusions to an audience. Although these aspects of an introduction are described separately,some parts may, in reality, be combined together when the actual proposal is written.

A.All introductions include these items in some form in the introduction.

Clear Statement of the ProblemPurpose of the Study Definitions Significance of the InvestigationLiterature ReviewQuestions or Hypothesis

B.. The way that Introductions are crafted is as individualized as the proposal that follows. You will see actualintroductions later when you begin to review Research Proposals for specific disciplines, but here are some"How To" procedures from research courses that explain the construction of the Introduction paragraph. Asyou read the samples below, compare and contrast the requirements of each instructor in order to determinethe common features of Introductions.

1.Begin with something interesting, e.g., a quote or story, to capture the reader's interest.Introduce your question or curiosity. What is it that you want to know or understand? How didyou get interested in the topic? If your question has evolved since you have begun, describethe process.Tell why there's a need for the study. Cite relevant literature that calls for the need for theresearch in this area, or demonstrates the lack of attention to the topic. In your own words,describe how you think this study will be useful.Describe the intended audience for your research (e.g., the public, family therapists).Describe your research product. What form will the report take (e.g., scholarly manuscript,magazine article for the public, script for a documentary video)?Conclude the introduction with an overview of your proposal.

2. Introduction (2 pages)

\What is the topic of your research?What area of sociology is concerned with questions related to your research interest?

Formulate your research question(s) or the problem you want to address as clearly aspossible. What is research goal, for example descriptive, exploratory, explanatory, evaluation?Explain how you came to this question/problem based on your previous interests (researchyou might have been involved in, other courses you have taken, your work experience,discussions, etc.).Explain the assumptions you are making in researching your question. Explain the conceptsyou are using; what indicators/variables will you need to measure these? What is yourhypothesis and your independent/ dependent variables? Or what are you trying to explain?Share tentative thesis (argument) (your best answer to the research question based on yourwork to date)What is the significance of this research question? Explain why this research is worthpursuing. Why is answering this research question important?

3. Introduction

3. Introduction

This section sets the context for your proposed project and must capture the reader's interest.Explain the background of your study starting from a broad picture narrowing in on yourresearch question.Review what is known about your research topic as far as it is relevant to your thesisCite relevant references.The introduction should be at a level that makes it easy to understand for readers with ageneral science background, for example your classmates.

REFLECTION: Based on the three examples, what are the characteristics that most introductions seemto have in common? What are key differences that you noticed among the three? Why do you thinkthat these differences exist? Answer these questions as an entry in your Reflection Journal,

Back to Introduction

Clear Statement of the Problem

The most important aspect of a research proposal is the clarity of the research problem. For a short statement, itcertainly has a lot of power. The statement of the problem is the focal point of your research. It should state whatyou will be studying, whether you will do it through experimental or non-experimental investigation, and what thepurpose of your findings will be. As a part of the Introduction, effective problem statements answer the questionWhy does this research need to be conducted?

It is just one sentence (with several paragraphs of elaboration). In it, you are looking for something wrong,something that needs close attention, or something where existing methods no longer seem to be working.

Example of a problem statement:

"The frequency of job layoffs is creating fear, anxiety, and a loss of productivity in middle management workers."

In your wording, be succinct and on target. Give a short summary of the research problem that you have identified. A research proposal may not be considered acceptable or credible if you fail to clearly identify theproblem. Your biggest difficulty might be narrowing the topic since the topic is still relatively unfamiliar to you. Your Literature Review should be a helpful source.

While the problem statement itself is just one sentence, it is always accompanied in the larger Introduction byseveral paragraphs that help to elaborate and that may include other elements of the research proposal. You mightpresent persuasive arguments as to why the problem is important enough to study or include the opinions of others(politicians, futurists, other professionals). Explain how the problem relates to business, social or political trendsby presenting a bit of evidence from your Literature Review that demonstrates the scope and depth of the problem.Try to give dramatic and concrete illustrations of the problem. After writing the Introduction, however, make sureyou can still easily identify the single sentence that is the problem statement.

Use this tutorial to help you to understand the components of a problem statement.

REFLECTION: Can you clearly identify the statement of problem in a study? In your Reflection Journalbriefly describe two studies that you read about when completing your review of the literature. Identifythe statement of problem in each. Evaluate the statement for each based on the characteristicsexplained above in a paragraph or two in your journal.

Return to Introduction

Purpose of the Study

This describes the goals and objectives that are the targets and desired outcomes of work done by you to findanswers to the problem or issue under investigation.

The purpose often starts with a single goal statement that explains what the study intends to accomplish. A fewtypical statements are:

The goal of this study is to... ... overcome the difficulty with ... ... discover what ... ... understand the causes or effects of ... ... refine our current understanding of ... ... provide a new interpretation of ... ... understand what makes ___ successful or unsuccessful

It is then followed by a paragraph which describes the objectives that support the goal of the researchinvestigation.

The words goal and objective are often confused with each other. They both describe things that a person maywant to achieve or attain; however, each is different in its scope. Goals are more global in nature, affecting largerpopulations over longer time frames. They are the big vision and are more general in wording. Objectives are morespecific and defined in nature. They are time-related to achieve a certain task, and are the measurable outcomesof activities undertaken to achieve goals; they are described as achieved or not achieved. Objectives should alignwith a studys goals.

The following chart can help you in determine whether a statement that you have written is a goal or an objective.

Goal Objective

What is the meaningof the statement? The purpose toward which

an investigation is directed. Something that one's efforts or actions areintended to attain or accomplish; purpose; target

What is the timeframe of thestatement?

Long term Short term

How would youmeasure the actiondescribed in thestatement?

Cannot be measured Can be measured

What is the type ofoutcome of the actiondescribed in thestatement?

Intangible Tangible

What kind of action isdescribed in thestatement?

Generic action Specific action

What overall plan isthe statementdescribing?

Broad plan Narrow plan

Statement example The after-school program willhelp children read better.

The after-school remedial education program willassist 50 children in improving their reading scoresby one grade level as demonstrated onstandardized reading tests administered afterparticipating in the program for six months.

REFLECTION: Which do you think are easier to craft, goals or objectives? Why? Explain your answer

REFLECTION: Which do you think are easier to craft, goals or objectives? Why? Explain your answerin 2-3 paragraphs in your Reflection Journal. Be sure to include specific ideas from the content aboveand your own ideas and experiences.


Definitions

Be sure that your proposal is understandable to a general reader who does not know much about your field ofinvestigation. This section gives the definition of important terms and concepts that are usually stated in theobjectives, hypothesis, and research questions. Define subject-specific and technical terms. If you are usingwords that are different in meaning in the context of your experiment from traditionally accepted meanings, definethe terms. Be sure to refer to authoritative sources in your definitions.

Explain any operational definitions, the definitions that you have created just for your study. An example of anoperational definition is: "For the purpose of this research, improvement is operationally defined as posttest scoreminus pretest score".

The clearest way to arrange your definitions page is to arrange terms in alphabetical order, with definitions stated incomplete sentences.

The following is an example of a definition section from a proposal entitled "Self-directed learning readiness and lifesatisfaction among older adults."

Definition of Key Terms

Life Satisfaction a self reported assessment of ones overall psychosocial well-being. It is a combination of (a)personality factors such as mood and self-concept, (b) more socially-related factors such as the nature of onessocial interactions, (c) perceived health, and (d) financial security.

Older Adult for the proposed study, older adult is defined as any person who is at least 65 years of age.

Self-Directed Learning a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, indiagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning,choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes.

Self-Directed Learning Readiness the degree to which one perceives oneself to possess the attitudes andskills needed to be an effective self-directed learner. It is measured in the proposed study through the Self-DirectedLearning Readiness Scale (SDLRS), developed by Guglielmino (1977).

Explore the following excellent sources for defining terms:

ThinkMap Visual Thesaurus

Your Dictionary

REFLECTION: Write one paragraph for each of the sources linked above in your Reflection Journal,

describing what is there and how you might be able to use it.

Significance of the Investigation

An explanation of the significance of a study may include the meaning of the research work to you personally andshould include how your research benefits or impacts others in part or whole. Discuss what people or groups ofpeople might benefit from reading your research. Show how this project is significant to developing a body ofknowledge. If your investigation will contribute to a portion of a larger investigation, describe that larger

investigation as well.

Continue with more indepth exploration of this section.

REFLECTION: Can you clearly identify the significance of the investigation for studies you have read in

REFLECTION: Can you clearly identify the significance of the investigation for studies you have read inyour review of the literature? Select three studies from your literature review readings. Briefly describeeach, and explain the significance of each of those investigations. Write one paragraph for each studyin your Reflection Journal.


Literature Review

Your literature review is already completed (Step 3) and can be included here. The literature review develops broadideas of what is already known in a field, and what questions are still unanswered. This process will assist you infurthering narrowing the problem for investigation, and will highlight any theories that may exist to supportdeveloping hypotheses. You must show that you have looked through the literature and have found the latestupdates in your field of study in order for a proposal to be convincing to an audience. This process also helps youto be sure that your investigation is not just reinventing the wheel. A discussion of the present understanding

and/or state of knowledge concerning the problem or issue sets the context for your investigation.


Questions or Hypothesis

Questions and hypotheses are testable explanations that are proposed before the methodology of a project isconducted, but after the researcher has had an opportunity to develop background knowledge (much like theliterature review that you just finished). Although research questions and hypotheses are different in their sentencestructure and purpose, both seek to predict relationships. Deciding whether to use questions orhypothesis depends on facts such as the purpose of the study, the approach and design of the methodology, andthe expected audience for the research proposal.

A research question proposes a relationship between two or more variables. Just as the title states, it isstructured in form of a question. There are three types of research questions:

A descriptive research question seeks to identify and describe some phenomenon.

An example: What is the ethnic breakdown of patients seen in the emergency room for non- emergencyconditions.

A differences research question asks if there are differences between groups on some phenomenon.

For example: Do patients who receive massage experience more relief from sore muscle pain than patients whotake a hot bath?

A relationship question asks if two or more phenomena are related in some systematic manner.

For example: If one increases his level of physical exercise does muscle mass also increase?

A hypothesis represents a declarative statement, a sentence instead of a question, of the cause-effectrelationship between two or more variables. Make a clear and careful distinction between the dependent andindependent variables and be certain they are clear to the reader. Be very consistent in your use of terms. Ifappropriate, use the same pattern of wording and word order in all hypotheses.

While hypotheses come from the scientific method, to see how political scientists use hypotheses, imagine howyou might use a hypothesis to develop a thesis for this paper: Suppose that we asked "How are presidentialelections affected by economic conditions?" We could formulate this question into the following hypothesis:"When the national unemployment rate is greater than 7 percent at the time of the election, presidentialincumbents are not reelected."

Hypotheses can be created as four kinds of statements.

1. Literary nulla no difference form in terms of theoretical constructs. For example, There is no relationship between support services and academic persistence of nontraditional-aged college women. Or, There is no difference in school achievement for high and low self-regulatedstudents.

2. Operational nulla no difference form in terms of the operation required to test the hypothesis.For example, There is no relationship between the number of hours nontraditional-aged college women usethe student union and their persistence at the college after their freshman year. Or, There is no differencebetween the mean grade point averages achieved by students in the upper and lower quartiles of the

distribution of the Self-regulated Inventory. The operational null is the most used form for hypothesis-writing.

3. Literary alternativea form that states the hypothesis you will accept if the null hypothesis is rejected,stated in terms of theoretical constructs. In other words, this is usually what you hope the results will show.For example, The more that nontraditional-aged women use support services, the more they will persistacademically. Or, High self-regulated students will achieve more in their classes than low self-regulatedstudents.

4. Operational alternativeSimilar to the literary alternative except that the operations are specified.For example, The more that nontraditional-aged college women use the student union, the more they willpersist at the college after their freshman year. Or, Students in the upper quartile of the Self-regulatedInventory distribution achieve significantly higher grade point averages than do students in the lowerquartile.

Regardless of which is selected, questions or hypotheses, this element of the research proposal needs to be asspecific as possible in whatever field of study you are investigating. It should be realistic and feasible, and be

formulated with time and resource constraints in mind.

REFLECTION: Identify some of the Questions or Hypothesis within studies you have read in yourLiterature Review. How do you think that the researchers were able to determine these were soundpropositions to make? Are there things that you disagreed with in the questions or hypothesis, or thatyou would do differently? What did you learn from reviewing your literature review that might behelpful when you write your own paper? Record your response in your Reflective Journal.


Design Approach

Type of Design Used

Role of the Researcher

Data Collection and Analysis

Ethics

Reliability and Validity ofMethods and Results

Timetable

Resources and Materials

Do you know that the key element of your research proposal will be its methodology section?

Imagine this: You are competing with several other organizations for grant money to conduct an investigation into anew treatment for cancer. You will need to convince the grant foundation that their money will be well spent,and that you will manage this investigation well. How can they believe that you will produce results if you do not tellthem about the methods you intend to use in order to assess and study your research and data? Will you conductexperiments, or will you study existing groups of individuals? Will you collect numerical data or anecdotes? Howwill you know that you have tested the correct populations of people or that your reasoning was sound? Based onyour research proposal's methodology, the grant foundation will either approve or disapprove your investigation,and will determine the amount of your grant.

It is time to examine and study research proposal methodology. A research proposal's methodology outlines thestrategy for conducting an investigation in order to answer a research question. As a part of an overall researchproject proposal, the researcher will need to plan out and share the procedures that will be used in theinvestigation.

In this section you will review different approaches, designs, procedures, and methods for investigating your area ofresearch. Specific tools will be described and evaluated so that you can determine which ones will help you tomeet your research goals.

Design Approach

Budget

Limitations

Delimitations

Final Product

The overall design of a research project consists of its methods and procedures. Research design can be

described as Qualitative or Quantitative in approach. It is also possible to have a mixture of the two approaches,both in overall design and in the specific methods used in the investigation.

All researchers, including you, need to understand the full nature of both quantitative and qualitative approaches toresearch and evaluation methodologies in order to appropriately select the overall design that best fits yourinvestigation. While described as distinct terms, qualitative and quantitative approaches to research methods anddesign are complementary and can overlap often.

Qualitative? Quantitative?

Return to Procedure or Methodology

Type of Design Used

What are the main types of qualitative approaches to research?

While there are many different investigations that can be done, a study with a qualitative approach generally can bedescribed with the characteristics of one of the following three types:

Historical research describes past events, problems, issues and facts. Data are gathered from written or oraldescriptions of past events, artifacts, etc. It describes what was in an attempt to recreate the past. It is differentfrom a report in that it involves interpretation of events and its influence on the present. It answers the question:What was the situation?

Examples of Historical Research

A study of the factors leading to the historical development and growth of cooperative learningA study of the effects of the historical decisions of the United States Supreme Court on American prisonsA study of the evolution of print journalism in the United States through a study of collections of newspapersA study of the historical trends in public laws by looking recorded at a local courthouse

Ethnographic research develops in-depth analytical descriptions of current systems, processes, and phenomenaand/or understandings of the shared beliefs and practices of a particular group or culture. This type of designcollects extensive narrative data (non-numerical data) based on many variables over an extended period of time in anatural setting within a specific context. The background, development, current conditions, and environmentalinteraction of one or more individuals, groups, communities, businesses or institutions is observed, recorded, andanalyzed for patterns in relation to internal and external influences. It is a complete description of presentphenomena.

One specific form of ethnographic research is called a case study. It is a detailed examination of a single group,individual, situation, or site.

A meta-analysis is another specific form. It is a statistical method which accumulates experimental andcorrelational results across independent studies. It is an analysis of analyses.

Examples of Ethnographic Research:

A case study of parental involvement at a specific magnet schoolA multi-case study of children of drug addicts who excel despite early childhoods in poor environments

The study of the nature of problems teachers encounter when they begin to use a constructivist approach toinstruction after having taught using a very traditional approach for ten yearsA psychological case study with extensive notes based on observations of and interviews with immigrantworkersA study of primate behavior in the wild measuring the amount of time an animal engaged in a specificbehavior

behavior

Narrative research focuses on studying a single person and gathering data through the collection of stories thatare used to construct a narrative about the individuals experience and the meanings he/she attributes to them.

Examples of Narrative Research:

A study of the experiences of an autistic student who has moved from a self-contained program to aninclusion settingA study of the experiences of a high school track star who has been moved on to a championship-winninguniversity track team

REFLECTION: In your Reflective Journal freewrite for one minute, listing as many terms and conceptsassociated with qualitative methodology that you can recall. Use those terms to jog your memory as youwrite a one paragraph summary of what you understand the qualitative approach to research design tobe. Do NOT look back at the information on this website, and do NOT try to write a dictionary definition. Just your own words and ideas.


Role of the Researcher

Determine what your role will be in the collection of the research material. In this section describe your majortasks in your research procedure. Explain whether you will be an unobtrusive observer, a participant observer, or acollaborator. Evaluate how your own bias may affect the methodology, outcomes, and analysis of findings.

Many times this element of the research Proposal will be affected by Ethics. In addition, this section is ofteninterwoven in a narrative design explanation with other elements of the proposal.

Review the excerpt below from a research proposal. See if you can identify how the researcher has defined his orher role in the investigation from the narrative explanation that is provided.

Research Design and Procedures

Following these lines of thinking, a qualitative study of the social world of full-time adult undergraduates isproposed, using semi-structured interviews as the primary research approach. It is proposed to begin theinterviewing process in the fall of 1996. They will begin with unstructured questions such as the following: "Whathas it been like to be a full-time student at Central College?" Often, with only an occasional question from me forclarification, it is anticipated that the adults will talk about a wide variety of topics throughout an extended interview.

It is anticipated that up to 30 interviews and any necessary follow-up interviews will be conducted during thatacademic year. In addition, follow-up clarifying interviews will be conducted with at least a dozen of these studentsduring the second academic year after I have completed some data analysis and obtained a beginningunderstanding of the findings.

All interviews will be tape-recorded and, based on four pilot interviews already conducted, are expected to vary in

length from 45 minutes to one hour and 45 minutes. The interviews will be informal and open-ended, and carried outin a conversational style.

I will write field notes in conjunction with the interviews, follow-up interviews, observations, and casual encounterswith subjects. Memoranda also will be written while listening to taped interviews, typing transcripts, and reflectingupon a particular interview. In addition to the interviews and follow-up interviews, I expect to obtain other datathroughout the study, such as comments from administrative and teaching colleagues, papers or other materialssubjects care to give to me, and ongoing literature review.

REFLECTION: In your Reflection Journal answer the following in a 2-3 paragraph response. How doesthe researcher characterize his or her role in the research process, both directly and indirectly, in theproposal?


Data Collection and Analysis Procedures: Sampling and Instrumentation

Design and describe a specific methodology consistent with your academic discipline, your purpose, your mode ofinvestigation, and your type. This section of your proposal should explain the details of the proposed plan. Youshould discuss how you will go about exploring your problem or issue and what specific tools and methods thatyou would use. If you are not the only person working on the project, you need to explain who else is involved.

There are many devices that you can use to collect your data. Click to see a larger version of the chart.

Each section links to a separate page which would includes: Pros/Cons, Guide, Resources,

Examples and Tools.

Interviews Observation Focus

Groups

Case

Studies

Questionnaires/

Surveys

Document

Reviews

Pros/Cons Pros/Cons Pros/Cons Pros/Cons Pros/Cons Pros/Cons

Guide Guide Guide Guide Guide Guide

Resources Resources Resources Resources Resources Resources

Examples Examples Examples Examples Examples Examples

Tools Tools Tools Tools Tools


Ethics

Ethics

Ethics must be considered in all phases of a research project, from brainstorming ideas, to fundraising grants, todesigning studies, to conducting interviews, and right through to final publication of final results.

The National Institute of Environmental Heath Science and the National Institutes of Health have a thoroughconsideration of all aspects of research ethics for all types of research designs in the article, What is Ethics inResearch & Why is It Important? by David B. Resnik, J.D., Ph.D.

As you read the article, generate a list of all of the various ways in which ethics impacts the research process.

Read "What is Ethics in Research & Why is It Important?"

REFLECTION: Which one of all of the concerns related to research ethics is the most important toremember? Why? Defend your choice in an informal essay of at least five paragraphs in yourReflection Journal. Although you are only defending one concern, you should also refer others in youressay as well.

Now use tutorials, case studies, and other resources to allow you to clarify your understanding of ethical concernsin research.

REFLECTION: Go through one of the tutorials linked above. Which one did you select? Why? What didyou learn that might prepare you to consider ethics for your own research investigation? Describe yourthoughts in 2-3 paragraphs in your Reflection Journal.


Reliability and Validity of Methods and Results

You need to convince your reader that your methods and results are both reliable and valid. The more resultsprove consistent over time and reflect accurate representations of the total populations under study, the more

scientifically reliable they are. If the results of a study can be reproduced under a similar methodology, then the

research methods are considered to be reliable.

Validity determines whether the research truly measures what it was intended to measure, or how truthful theresearch results are. In other words, does the research instrument allow you to hit "the bulls eye" of your researchobjectives? Researchers generally determine validity by asking a series of questions, and will often look for theanswers in the research of others. Each type of research design has its own standards for reliability and validity.

Qualitative

Researchers argue that maintainingthe trustworthiness of qualitative research depends onthe same issues of quantitative studies known asvalidity and reliability. While it is difficult in qualitativeresearch to prove validity and reliability throughreproducing the same results over and over, like aresearcher can do in quantitative research, somequalitative researchers believe that the concept ofdependability and consistency in results can develop asense of validity for qualitative research.

Consistency of data is achieved when the steps of theresearch are verified through examination of suchitems as raw data, data reduction products, andprocess notes. Because it is more difficult to define

Quantitative

Quantitative methodology frames its concerns about

validity and reliability using the terms internal andexternal.

1. Internal validity concerns the soundness of aninvestigation. In particular, studies of cause and effectneed to be internally valid. Causal studies includeclinical trials, experiments or quasi-experiments. Todemonstrate causality, three conditions should bemet:

a. The cause must precede the effectb. The size of the effect varies with the size of thecausal factorc. Other causes for the effect can be ruled out.

Example:

process notes. Because it is more difficult to definereliability and validity in qualitative terms, manyresearchers have developed their own concepts ofvalidity and have often generated or adopted what theyconsider to be more appropriate terms, such as,quality, rigor and trustworthiness. The idea ofdiscovering truth through measures of reliability andvalidity is replaced by the idea of trustworthiness,which is defensibleand establishing confidence in thefindings.

Triangulation is one test for improving the validityand reliability of research or evaluation of findings. Asthe name implies, triangulation is a strategy thatcontrols bias and helps to establish valid conclusionsbecause it uses at least three (thus, the "tri-" prefix)different types of methods or tools to collect data fromwhich conclusions are made. Many researchersargue that triangulation strengthens a study bycombining methods. This can mean using severalkinds of methods or data, including using bothquantitative and qualitative approaches. By using at

least three different methods, the researcher is aboutto obtain multiple, diverse perceptions of a singleconcept.

Many research tools and models have their own testsfor reliability and validity built in to their basicprocedures and methodologies. As you explore andapply these methods to your own researchinvestigation, always question if you are implementingthem in a way that makes the process and the resultsreliable and fair.

More resources on this topic:

Qualitative ValidityValidity and Reliability in QualitativeResearchEnhancing the quality and credibility ofqualitative analysis.Research Methods Tutorials

REFLECTION: In your Reflection Journal, sketcha visual representation of what triangulationmeans in a general sense. You may use adrawing program or import a clip art. Bycreating or selecting a visual definition of a term,you will have provided yourself another way toremember the meaning of the term.

Example:

a. Food poisoning may be the cause of stomach painif eating the food preceded the pain. If the pain waspresent before eating the suspected food then the foodcould not be the viewed as a possible cause.

b. The second condition for establishing causalitywould be fulfilled if the degree of pain experiencedvaries with the amount of the food consumed, i.e. thegreater the amount of food consumed, the worse thepain experienced.

c. Finally, other alternative explanations must be ruledout, such as distention or other non-bacterialdiseases.

Thus a causal study is internally valid or has goodinternal validity if the effects observed can becorrectly attributed to the treatments administered orto the independent variable. This implies that variableshave been controlled, and any possible error or biasdue to those variables have been removed or reduced.

2. External validity refers to the extent to which theresults of an investigation can be generalized to othersamples or situations. There are two types of externalvalidity:

a. Population validityb. Ecological validity

a. Population validity concerns generalizing from thesample, a part of an identified group from which youwant to make a conclusion, to the population, thegroup about whom you want to make the conclusion.Limits to population validity may arise when thepopulation one wishes to generalize to is not the samepopulation from which the sample was taken.

Example:

A study on controlling hypertension draws a randomsample of 50 male patients from a population attendingthe general practice X. Its findings can be really onlybe generalized to the population of male patientsattending that surgery and NOT to ALL male patientswith hypertension attending different surgeries or indifferent parts of a country.

b. Ecological validity refers to generalizing findingsto other situations, settings or conditions.

Examples:

Drug A may relieve acute pain due to injury but not thetype of pain induced by laboratory means.

remember the meaning of the term. type of pain induced by laboratory means.Patients may be able to make a cup of tea in arehabilitation unit but not in their own homes. Programs to break addiction to alcohol may not besuccessful in cases of addiction to heroin.

External validity depends on the use of appropriatebasic concepts of sampling and sample size.Probability sampling methods are more likely to resultin selecting a sample that is representative of thepopulation that the researcher wishes to study. Non-probability methods usually do not ensure arepresentative sample but may be appropriate forsome studies depending on the study aims.

An adequate sample size reduces the likelihood ofsampling error. The following tool is helpful in

generating appropriate sample sizes.

This abstract from the National Institutes ofHealth details the degree to which sample size andpopulation sample characteristics can demonstratethe reliability of conclusions drawn from data.

For more information about Reliability and Validity inQuantitative studies, visit the resources below.

Knowledge BaseResearch Methods TutorialsValidity & Reliability In Quantitative ResearchQuantitative Research DesignValidity and Reliability

REFLECTION: In your Reflection Journal create aT-chart, either using a table or drawing tool. Onone side list as many details about validity thatyou can recall. On the other side, list detailsabout sampling. After you have done this frommemory, re-skim some of the material above andthe preceding web page. Add more details toyour chart. These are complex, complicatedideas. Creating this T-chart will begin to help youto digest this advanced material.


Timetable

You want to be sure that your investigation is feasible for the timeframe that you have. Inexperienced researcherstend to underestimate the amount of time that the various stages of research will take. Be generous when working

tend to underestimate the amount of time that the various stages of research will take. Be generous when workingout time frames and check them with a more experienced researcher. In order to do this, you need to map outwhat you will do and when you will do it. You also have to keep your goals and objectives for the proposal in mindwhen setting deadlines for progress and consider what benchmarks you will use to determine your progress. Thismay take the form of a chart, timeline or flowchart (or any other organizer you choose).

Give an overview of when you are going to do each specific step of your project. This does not need to be a day-to-day list, but it should give an overview biweekly or monthly. Be sure to include time to review and synthesize yourdata or reflect on the overall study. You should include time to prepare the final research product as well.

Consider the following questions when setting up your schedule:

When will your research start and finish?Are there particular stages to the research - e.g. piloting, then main research? screening interviews, then amain study? If there are stages, what are they?What objectives have I set for this investigation? Are they addressed in the timeline? Is the timetable realistic?Is it influenced by external constraints or deadlines?How will you provide regular updates and progress reports and to whom will you provide them? How will youdemonstrate progress?

One way to organize yourself is to create a basic table in a Word document or do look at other templates.

There are also online calculators that will assist you in setting deadlines for phases of the research process.

Reviewing samples of other research investigation timelines can give ideas for what you would like to include inyour own schedule and how you will budget your time. Study the following example to see how this researcherorganized his timeline.

Management Plan

This section presents my schedule, costs, and qualifications for completing the proposed research. This researchculminates in a formal report, which will be completed by December 5, 1997. To reach this goal, I will follow theschedule presented in Figure 1. Since I already possess literature on the subject of Yucca Mountain as a nuclearwaste site, most of my time will be spent sorting through the literature to find key results, and presenting thoseresults to the audience.

Now review a few more. Consider how each was organized and what components were included

Sample Research TimelineProjected TimelineSample Project TimelineResearch Repository Project Example Timeline

REFLECTION: Based on your exploration of the timetables above, what are the key requirements fora research proposal's timetable? What are some of the differences that you observed? Why do youthink that these differences exist? Answer these questions in several paragraphs in your ReflectionJournal.

The following web applications could also assist you in the creation of your timeline and help you to remindyourself of when deadlines are approaching.

ReddyNoteNexty


Resources and Materials

List the equipment and resources that are already available that you expect to use in your study. Itemize whatother equipment and resources you will need to complete the investigation. You must identify the resources youwill need to complete the project with a clear understanding of each stage of your project. Be sure to considerpeople, materials, and equipment/tools in your explanation. While exhaustive details are not required for a generalproposal, an assessment of the potential resource requirements is essential for good research planning. Aproposal that neglects resource use or underestimates the resources required suggests a poorly thought outproject.

The materials and equipment that you need for your research investigation will vary based on your methodology. The following questions should help guide you in determining what you should include in this section of yourproposal.

*What apparatus are you going to use?

*What materials are you going to use?

*Are you going to administer any tests? If so, which ones?

*Are there any special supplies you require?

*Do you need an apparatus or device to observe or record behavior?

*Will you need access to any special supervision, staff, or advisors?

*Do you need any special training, knowledge, or certifications?

Will you need any special literature or guides?

What access to facilities will you need that are outside of your school? Inside of your school?

Examples from Actual Proposals

A. Apparatus

Data on answer speed and call handling time was attained utilizing the Northern Telecom Meridian Max callreporting system. A daily prayer log sheet was used as a self report by prayer intercessors.

B. Materials

B. Materials

Electromyography equipment (stimulator, pre-amplifier, amplifier, display screen, recording device), electrodeleads, surface disposable electrodes, conductant gel, skin preparation solution, alcohol swabs, tape measure,recording paper, plotter pens, thermometer.

c. FACILITIES

Supervision is available from the School of Theatre, and while there is no special equipment needed, there arespecial requirements for access to documents unique to the project. The principal documents required for thisproject are published libretti of the musicals of Peter Stone, personal papers of Peter Stone, and interviews andarchival footage. Materials that cannot be acquired (such as out-of-print libretti) or accessed via the Internet (suchas archival video footage) will be sourced by visiting institutions that hold the material. Central to this will be thepersonal papers of Stone (at the University of California, Los Angeles), correspondence held in the archives of theDramatists Guild of America (New York), and oral histories, video-recordings of interviews and archival footage ofperformances (New York). These unique documents are not available on interlibrary loan and must be consulted in-person.

This website lists the many resources that some universities offer to students who are completing researchinvestigations. The files may provide ideas for the types of resources and materials that you may need in your owninvestigation.


Budget

Your list of budget items and the calculations you have done to arrive at a dollar figure for each item should besummarized. A narrative portion of the budget is used to explain the line items in the budget. Projects thatinclude travel or need large amounts of funding should be specific about benefits and reasons for the cost.

You will be expected to detail the costs of the project, including the cost of all resources such as travel,accommodation and equipment.

Budgetary considerations are important for all students, especially if you have limited access to funds. You need toensure your project is feasible and establish where the funds will be coming from to finance it.

Narrative Example:Given that all my sources are available through the University of Wisconsin library system, there is no appreciablecost associated with performing this review, unless one takes into consideration the amount of tuition spent onmaintaining the university libraries. The only other minor costs are photocopying articles, creating transparenciesfor my presentation, printing my report, and binding my report. I estimate these expenses will not exceed $20.

Sample Budget (Narrative Form)

Cost Information

(Note: The evaluation panel reviews cost information after considering the technical aspects of theproposals. The responsibility for evaluation of costs often rests primarily with the contracting officer, who

relies on input from other members of the evaluation panel.)

Is the overall cost within the rate of your (the contracting agency's) budget?What is the relationship between the cost figures and equivalent items in the technical proposal?Are the personnel costs reasonable according to the tasks to be performed?Are the appropriate personnel assigned to perform the appropriate tasks?Have expenditures been set aside for subcontracting requirements such as data processing?If a large-scale questionnaire must be mailed, has an adequate sum been set aside for postage?Have costs for development of instruments, purchase of materials, such as scoring sheets, etc., beenincluded?Does the travel seem reasonable when compared to the tasks to be accomplished?

Does the travel seem reasonable when compared to the tasks to be accomplished?If consultants or experts are included, is their daily rate reasonable and within the proper financial range foryour agency? Is the proposed time reasonable?If appropriate, have costs for local personnel been included?

Data-based examples:

Example entry

Item Unit cost Total

Equipment rental and purchase

Digital voice recorder $150 $150

Transcription machine (hire) $130 $130

Materials and supplies

Lithium batteries (4) $7 $28

1 GB memory stick $95 $95

Stationery $100 $100

Communications

Telephone and Internet charges $200 $200

Postage $50 $50

Personnel

Indirect costs

N/A

TOTAL $753

Decision Making Tool 2.11 Developing a Research BudgetOnline Calculator Excel Tutorial

REFLECTION: Beside calculating costs, what other benefits does planning a budget provide aresearcher? Explain your ideas in a one-paragraph response in your Reflection Journal.


Limitations

Limitations are influences that the researcher can not control.

Limitations are shortcomings, conditions or influences that cannot be controlled by the researcher that placerestrictions on your methodology and conclusions. Any limitations that might influence the results should bementioned.

Things to think about:

- your analysis- the nature of self-reporting- the instruments you utilized- the sample - time constraints

In qualitative research these limitations will often be that the findings cannot be generalized to the largerpopulation. This is especially true when the definition of the population is broad (ex: elderly women)

Example

Implementing Communication Strategies in Listening/Speaking Classes at the Foreign LanguageCenter- Cantho University (Dang Thi Kim Mai)

Center- Cantho University (Dang Thi Kim Mai)

Although this research was carefully prepared, I am still aware of its limitations and shortcomings.

First of all, the research was conducted in the two intermediate classes which have lasted for eight weeks. Eightweeks is not enough for the researcher to observe all of the students speaking performance in their classes. Itwould be better if it was done in a longer time.

Second, the population of the experimental group is small, only thirty-five students and might not represent themajority of the students of the intermediate level.

Third, since the questionnaire designed to measure the students attitude towards the use of communicationstrategies might give useful information about the impacts of communicative strategies; it seems not to provideenough evidence of the students actual behaving to communication skills in their speaking performance.

In addition, since the assessment of the pretest and post test was conducted by the author herself, it isunavoidable that in this study, certain degree of subjectivity can be found. In fact, it would have been sort ofobjective if it had been decided by two or three examiners.


Delimitations

Delimitations are choices made by the researcher which should be mentioned.

Delimitations describe the boundaries that you have set for the study. This is the place to explain:

the things that you are not doing (and why you have chosen not to do them)the literature you will not review (and why not)the population you are not studying (and why not)the methodological procedures you will not use (and why you will not use them)

Limit your delimitations to the things that a reader might reasonably expect you to do but that you, forclearly explained reasons, have decided not to do.

Delimitations define the parameters of the investigation. In educational research the delimitations will frequentlydeal with such items as population/sample, treatment(s), setting, and instrumentation. For example, the studymay focus on children in only one grade level or measure aptitude using only a group intelligence test.(Suggestions for Preparing a Dissertation/Thesis Proposal)

Examples:

A researcher chooses to look only at senior college swimmers or adolescents between 18 to 19 years ofage.The researcher picks a particular instrument to collect data with or limits the number of questions asked

REFLECTION: Answer in a two or three paragraph response in your Reflection Journal. Why isimportant that a researcher consider both limitations and delimitations when planning his or hermethods? Be sure to include the definitions of the terms and specific details in your writing.


Final Product

In the section, the researcher discusses the possible outcomes of the study, its relation to theory and literature,and its potential impact or application. A description of the possible forms of the final product, e.g., publishablemanuscript, conference paper, invention, model, computer software, exhibit, performance, etc., should be outlined. Be specific about how you intend to share your results or project with others. Although all of these ideas maychange in light of the research process or the final results, it is always good to plan with the end product in mind.

This section may also include an interpretation and explanation of results as related to your question; a discussion

This section may also include an interpretation and explanation of results as related to your question; a discussionon or suggestions for further work that may help address the problem you are trying to solve; an analysis of theexpected impact of the findings and product on the audience; or a discussion on any problems that could hinderyour creative work.

Ask yourself the following questions:

In what form will your findings be presented?How will you be disseminating your findings?To whom will you be disseminating your findings?How will you ensure anonymity in any publications?Will you need to create an abstract of your overall investigation?

Consider how this group presented their findings.

REFLECTION: Think back to the purposes for research conclusions and findings (basic, practical, andapplied). Explain in a one or two paragraph entry in your Reflection Journal what the connection isbetween these purposes for research and the final product of the research investigation. Use specificterms and details in your answer.


Keep a running list of all references as you work through the proposal. You will need to have this list to avoidplagiarism and chances are you will need to go back to certain references throughout the entire researchexperience. This includes all textbooks, reference books, journal articles, Internet sources, etc. Use theappropriate form of citations for your field.

See the references section from your Literature Review for a comprehensive guide to completing the referencesection of your proposal. You do not need to duplicate the efforts of your Literature Review, but PLEASEremember to add any new references that you utilized for your methodology, data collection tools, etc.

Adding a few appendices to the end of your proposal allows you to show how thoroughly you have prepared yourresearch project without obliging the reader to wade through all the details. The purpose of an appendix is todisplay documents which are relevant to main text, but whose presence in the text would disturb rather thanenhance the flow of the argument or writing. Results of the literature search, pilot data, data collection forms,patient information sheets, and consent forms can all be added as appendices to include documents, pilot study

material, questions for interviews, survey instruments, explanatory statement to participants,etc.

Some likely parts to incorporate in the appendices are as follows:

Distribution Plan - A vital part of the proposal which is the plan for distributing of information about the

project to the audience. It can also include financial statements for the funding agencies which want to seestanding of the project. This section may include radio broadcasts, training programs, workshops, printedhandouts, , presentations, etc.

Cooperating Agency Information If references of different cooperating agencies are given, then try to give

some detail about these agencies in appendices like name and address, services or product, names of

important personals, etc.

Evaluation Tools It is good to include the copy of evaluation tools planed to use which are used ininformation gathering like questionnaires, survey, interview, etc.

Appendices have a format to include the following:

A. Pagination: Each Appendix begins on a separate page.B. Heading:If there is only one appendix, "Appendix" is centered on the first line below the manuscript page

header. If there is more than one appendix, use Appendix A (or B or C, etc.). Double-space and type theappendix title (centered in uppercase and lowercase letters).

C. Format: Indent the first line 5-7 spaces.D. Example of APA-formatted Appendix

And now that you have reviewed all of the Elements of the Research Proposal, it is time to start planning for yourown. You are now ready to begin Stage Two: How Do I Write My Own Research Proposal?

Return to the Stages of the Research Proposal

Unit Overview for Step 4a - Key Elements of a Research Proposal

The unit is designed to teach students about the Elements of a Research Proposal as well as to provide multiplemodels for students as they prepare to write their own research proposal in Unit 4b. Students will be able to:

Explain why a title is so important to a research proposalIdentify the characteristics of effective introductions

State the problem in a teacher-selected research proposalSummarize the differences between goals and objectives in a research investigationDefine subject-specific and technical research termsCite the significance of investigations included in the literature reviewDescribe the factors that impact the decision to use questions or an hypothesis in the research proposalCompare and contrast qualitative and quantitative research methodsWrite an extended constructed response characterizing the role of the researcher in the research processIdentify the pros and cons of the following data collection and analysis procedures: interview, observations,focus groups, case studies, questionnaires/surveys, and document reviewsGenerate a list of the various ways in which ethics impacts the research processDefine reliability and validity of methods and results

Explain how a timetable and management plan affects the investigation

Additional resources and lesson plans are available through the Research Course wiki.

key elements of the research proposal

Documents

example of title page

research proposaltitle

research proposalthese

effective introduction

learning preferences

key elements

key ideas

important words