jung at the foot of mount kailash

Jung at the Foot of Mount Kailash:A Transpersonal Synthesis of Depth Psychology,

Tihetan Tantra, and the Sacred Mythic Imagery of East and West

Judson DavisCalifotnia Institute of Integral Studies

San Francisco, CA, USA

Tibetan Buddhist Tantra and Jungian depth psychology represent two ofthe world's motedynamic psycho-spititual traditions. This comparative study explotes theit respectiveinsights, cosmologies, and often striking similarities, with particular emphasis on themannet in which mythic imagety is employed in both disciplines as a powerful agentof healing and transformation. The ontological status of Tibetan deities and archetypalentities is also given cateful consideration, especially in relation to the phenomena ofpsychic projection and autonomous spiritual dimensions.

Keywords: fungian psychology, Tibetan Tantra, integral scholarship, transpersonal,archetypal dimension, dream yoga, participatory event

J ungian psychology and Tibetan Tantra share anumber of characteristics and methodologies thathave as their primary focus the treatment of humansuffering and the elicitation of spiritual awakening.Each tradition arose in a very different historical periodand socio-cultural context, which makes these variousoverlapping aspects all the more compelling.

These two transformative disciplinesonerevealing the wisdom of an ancient Eastern spiritualtradition and the other the insights of a contemporaryWestern psychological frameworkare linked mostreadily through their shared emphasis on the creativeuse of mythic imagery as a dynamic means of effectingspiritual development. With transcendence acting as theirprimary focus, both traditions emphasize the mind, orpsyche, as the foundational basis of existence and theprimary means through which liberation (in the tantrictradition) and psychic wholeness (in Jungian psychology)is pursued. Each emphasizes the realm of dreams (e.g.,dream analysis in depth psychology and dream yoga inTibetan Tantra), meditative visualizations (such as thefocus on wisdom figures in both disciplines), and anassortment of other practices that, at their very essence,are designed to effect a reconciliation of opposites and theattendant union of masculine and feminine elements.

It should be noted that both of these disciplinesrepresent complex psychological systems that possess their

own distinctive characteristics and include sometimeswidely varying notions of a higher spiritual order orultimate reality (the apparent incongruity between theJungian Self and the Buddhist "no-Self" being a primaryexample), but an in-depth explication concerning theirrespective metaphysical postulations is not the purposeof this study. Rather, it is my intention to examine howmythic imagery is used in both traditions as a meansof inducing transpersonal experience, and how suchexperiences affect and transform human consciousness.In this sense, regardless ofthe differences in ontologicalor epistemological pronouncements, it can be said thatboth systems are committed to the treating and healingof human suffering as well as the inducement of spiritualawakening through transformative methodologies thatshare a number of intriguing characteristics. In addition,each discipline emphasizes a radical shift away from theego as the center of one's identity toward the realization ofan inseparable interrelationship with a boundless and all-encompassing psychic matrix. And within this context,it is essential to understand that in each tradition "thepsyche or mind ofthe individualthe only instrumentthrough which one experiences realityis the soleauthority" (Moacanin, 2003, pp. 102-103).

In the spirit of integral scholarship. Western andEastern accounts of numinous states of consciousness,findings from modern transpersonal research, and

148 International fournal of Transpersonal Studies, 30(1-2), 2011, pp. 148-164

elements of my own personal, therapeutic, and mysticalexperience are integrated in this study, especially whenthese aspects serve to enhance a given example ortheoretical component. This is done in recognition ofthe need for

a scholarship that realizes that these religious worldsare not dead corpses that we can dissect and analyzefrom a safe distance, but rather are vital, living bodiesof knowledge and practice that have the potential tochange completely our taken-for-granted notions ofwho we are, why we are here and what we could orshould become. (Gunnlaugson, 2005, pp. 333-334)

The importance of integrating one's owndeeply transformative experiences into any relatedcourse of study is highlighted in Jeffrey Kripal's(2001) emphasis upon a mystical hermeneutic, as "themodern, and now post-modern, study of mysticism ...has been largely inspired, sustained, and rhetoricallyformed by the unitive, ecstatic, visionary, and mystico-hermeneutical experiences of the scholars themselves"(p. 3). Accordingly, in this study, for example, one ofmy own highly transformative mystical experiencesserves as the starting point for an exploration of theontological status of autonomous dimensions andpsychic projections.

The integration of such material presents bothpotential benefits (e.g., theelucidation oftheory throughdirect experience) and pitfalls (e.g., the potential forpersonal projection and cultural appropriation), andthese important considerations can be approachedwith greater clarity when considered through Hans-Georg Gadamer's (1989) notion of a horizon, whichhe described as "the range of vision that includeseverything that can be seen from a particular vantagepoint" (p. 271). The spiritual and theoretical horizonsof both disciplines are thus explored in relation to theirrespective vantage points, a process that inevitablyunfolds within the context of one's own particularinsights and experience. In this sense, understandingis not conceived as a final or fixed truth, but ratheras an enhanced, deepened, and fluid perspective thatreflects the fruits of such a dialogical inquiryand itsfusion of horizonsbetween observer, lens, and texts.This is precisely the spirit in which this comparativestudy unfolds, and as such it is intended as a concertedform of cross-fertilization, or creative dialogicalhermeneutics.

Jung at the Foot of Mount Kailash

Jungian Depth Psychology

J u ngian psychology grew out of the depth psychologicalmovement that was initiated by Sigmund Freud inlate nineteenth-century Europe. In contrast to Freud'sspiritually reductionist psychoanalysis, Jung (1963) cameto understand the human psyche as possessing a religiousfunction whereby archetypal symbolsas revealedthrough the unconscious and as manifested throughdreams, myth, and creative expressioninform andguide human spiritual development on both a personaland collective level.

Jung was also fascinated by and readilyacknowledged what he viewed as the superior develop-ment of various ancient Eastern spiritual traditions, andwas especially intrigued with what he described as "theself-liberating power of the introverted mind" (1992a,p. 56). He wrote a number of essays on various aspectsof Asian esotericism, including The Psychology of EasternMeditation, psychological commentaries on The TibetanBook of Great Liberation and The Tibetan Book of theDead, and a foreword to D. T. Suzuki's Introductionto Zen Buddhism. Jung was particularly drawn to themanner in which certain Eastern disciplines emphasizethe reconciliation of opposites and the union of maleand female aspects. He also saw in these traditions adirect link to a primary component in his own evolvingpsychological theorythe notion of unus mundus.This term, which derives from his studies of medievalphilosophy, translates as "one unitary world" andrepresents the original, inseparable union of all things,the non-differentiated essence out of which all thingsarise and are given individual form (Jung, 1963).

The nature of unus mundus was conceived asmanifesting into separate parts such as subject and objectin order to bring forth a condition of actuality from thepotentiality inherent in the original, non-differentiatedessence. Jung (1963) applied this concept to his study ofthe human psyche, and conceived that the differentiationof the conscious and unconscious contents of the psyche(i.e., separate parts or opposites) is necessary for the sakeof growth and adaptation, but ultimately these aspectsmust be reunited in order to achieve a state of psychicwholeness. Central to this course of development (i.e.,the individuation process) and its circuitous return tothe origin of one's being (i.e., the Self) is the concept ofarchetypes, the primordial psychic structures that guidehuman development and serve as the basis of humanity'sinherent religious instinct.

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Tibetan Buddhist Tantra

Buddhism, with its origins in the Indiansubcontinent, arrived in Tibet in the seventhcentury C.E. during the reign of King Songsten Gampo(Pal, 1990). There it merged, sometimes contentiously,with the native animistic and shamanistic tradition(later known as Bon), which it would eventuallysupersede as the primary religious discipline. The newreligion would retain, however, many of the existingindigenous beliefs and practices, and through thisintegration and development "all native gods alreadyinhabiting the local mountains, the forests, the lakesand rivers, the sky, and the underworld were adoptedinto the pantheon and made protectors ofthe Buddhistreligion" (pp. 42-43).

The renowned mystic Padmasambhava and thegreat monk Santarakshita made significant contributionstoward the acceptance and expansion of this newreligious system, and in about the year 779 it becameofficially indoctrinated through the founding ofthe firstgreat monastery at Samye. The tantric form of IndianBuddhism that developed in Tibet is known in Sanskritas Vajrayana, the Thunderbolt or Diamond Vehicle,and involves the use of such contemplative practices asmeditation, creative visualization, artistic expression,mantra recitation, and the enactment of mudras (ritualposes) as a means of facilitating spiritual development andultimate liberation. The body is regarded as an essentialcomponent in this process, and through the activationofthe vital energies ofthe chakras, plays a central role asa kind of alchemical container of inner transformation.These various methods, practices, and rituals all shareone ultimate aimthe awakening to dharmakaya, theultimate nature ofthe fully enlightened mind.

Each of Tibetan Buddhism's four primary schools(Nyingma, Sakya, Kagyu, and Gelugpa) is aligned withspecific lineages, tantras (texts), doctrines, and practicesthat are designed to correspond to the particular needsand circumstances of its respective practitioners (Powers,1995/2007). Although differences exist concerning eachorder's tantric practices, these four schools naturallyshare many common Buddhist precepts, including anadherence to the teachings of the Middle Way Schoolof Nagarjuna and devotion to the bodhisattva idealof Mahayana Buddhism, with its emphasis on thetreatment and cessation of human suffering. Each alsoaligns itself with the precept of reincarnation as well asthe cosmological notion of autonomous spiritual realms.

for which the three primary realms of desire, form, andformlessness constitute the most basic structure (thereare other more thorough distinctions, such as the sixor thirty-one realms of the Kalacakra system; humanbeings inhabit the desire realm, which involves existencein a state of samsara). According to the present DalaiLama, these various dimensions are inhabited by otherconscious entities of widely varying characteristics:

Basically we can say there are different worlds,different experiences; human life is just one ofthem. What we usually call spirits are somedifferent form of life, beings who have a differentbody and mentality. Within the desire realm, andmore specifically within the environment inhabitedby human beings, there is quite a variety of otherentities And they're all cohabitating with us righthere. (Vrela, 1997, p. 141)

The various Tibetan sects also share the notionthat emptiness (Skt., shunyatd) is the essential truth of allexistence, and within this context "all four orders agreethat the mind is of the nature of clear light...and allagree that the most subtle and basic level of mind is ofthe nature of pure luminosity and emptiness" (Powers,1995/2007, p. 358). This state of blissful, nondualemptiness is the ultimate goal of tantric practice, andconcurrent with an awakening into shunyata arisetwo vital manifestations, wisdom (Skt., prajnd) andcompassion (Skt., karund), which are considered the twomost essential qualities resulting from the attainmentof this fully liberated state. Humility and simplicity arealso highly valued, and in this sense "being a Buddhais not being some omnipotent spiritual superman, butbecoming at last a true human being" (Sogyal, 1994, p.54).

Comparative AnalysisJungian psychology and Tibetan Tantra both employa variety of dynamic methodologies that foster healingand accentuate spiritual development and awakening.As previously stated, both disciplines emphasize thetransformative power of mythic imagery and thereconciliation of opposites as a means of facilitatinghuman development, and in each discipline theseprocesses are understood as vital catalysts for theinducement of numinous and mystical experience(Moacanin, 2003). Each also places crucial emphasison the union of feminine and masculine elements, asrevealed in the following passage:

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The union of masculine and feminine is central tomuch of life, both inwardly and outwardly. Theconjunctio, as Jung called this union, is equallyimportant to the completion stage of tantra, wheremale and female aspects of the meditator are broughtinto union on an inner level. (Preece, 2006, p. 215)

This emphasis on the union of opposites alsoapplies directly to the light and dark aspects of humannature, and in Tibetan Tantra, as in certain primarypractices in depth psychotherapy, visualization plays aprimary role in this process:

In Jungian analysis one must deal with one'sshadow, the dark rejected part of the psyche; onemust detect projections and egocentric aims.... Forthat reason the total psyche must be approached,its dark as well as its light aspects, personified intantra by peaceful and wrathful deities repeatedlyconstructed and dissolved in one's visualization. Oneis continually facing the conflict of opposites in aneffort to transcend them. This is the purpose of thesadhanas (meditation exercises), which are based ona profound understanding of what Jung would calldepth psychology. (Moacanin, 2003, pp. 88-89)

Regarding this integration of opposing psychic forces,Jung (1963) believed that the image of the Buddha was amore complete representation of the total human beingbecause it integrated both the light and dark aspects ofhuman nature, whereas in the Christian tradition theimage of Christ was depicted in purely benign form,with the dark aspects being split off and assigned to thefigure of the Devil.

The creative engagement of god-images andother sacred symbols (e.g., the mndala) holds specialsignificance in each tradition, both as a means of facilitat-ing spiritual development and as a process that pointsdirectly to an essential precept that lies at the foundationof each systemthe primacy of psychic reality. Boththe Buddhist and Jungian disciplines variously stress anempirical approach in their understanding of the humanmind, and each emphasizes the importance of a directexperiential comprehension of spiritual processes whileavoiding definitive metaphysical postulations (Clarke,1994). At the same time, each system posits the intimateinterrelationship of all phenomena, and this notion ofinseparable union, of the ultimate interconnectednessbetween all things and processes, is especially relevant


as it pertains to the psychic relationship between subjectand object, observer and observed. This is particularlywell demonstrated in the texts of the Tibetan tradition,as Clarke astutely observed regarding The Tibetan Bookof the Dead:

the emphasis throughout the treatise is on thedoctrine that theonly reality is mind or consciousness,and that all things, including material reality, aremind-made. Furthermore, all minds, and hence allexisting things, are manifestations of the Absoluteor One Mind. (p. 127)

The reading of this enigmatic Buddhist text providedJung (1992b) with what he felt was significant validationfor his own theories of psychic reality:

The whole book is created out the archetypal contentsof the unconscious. Behind these there lieand inthis our Western reason is quite rightno physicalor metaphysical realities, but "merely" the reality ofpsychic facts, the data of psychic experience. ...TheBardo Thodol says no more than this, for its fiveDhyani-Buddhas are no more than psychic dataThe world of gods and spirits is truly "nothing but"the collective unconscious inside me. (p. 96)

Lama Yeshe, in referring to the process oftantric meditation, expressed a similar perspectivewhen he stated that "such a deity is an archetype ofour own deepest nature, our most profound level ofconsciousness" (1987/2001, p. 30). In The Psychology ofEastern Meditation, Jung (1936/1958) again emphasizedthis shared principle when he expressed the following:

In the meditation it is realized that the Buddhais really nothing other than the activating psycheof the yogithe meditator himself It is not onlythat the image of the Buddha is produced out of"one's own mind and thought," but that the psychewhich produces these thought-forms is the Buddhahimself (p. 567)

Clarke (1994) further observed that Jung'sexposure to Eastern spiritual traditions helped himto more fully develop his theory of introversion andextroversion, and it was through such exposures thatJung (1992a) came to understand the Asian disciplinesas possessing "a typically introverted point of view,contrasted with the equally typical extraverted pointof view of the West" (p. 53). In Jung's thinking.

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the extroverted tendency of the West is most readilyexemplified by its exaggerated emphasis uponrationalism and scientific materialism (at the expense ofcontact with the archetypal unconscious), and he wasgreatly concerned that this imbalance had substantiallydiminished contemporary Western humanity's sense ofinner meaning, resulting in a deeply engrained spiritualmalaise. This pervasive disconnection from the core ofone's inner world is a primary theme of many Tibetanmasters as well, including Sogyal Rinpoche (1994), whodescribed this condition as "perhaps the darkest and mostdisturbing aspect of modern civilizationits ignoranceand repression of who we really are" (p. 52).

Both traditions are primarily concerned, then,with a proper understanding ofthe nature and workingsof the human mind, and the depth and clarity of thisunderstanding is thought to have a direct correlation withboth spiritual development and the cessation of psychicsuffering. It warrants mention, however, that whereas inthe Tibetan tradition the achievement of enlightenmentis accompanied by an end to suffering, for Jung (1963)the process of individuation involves an endless course ofdevelopment of which suffering remains an unceasingand even necessarycomponent. In this sense he could notconceive of a state of complete liberation, and concurrentlycould not accept the Eastern notion of an egoless, non-dual, unitary state of heightened consciousness:

Consciousness is inconceivable without an ego; itis equated with the relation of contents to an ego.If there is no ego there is nobody to be consciousof anything The Eastern mind, however, has nodifficulty in conceiving of a consciousness without anego. Consciousness is deemed capable of transcendingits ego condition; indeed, in its "higher" forms, theego disappears altogether. Such an egoless mentalcondition can only be unconscious to us, for thesimple reason that there would be nobody to witnessit I cannot imagine a conscious mental state thatdoes not relate to a subject, that is, to an ego. (Jung,1992a, p. 56)

Despite this incongruity with the Eastern view, Jungaligned his concept ofthe Self with Buddhism's UniversalMind, and stated that "the unconscious is the root of allexperience of oneness... dharmakaya" (p. 66).

Finally, no comparative study of these twodisciplines would be complete without some mention oftheir mutual association with the esoteric phenomena

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of chakras. Jung had received an initial exposure tothis fundamental tenet of Hindu and Buddhist tantricpractice through J. G. Woodroffe's The Serpent Power, andit was through tantric yoga that "Jung discovered certainsymbolic parallels with his own conception of psychiclibido and with the general goal of psychic integration"(Clarke, 1994, p. 75). This discipline, which is especiallyprominent in the Tibetan tradition, appealed to Jungbecause it represented a system that integrated psychic andsomatic factors, involved the manifestation of symbolicmaterial indicative ofthe stages of spiritual development(as variously arising in the seven vital energy centers), andwas holistic in that it offered a "positive, life-affirmingview ofthe hody, the passions, and the shadowy regions ofthe psyche" (p. 111). In the activation of the chakras oneagain finds precepts common to both disciplines, for theattendant meditative techniques are designed to stimulatethe female principle, or kundalini, and "to raise it fromthe lowest to the highest chakra, there to be united withthe male principle, a union which brings about a state ofsupreme bliss beyond all dualities" (pp. 110-111).

Jung, Dreams, andArchetypes ofthe Numinous

Having established a basic framework of overlappingsimilarities between the two traditions, the focusnow turns to an outline of pertinent Jungian psychologicalperspectives and their emphasis upon the healing andtransformative aspects ofthe human psyche, a process thatultimately leads to a greater elucidation of Tibetan Tantraas well. Here the relationship of numinous experiencebecomes especially relevant, as such experiences representbreakthroughs into considerably broader, unfathomablepsychic realms that serve to greatly influence and instructhuman spiritual development:

Numinous experience is...the feeling that one isin the grip something greater than oneself, theimpossihility of exercising criticism, and the paralysisofthe will. Under the impact ofthe experience reasonevaporates and another power simultaneously takescontrola most singular feeling which one willy-nilly hoards up as a secret treasure no matter howmuch one's reason may protest. That, indeed, is theuncomprehended purpose of the experiencetomake us feel the overpowering presence of a mystery.(Jung, 1977, pp. 154-155)

An in-depth attunement to the mythic imagesthat arise through dreams, visions, and other psychic

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phenomena represents an essential component in thisprocess, as such archetypal forms often evoke (or areused to induce) the experience of numinosity (Jung,1974). The phenomena of dreams are of particularimportance in depth psychology "because dreams arethe most common and most normal expression of theunconscious psyche... they provide the bulk of thematerial for its investigation" (p. 73). Jung also made animportant distinction "between 'little' and 'big' dreams,or as we might say, 'insignificant' and 'significant'dreams" (p. 76). One such dream that is of particularrelevance came to Jung in his middle years and proved tobe instrumental in the creation of an expanded dialogicalrelationship with the Self:

I had dreamed once before of the problem of theself and the ego I was walking along a little roadthrough a hilly landscape; the sun was shining andI had a wide view in all directions. Then I came toa small wayside chapel. The door was ajar, and Iwent in. To my surprise there was no image of thevirgin on the alter, and no crucifix either, but only awonderful flower arrangement. But then I saw thaton the floor in front of the alter, facing me, sat ayogiin lotus posture, in deep meditation. When Ilooked at him more closely, I realized that he had myface. I started in profound fright, and awoke withthe thought: 'Aha, so he is the one who is meditatingme. He has a dream, and I am it.' I knew that whenhe awakened, I would no longer be. (1963, p. 323).

Jung (1963) stressed that the purpose ofsuch dreams is "to effect a reversal of the relationshipbetween ego-consciousness and the unconscious, andto represent the unconscious as the generator of theempirical personality" (p. 324). He chose to experimentwith various techniques designed to help manifest theinterplay between consciousness and the unconscious,and he viewed creative expression as an especially effectivemeans of facilitating this process. In conjunction with hisdiscoveries, Jung developed the process of amplification,a method by which the deeper spiritual meanings ofpsychic images, symbols, and dream-figures are expandedthrough their association with mythological, cultural,and religious metaphorsa process that has particularapplication within a therapeutic and developmentalcontext.

The psyche's direct engagement with mythicimagery thus represents one of the most essential


features of this alchemical healing process, as it signals"a movement out of the suspension between opposites,a living birth that leads to a new level of being, a newsituation . . . a quality of conjoined opposites" (Jung,I960, p. 90). This phenomenon is well representedthrough the following dream (one of my own) and theprocess of psychic amplification that followed:

I am standing in a room and am engaged in aconversation that reveals with great certainty that ata later date I will be involved in the dissemination ofJung's theories to a wider audience. This realizationis accompanied by a strong sense of personal prideat the prospect of personal accomplishment andrecognition in the outer world. Then I suddenly passthrough a curtain and find myself on a football fieldpreparing to kick a field goal that will signify mysuccess in this endeavor, but when I kick the ball, ithits the goal post, and falls short. Then I wake up.

I was left with the undeniable sense that thisdream had special significance, and at the same timewas confused by the seemingly contradictory messagesthat it provided. So, intent upon uncovering its deepermeaning, I chose to engage in the practice of activeimagination, an imaginai exercise created by Jung inwhich one reenters the dream in a conscious state byfocusing upon a primary image and then allowing theinner drama to unfold of its own accord. In this case,the goal post was clearly the most prominent figure, andso, with this image firmly in mind, I proceeded to closemy eyes, concentrate my focus, and then experienced thefollowing:

In a short time I found myself again on the footballfield, this time playing quarterback. Each time Itried to pass the ball, I was quickly tackled. Finally,I decided to keep the ball and attempt to cross thegoal line by my own volition, and was then able tomaneuver my way through the defense, ultimatelybeing brought down as I successfully crossed thegoal line. As the football I was carrying touchedthe ground, it suddenly turned into an enlarged,glowing blue diamond, and this was accompaniedby a wordless, telepathic communication that canonly be described as a numinous revelation, one thatarose from a deeper part of myself that I rarely havedirect access to, and yet somehow instinctively knowto be my true self And what this communication


revealed to me was that the goal in life is not aboutachieving success or status in the outer world, butrather, the true meaning of this life is to reconnect,to return home, to the very source of one's being.

This experience clearly delineates Jung's (I960)notion of the dynamic interplay between consciousnessand the u nconscious. It also appears to be highly suggestiveof the existence of numinous universal archetypes, as thediamond exists as one of the primary representations ofthe Self (Jung, 1964), and has manifested as a sacredsymbol of spiritual radiance, purity, and indestructibilityin an array of diverse cultural traditions, includingTibetan Buddhist Tantra, or Vajrayanathe DiamondVehicle.

lliese psychic processes also serve to exemplifythe means by which the unconscious acts in a regulatorycapacity, compensating for the misguided directionof the ego through the spontaneous manifestation ofpsychic imagery, a process that combines aspects of one'scontemporary personal existence (i.e., the goal post)with the universal symbolic imagery of the collectiveunconsciousness (i.e., the blue diamond), resulting inan experience of deep personal meaning and psychicwholeness (Jung, I960).

Jung (1963) stated that specific archetypalsymbols manifest in direct correlation with one's spiritualdevelopment, and observed that as the Self increasinglyassumes a central position within consciousness, themndala becomes the most prominent and consistentsymbol. An important bridge is thus established herebetween the Western and Eastern traditions in question,especially as it pertains to the arising and manifestationof mythic imagery in a broader universal context:

The mndala is an archetypal image whoseoccurrence is attested throughout the ages. Itsignifies the wholeness of the self The circular imagerepresents the wholeness of the psychic ground or,to put it in mythic terms, the divinity incarnate inman which spontaneously arises in the mind as arepresentation of the struggle and reconciliation ofopposites. (pp. 334-335)

Jung (1974) further enunciated this theme as follows:It seems to me beyond question that these Easternsymbols originated in dreams and visions, and werenot invented by some Mahayana church father. Onthe contrary, they are among the oldest religious


symbols of humanity... and may even have existed inPaleolithic times The mndalas used in ceremonialare of great significance because their centers usuallycontain one of the highest religious figures: eitherShiva himselfoften in the embrace of Shaktiorthe Buddha, Amitabha, Avalokiteshvara, or one ofthe great Mahayana teachers, or simply the dorje,symbol of all the divine forces together, whethercreative or destructive, (pp. 170-172)

The above passages clearly exemplify the centralthemes mentioned previously, namely the essentialimportance of the reconciliation of opposites and theattendant union of male/female aspects, a processthat is accompanied by the manifestation of variousforms of universal mythic imagery that appear both inindividual spiritual development and in broader culturaland religious contexts. This notion is echoed by TenzinWangyal Rinpoche (1998), who touched upon thisphenomenon as follows:

The underlying truth is that these teaching arisespontaneously from humans when they reach acertain point in their individual development. Theteachings are inherent in the foundational wisdomthat any culture can eventually access. They are notonly Buddhist or Bon teachings; they are teachingsfor all humans, (p. 71)

Tibetan Tantra:Dreams, Sacred Imagery, and Mythic Realms

Both Jungian psychology and Tibetan Tantraemphasize spiritual transformation, and bothengage in imaginai practices that are intended todirectly influence this process. Dream yoga representsone of the primary practices in the Tibetan tradition,and reflects "how greatly dream is valued in Tibetanculture...and how information from the unconscious isoften of greater value than the information the consciousmind can provide. (Wangyal, 1998, p. 12) However, inconsidering the manner in which the tantric traditionemploys such practices, an important distinction mustbe made:

There is nothing more real than dream. This statementonly makes sense once it is understood that normalwaking life is as unreal as dream, and in exactly thesame way. Then it can be understood that dreamyoga applies to all experience, to the dreams of theday as well as the dreams of the night, (p. 23)

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The above passage relates to the TibetanBuddhist view (and broader Indian notion) of maya,which refers to the illusory nature of ordinary dualisticperception. Genuine clarity of mind, on the otherhand, involves the immediate, penetrating, nondualcomprehension that "the very ground of our being ispervasive, self-existing, empty, primordial awarenessBon-Buddhism places a great emphasis on the doctrineof no-self or emptiness (sunyata), which is the ultimatetruth of all phenomena" (Wangyal, 1998, p. 200).Within this mode of perception, all phenomena, bothin the waking and dream state, are understood to belacking in any inherent existence, and as such theconventional self, the separate "me" that one normallyidentifies with, is understood to be a projection of themind that is not abiding in its true nature, knownin Tibetan Buddhism as the "clear light of bliss,"and in the Tibetan language as rigpa. Learning notto falsely identify with illusory projections, which inBuddhism are seen as arising from one's karmic tracesand perpetuating the cycle of rebirth in samsara, is afundamental aspect of this discipline. Accordingly,such methods as deity visualizations, dream yoga, andother meditative practices are intended to dissolve thedualistic mind into

the clear light and abide in it through all themoments of life: waking, meditating, dreaming,sleeping, and death. Essentially, the teaching aredesigned to help us recognize the nature of mind,to understand and overcome the obstacles in ourpractice, and to abide fully in rigpa. We can utilizethe same methods to remain in joy, to find peace inthe midst of the turmoil of the world, to live welland to appreciate each vivid moment of our humanexistence, (p. 208)

To abide in the clear light, then, in the wakingstate, during meditation, in the bardo (which is givenparticular emphasis in dream yoga), and duringdreaming itself, and to approach the phenomena thatone encounters in all of these states as projections ofthe mind while sustaining a state of calm abiding innondual awarenessthis is the essential purpose oftantric practice (Wangyal, 1998).

And so, despite the fact that in Buddhism one'sessential nature is understood as lacking any inherentexistence, mythic imagery and entities (e.g., BuddhaSakyamuni, Avalokitesvara, and Tara) are employedJung at the Foot of Mount Kailash

in various tantric methodologies as a creative meansof furthering one's spiritual development. This is donewith the understanding that

the deity we choose to identify with represents theessential qualities of the fully awakened experiencelatent within us. To use the language of psychology,such a deity is an archetype of our own deepestnature, our most profound level of consciousness.In tantra we focus our attention upon such anarchetypal image and identify with it in order toarouse the deepest, most profound aspects of ourbeing and bring them into our present reality.(Yeshe, 1987/2001, p. 30)

Rob Preece (2006) also emphasized this importantdistinction when he stated that

even though the notion of no-Self (Skt., anatma) isa central tenet of Buddhism, the Buddhist tantricpath conceives that our potential for wholeness ispersonified in the symbolic form of a deity. . . . Thedeity in Tantra is understood as a gateway or bridgebetween two aspects of reality. ...In Buddhism wespeak of 'relative truth,' the world of appearancesand forms, and 'ultimate truth,' the empty, spacious,nondual nature of reality. ...The deity stands on thethreshold as the potential for creative manifestation,(pp. 38-39)

At the same time it is important to note thatTibetan Buddhist cosmology posits the existence ofvarious spiritual dimensions and ethereal entities thatare considered to be more than mere psychic projections.They are thought to possess their own autonomousnature and to exist in innumerable planes and universes,as Tulku Thongdup wrote:

Buddhist cosmology encompasses an unimaginablyvast number of world systems beyond our earthlyhome. Outside of the mundane world, the six realmsof samsara, there exist innumerable pure landsextending in all ten directions of the universeThese purified paradises are the dwelling places ofadvanced beings, including celestial buddhas andgreat bodhisattvas. (2005, p. 284)

This perspective is given further support throughthe pioneering transpersonal findings of Stanislav Grof(1998), whose more than forty years of research intonon-ordinary states of consciousness have suggested the


existence of an immense array of spiritual realms andexperiential dimensions that lie beyond the perceptionof ordinary waking consciousness. His findings alsosuggest the existence of two forms of ultimate reality,which are referred to as Absolute Consciousness andCosmic Emptiness, or the Void. Absolute Consciousnessrepresents the supreme creative principle (which isresponsible for the creation of manifest existence), andthis creative principle is thought to co-exist with, andemanate from, the great Void, as outlined below:

When we encounter the Void, we feel that it isprimordial emptiness of cosmic proportions andrelevance. We become pure consciousness aware ofthis absolute nothingness; however, at the same time,we have a strange paradoxical sense of its essentialfullness While it does not contain anything in aconcrete manifest form, it seems to comprise all ofexistence in potential form The Void transcendsthe usual categories of space and time, and liesbeyond all dichotomies and polarities, such as lightand darkness, good and evil...agony and ecstasy,singularity and plurality, form and emptiness, andeven existence and nonexistence This metaphysicalvacuum, pregnant with potential for everything thereis, appears to be the cradle of all being, the ultimatesource of existence. The creation of all phenomenalworlds is then the realization and concretization of itspre-existing potentialities, (p. 30)

The above passage addresses a number ofprimary themes in Buddhist cosmology, including theVoid as primordial emptiness, the reconciliation andunion of all opposites (one is immediately reminded hereof the famous Buddhist adage, form is emptiness, andemptiness is form), the existence of a timeless dimension,and the presence of countless world systems. It alsotouches upon the theme of manifest existence arisingout of this Void, and Grof (1998) stated that some ofthese various realms and the entities that inhabit themare understood to interact with and inform our earthlydimension in ways that are consistent with aspects ofJungian psychology:

The material realm that we inhabit and with whichwe are intimately familiar seems to be just one ofthese worlds Of special interest is a domainthat lies between our everyday reality and theundifferentiated Absolute Consciousness. It is

156 International Journal ofTranspersonal Studies

a mythological realm that has been extensivelystudied by C. G. Jung and his followers Jungreferred to it as the archetypal realm of the collectiveunconscious. The beings inhabiting these realmsseem to be endowed with extraordinary energy andhave an aura of sacredness or numinosity. For thisreason they are usually perceived and described asdeities The encounters with mythological beingsand visits to mythic landscapes...can be in everyrespect as real as events in our everyday life, or moreso. The archetypal realm is not a figment of humanfantasy and imagination; it has an independentexistence of its own and a high degree of autonomy.At the same time, its dynamics seem to be intimatelyconnected with material reality and with humanlife. (pp. 69-70)

It is these advanced spiritual dimensions thatare sometimes accessed through the creative, meditativeand dream practices emphasized in both Juniganpsychotherapy and Tibetan Tantra. There exist manystories in Tibetan Buddhist literature, for example, thattell of "meditators who leave their bodies for days at atime to travel through the invisible world" (Thongdup,2005, p. 6). These practitioners, who are known asdelogs, then "come back to their bodies to record theirextraordinary journeys, which could span the lowestrungs of hell and the sublime pure lands" (p. 6). Onecaptivating account of just such a journeyreplete withsacred mythic entities and imageryis revealed in thefollowing experience of a young Tibetan woman:

Dawa Drolma felt that she moved through thesky, soaring like a vulture. She found herself in themanifested pure land of Guru Rimpoche, the buddhain the form a realized master. There was a boundlesslyvast field. In the center she saw a giant red rockmountain in the shape of a heart. The mountain wassurrounded by many sharp, sword-like mountains,all shining with a reddish color. The sky was adornedwith a canopy of five colored rainbow light. All kindsof beautiful birds were singing and playing joyfully.The ground was covered with flowers of all kindsand colors. The whole atmosphere was filled with anamazing sweet fragrance that overwhelmed all hersenses. There was also a blue mountain, as if madeof sapphire. These were not vague appearances, butvivid images with real presence In the middleof the mountain, she saw the inconceivable palace

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of Guru Rimpoche called the Lotus of Light.The palace was the enlightened wisdom of GuruRimpoche himself, spontaneously appearing in theform of a luminous mansion of light This pureland was filled with masters, dakas, and dakinisAccompanied by White Tara, Dawa Drolma enteredinto another inconceivably beautiful palace, made asif of red crystal In the middle of a great hall, DawaDrolma saw an enormous thronehigher, it seemedto her, than a three-story building On that throneshe beheld the amazing presence of Guru Rimpoche,Padmasambhava, the embodiment of the wisdom,compassion, and power ofthe enlightened onesDawa Drolma drew closer to the throne and touchedher forehead to the feet of Guru Rimpoche GuruRimpoche bestowed upon her empowerments andblessings. With great compassion, he said..."Tellpeople what you saw and entreat them to pursuevirtue".... Then White Tara led Dawa Drolma to thehell realms. Dawa Drolma journeyed through theexperiences ofthe bardo. She saw the Dharma Kingofthe Lords ofthe Dead in wrathful and terrifyingform in his Court of Judgment She also saw theresults of karmic effects and the severity of sufferingsof the hell realms with her naked eyes, so she wouldbe able to teach more effectively on her return to theworld ofthe living White.

Tara then took Dawa Drolma to visit Ptala, thepure land of Avalokiteshvara, and Yulo Kopa, thepure land of Tara, before returning to the humanworld Dawa Drolma spent the rest of her lifeteaching Dharma based on her delog experiences andtotally devoting her life to the service of othersIn 1941, at the age of thirty-two, she died.... Peoplewitnessed many miracles at the time of her deathand cremation. She and her delog accounts inspiredthe hearts of many people in many parts of EasternTibet to believe in the law of karma and rebirth.That in turn awakened a kinder nature in many.(Thongdup, 2005, pp. 151-155)

This portrayal reveals an array of mythicentities and imagery that appear to represent aspects ofthe practitioner's own inner spiritual processes while atthe same time revealing greatly advanced experientialdimensions. In light ofthe rather fantastic nature (at leastin modern Western terms) ofthis other-worldly depiction,and in consideration of the sometimes widely differing

Jung at the Foot of Mo tint Kailash

perspectives (i.e., psychic projection vs. autonomousdimensions) presented ahove concerning the phenomenaof archetypal imagery and mythic realms, how is oneto arrive at a distinction between where an individual'smythic projections end and these autonomous and oftengreatly heightened realities begin? This question lies atthe heart of a tremendous enigma, especially in relationto the many different psychic contexts (e.g., dreams, thebardo, near-death experience, and other non-ordinarystates of consciousness) in which these realms andentities manifest.

Thankas and other forms of sacred art that areused in Tibetan meditative practices depict such deities,paradises, and dimensions, but in referring to thesedivine entities Lama Yeshe (1987) was careful to clarifythat

tantric meditational deities should not be confusedwith what different mythologies and religions mightmean when they speak of gods and goddessesThe deity we choose to identify with represents theessential qualities of the fully awakened experiencelatent within us. (p. 30)

Echoing the same perspective. Pal (1990) stated that "ona more metaphysical level, the divine images are simplysymbols ofthe Buddha They are not themselves realbut help to define reality, and are dispensed with by theenlightened mind and by the true yogi" (1990, p. 36).Further, Padmasambhava's (2005) famous instructionmanual for liberation in the bardo state. The TibetanBook ofthe Dead, clearly delineates the forms and entitiesencountered in this intermediate state as projections ofone's mind. And, as previously cited, Jung (1992b), inhis commentary on the same text, asserted that "thewhole book is created out of the archetypal contents ofthe unconscious The world of gods and spirits is truly'nothing but' the collective unconscious inside me" (p.96).

And yet, as previously revealed both the DalaiLama and Grof (in an expansion upon Jung's initialfindings) havee affirmed the autonomous existence ofother entities and dimensions, and Tulku Thongdup(2005) emphasized that in the Tibetan tradition rebirthinto one of these paradisiacal, non-samsaric pure lands(as part of one's spiritual evolution toward ultimateliberation) stands as a principal aim of tantric practice.Further, Jamgon Kongtrul's (1995/2003) The Treasuryof Knowledge: Myriad Worlds presented a comprehensiveIntemational Journal of Transpersonal Studies 157

overview of world-systems and the various beings whoinhabit them. In the latter years of his life even Jung,who in adherence to Kantian epistemology was alwayscareful not to draw absolute metaphysical conclusions,nonetheless considered archetypal forms and othersuch numinous phenomena to be strongly suggestiveof an autonomous and unfathomable force possessing aprofoundly multi-dimensional nature (Edinger, 1996). Itis also fascinating to note that Lama Govinda (I960),in his foreword to The Tibetan Book of the Dead thataccompanies Jung's own commentary on the same text,made a point to emphasize that

animism permeates all Buddhist texts, wherein everytree and grove, and every locality, is held to have itsown peculiar deities; and the Buddha is representedas discoursing with gods and other spiritual beings,inhabiting the Earth and the realms beyond, as if itwere a most natural procedure. Only a completelyintellectualized and Westernized Buddhism,which attempts to separate the thought-content ofBuddhism from its equally profound mythologicalelements, can deny this animistic background andwith it the metaphysical foundations of Buddhism,(p. Ivii)

At first glance, then, one appears to be left witha somewhat beguiling predicament. Although I cannotclaim to offer any definitive explanations regardingthe apparent disparities in the above examples, an in-depth exploration of the following experiencea verymysterious encounter with a vast ethereal femininepresence many years ago at the base of Mt. Everestmayhelp to further clarify a distinction between personalmythic projection and the presence of autonomousarchetypal realms and beings.

Mystical Encounter at Mt. Everest

The experience in question took place in the summerof 1996 and involved an overland expedition fromthe Tibetan capital of Lhasa to the enigmatic city ofKathmandu, Nepal. The journey was scheduled to takeabout a week, and would extend along what is knownas the Friendship Highway, a rough, unpaved road thatlinks these two ancient trading partners. This routetook us through an array of small villages as well as anumber of important religious settlements, includingthe monastic centers of Gyantse and Shigatse, beforearriving at Rongbuk Monastery near the base camp ofMt. Everest. Throughout this passing kaleidoscope of


ancient towns and medieval villages we encountered avast, ever-changing landscape of immeasurable mountainranges and open, desolate plains that exuded a stark,ominous beauty. In this environment human beings findthemselves in the presence of immense natural forcesthat dwarf the human condition. In the midst of thisseemingly endless expanse of open, untamed wilderness,one's usual sense of position and importance in theworld is greatly diminished and one stands humbled inthe presence of an environment whose indelible scoperemains an unquenchable mystery.

Our evening at the monastery was spentattending to the practical aims of food and shelter, as wehad arrived well after dark and were tired and hungryafter a long arduous ascent over hard and unforgivingterrain. The guest quarters were cold, sparse, and dimlylit, as were the kitchen conditions where we consumedin silence a simple bowl of buckwheat noodles whilesurrounded by a retinue of subdued young novice monks.Immediately after dinner I retired to my humble cot,and was soon fast asleep. Then, sometime in the middleof the night I awoke and was instinctively drawn outsideand up a neighboring hillside where, upon reaching thetop, I suddenly encountered the undeniable presence ofan utterly vast feminine energy that seemed to blanketthe sky above. I was awestruck by its combination ofdepth, power, and immensity, and at that moment I feltthat perhaps my mother had died and that her expandedspirit was somehow visiting me. But when I expressed thisthought to the sky, this notion was in no way confirmed,and later I would discover that my mother was indeedstill alive, which draped this profound experience inmystery.

A few days later we arrived in the city ofKathmandu, and the next day, while strolling through thecolorful, crowded side streets of this medieval metropolis,I came upon an image that immediately captured myattention and held it in a state of great attraction andcuriosity. The image was of an ethereal female figure,clearly presented in the context of veneration andsurrounded by a host of exotic and esoteric figures. Atthe time I was not well versed in the pantheon of TibetanBuddhist deities and religious iconography, and as suchI was not immediately well attuned to the fact thatthis enigmatic and alluring female presence, with herundeniable air of serenity and deep green coloring, wasin fact the Goddess Tara, accompanied by her cohortsand astral attendants. This specific identification would

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come to me at a later date; all 1 knew then, after firstsetting my eyes on her, was that she must return homewith me. Upon my return to California she was carefullyframed and subsequently began to assume a distinctvisual presence in my living space. However, a deeperappreciation of her underlying meaningin a broaderreligious context and in my own personal experienceremained largely beyond my conscious awareness untilI began to encounter writings on the sacred femininethrough my studies in depth psychology and TibetanBuddhism.

Through this process I began to more fullyappreciate that within the context of the archetypalfeminine, one of the most prominent figures is theGoddess Tara, who, as the mother of all buddhas,exemplifies compassion, enlightened activity, and "thetotally developed wisdom that transcends reason"(Moacanin, 2003, p. 63). In Jungian terms, she "representsthe mother archetype she is the image of the motherwho has integrated in herself all the opposites, positiveand negative" (p. 63).

Tara can be viewed as belonging to a broadergroup of female embodiments of wisdom and divinepower that include the dakini, which has on occasionbeen associated by Western scholars with one of Jung'skey archetypes, the anima (Moacanin, 2003). Jung(1963) placed great emphasis on the integration of thefeminine aspect as well as the importance of activelyembracing the natural world in a deeply spiritual andmythological framework, and in this context he viewedNature as the supreme manifestation of the archetypalGoddess. One of Jung's most prominent contemporaries,Erich Neumann, outlined the significance of the sacredfeminine and its direct correlation to the Goddess Taraas follows:

The archetypal feminine in man unfolds likemankind itself At the beginning stands the primevalgoddess, resting in the materiality of her elementarycharacter, knowing nothing but the secret of herwomb; at the end is Tara, in her left hand the openinglotus blossom of psychic flowering, her right handheld out toward the world in a gesture of giving. Hereyes are half closed and in her meditation she turnstoward the outward as well as the inner world: aneternal image of the redeeming female spirit. Bothtogether form the unity of the Great Goddess, who,in the totality of her unfolding, fills the world from

its lowest elementary phase to its supreme spiritualtransformation. (1955/1983, pp. 334-335)

And the vital role that the sacred feminine plays in theprocess of spiritual development was revealed by NathanKatz in the following perspective:

The inspiration of the anima or the dakini is a call forone to look inward. As such, she is the link betweenthe conscious and unconscious. In appearing toconsciousness, the anima calls its attention towhat has remained hidden; she is the door to theunconscious. (1992, p. 322)

Therefore, what appears to have remained hiddenand unconscious in my own experience was a deep andabiding realization of the archetypal feminine, whichwas brought into direct conscious awareness through myencounter with the Goddess entity at the base of Everest.The vital link that then resulted in the all-importantamplification of the above experience came throughmy subsequent encounter with Tara's mythic image,as encountered in the shop in Kathmandu. This imagecarried tremendous power and attraction (as a personalmythic projection/association), and consequently leadto a much deeper attunement to my own unfoldingspiritual processes. It also profoundly evoked theundeniable presence of a vast and autonomous spiritualentity, an utterly immense and numinous mystery thatis symbolized byand transcendent ofthe image ofTara itself

If one thus understands the deities depicted inmythic imagery as essentially symbolic representations oftranscendent forces, it must also be acknowledged thatthese symbols nonetheless possess a potent numinousquality by virtue of their archetypal nature. In TibetanTantra they also denotelike the progressively advancedstages of the chakrasheightened levels of spiritualdevelopment to which inhabitants of this earthlydimension aspire. As previously noted, the Buddha issaid to have interacted with otherworldly entities, andindeed the very basis of the bodhisattva ideal involvesthe instruction and guidance of all sentient beings in thisearthly realmand in innumerable other dimensions aswell.

In his book The Sacred Place, Paul Devereux(2000) observed that the interaction of cosmic andearthly forces appears to be highly concentrated in certainphysical environments, and it is especially pertinent

Jung at the Foot of Mount Kailash International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 159

to note that throughout human history mountains inparticular have been known to exist as the sacred refugeof the Goddess. This is precisely the belief that is heldby the native Tibetan and Nepalese inhabitants whooccupy both sides of Mt. Everest. This mountain haslong been considered a sanctified entity because an arrayof mystical experiences and encounters with variousdisincarnate beings have been reported in its immediatevicinity for millennia. With this understanding in mind,the potential connection between Mt. Everest and theGoddess in my own experience deserves further in-depthconsideration.

Mountains hold a special place in the religiousthinking and creative iconography of the Himalayas,and Mt! Kailash in particular (located in Western Tibet)ubiquitously appears on thankas and in other forms ofBuddhist and Hindu art. Like Everest, Kailash representsthe archetype of the World Mountain, and in its variousmanifestations "this cosmic mountain may be identifiedwith a real mountain, or it can be mythic, but it isalways placed at the center of the world" (Eliade, 1992,p. 110). This sacred mountain, as a form of axis mundi,represents both a physical and spiritual entity, and, as theouter form serves to activate the inner archetype in thehuman psyche, it is also directly linked with the unionof opposites and the psycho-somatic dynamics of thechakra system:

To Hindus and Buddhists alike Kailas is the center ofthe universe. It is called Meru or Sumeru, accordingto the oldest Sanskrit tradition, and is regarded tobe not only the physical but metaphysical centerof the world. And as our psychological organismis a microcosmic replica of the universe, Meruis represented by the spinal cord in our nervoussystem; and just as the various centers (Skt.: cakra) ofconsciousness are supported by and connected withthe spinal cord (Skt.: meru-danda)... in the same wayMount Meru forms the axis of the various planes ofsupramundane worlds. (Govinda, 1966, p. 273)

Til is structural cosmology serves as the verybasis of the all-important Buddhist stupa, and in depthpsychology the World Mountain is one of the foremostarchetypes of the Self and a most powerful and evocativesymbol of spiritual ascendance. It warrants repeatingthat "as Kailas corresponds to the spinal column, itrepresents the axis of the spiritual universe, risingthrough innumerable world planes" (Govinda, 1966, p.


276). Here one finds a direct correspondence between thepresence of the axial mountain, the human chakras, andthe simultaneous access to other dimensions of reality.

In Tibetan Buddhism one such reality isKhacho Shing, the Pure Land of the Dakinis, "a realmclosely related to our own, yet more subtle and moreintimately connected to the elemental forces of nature"(Preece, 2006, p. 248). In considering this relationshipbetween sanctified realms and the natural world, MirceaEliade observed that "where the sacred manifests itself inspace, the real unveils itself....It opens communicationbetween the cosmic planes (between earth and heaven)and makes possible ontological passage from one modeof being to another" (1957/1987, p. 63). From thisperspective it seems quite probable that my experienceof the Goddess was facilitated through the spiritual axisof Mt. Everest, and whether she derived from the realmof Kacho Shing, Yulo Kopa (the Pure Land of Tara), orone of the many other exalted paradises, there can be noquestion in my experience of her utterly advanced spiritualnature and development. In this way her emergenceserved to activate a deep, on-going archetypal processwhile simultaneously revealing a wholly expanded senseof divine potential, one that points to the existence ofgreatly heightened celestial or psychic realms that are,in the Buddhist tradition, major steps forward along thepath to final liberation.

The multidimensional nature of this enigmaticexperience presents an intriguing parallel to Jorge Ferrer's(2002) view of transpersonal phenomena as "multilocalparticipatory events" (p. 117), which he conceived ascontaining the following principal components:

(1) events, in contrast to intrasubjective experiences;(2) multilocal, in that they can arise in different loci,such as an individual, a relationship, a community,a collective identity, or a place; and (3) participatory,in that they can invite the generative power anddynamism of all dimensions of human nature tointeract with a spiritual power in the co-creation ofspiritual worlds, (p. 117)

This framework has a direct application to my encounterwith the Goddess entity beneath Mt. Everest, as thisexperience involved a sacred entity (i.e., the Goddess),sacred place (i.e., Mt. Everest), and a co-creative element(i.e., one's shared participation/interaction). As a multi-local, multi-dimensional event, it is clearly indicative ofthe participatory vision.

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The participatory perspective suggests thathuman consciousness acts as "the agent of religiousknowing" (Ferrer & Sherman, 2008, p. 38), a processin which all aspects of perceptionimaginai, somatic,intuitive, aesthetic, and rationalcan potentiallyparticipate in unisn with the Mystery in the unfoldingand bringing forth of spiritual realities. One is thusencouraged to "recognize the ontologically creative roleof spiritual cognition," and to carefully consider thenotion that "these worlds are not statically closed butfundamentally dynamic and open to the continuedtransformation resulting (at least in part) from thecreative impact of human visionary imagination" (p. 32).In this sense, both psychic projections and autonomousdimensions, along with a array of other mysteriousspiritual phenomena, can be understood as representingvarying manifestations of this co-creative process. Andthe participatory perspective accordingly suggests thatindeed these various phenomena are each valid andontologically real in their own right.

Jung at the Foot of Mt. Kailash

Co-creative, participatory aspects are prominent inboth Jungian psychology and Tibetan Tantra. Inthe Jungian tradition, practices such as active imagination(as previously discussed) can serve to profoundly amplifyprimary dream images from the unconscious. InTibetan Tantra, meditations upon deities such as Tarasimilarly act as a kind of psychic bridge to the thresholdof expanded dimensions. But the spiritual heights towhich each discipline aspires vary in significant ways,and it is through a more thorough consideration ofthe chakras that further distinctions between the twosystems emerge.

Jung felt that the extroverted nature ofcontemporary Westerners, with its focus on the primacyof exterior existence, had caused the broader culture toremain at the levels of the second and third chakras. Theselevels emphasize respectively the sexual nature of existence(in its procreative as opposed to its transformationalpotentiality), and competition and conquest, especiallyin the financial, military and erotic spheres (Campbell,1986). And though all of the chakras play an importantrole in the process of human development, the last threelevels are especially relevant to spiritual awakening inthat "the uppermost three centers are of increasinglysublimated spiritual realizations" (p. 37).

Campbell (2003) suggested that the fifth center"is the cakra of ascetic, monkish disciplines Those


who reach this level focus their energy into...work onone's self, conquering one's outward-going tendencies,turning all inward" (p. 35). Jung himself described thislevel as involving "a full recognition of the psychicalessences of substances as the fundamental essencesof the world, and not by virtue of speculation but byvirtue of experience" (quoted in Clarke, 1994, p. 115).This perspective exemplifies the core of Jung's notionof the primacy of psychic reality, but he had little tosay in relation to the two remaining levels. A numberof contemporary scholars, including Alan Watts,Ken Wilber, and Harold Coward, have speculatedthat Jung's own experiential horizon, while revealingtremendous insights in its own right, did not allow himto adequately comprehend the Eastern principle of non-dual awareness. This is due to the fact that he couldnot conceive of a conscious state independent of theego and its dualistic subject-object relationship. Indeed,Jung considered the psychic stages represented by thelast two chakrasespecially the awakened non-dualstate of the seventh chakrato be levels that existedbeyond any notion of human consciousness. In thissense he referred to chakra six as a state in which "theego disappears completely," and he considered chakraseven to be "beyond possible experience" (p. 115).Thus, from a Tibetan Buddhist standpoint, Jung's ownspiritual path never lead him to the unconquerable viewof the Mountaintop. Although his journey took him toconsiderable heights, he never did make the final ascentof the World Mountain (the Self), but instead came torest at the foot of Mt. Kailash, where he stood gazing atits objectified, mythic proportions, rather than mergingwith its unified, definitive totality.

Of course the most fundamental teachingsof Tibetan Buddhism assert that not only are thesetwo upper levels of the chakras attainable, but thatthe seventh chakra, as the very mode of dharmakayaitself, represents one's true nature as all-encompassing,undifferentiated, non-dual awareness. This signifies anecstatic, unitary, timeless state that defies all rationalconception, "representing a rapture beyond any godknown as of a name or form" (Campbell, 1986, p.37). For it is at the level of chakra seven that "both thebeheld image and the beholding mind dissolve togetherin a blaze that is at once of nonbeing and of being" (p.39). This is the unrivaled, incomparable vision from thesummit of the highest peak, the ultimate horizon fromwhich all is one and where the "I" vanishes, not into the


oblivion ofthe unconscious as Jung believed, but into theeternal light of supreme spiritual realization.

The meditative practices ofTibetan Tantra are, asprevious noted, designed to induce psychic developmenttoward this indomitable state, and the mythic image itselfstands "at the threshold of passage from time to eternity,which is in fact the plane of reference ofthe metaphorsof myth" (Campbell, 1986, p. 40). Concurrent with thisperspective is the understanding that

this threshold is...the place of the sacred in itsarchetypal and symbolic manifestations. On thisthreshold we come into relationship with the powerof archetypal intent, the forces that can shape ourlives. The tantric deity occupies a central place onthis threshold as a personification ofthat intent...Awakening our relationship to the sacred on this levelhas a profound influence upon our lives, because thedeity is the vehicle or channel through which thepower of dharmakaya manifests. (Preece, 2006, p.137)

This threshold can be seen as the boundarybetween temporal, dualistic, manifest existence and theeternal, nondual, formless nature of dharmakaya, and itis the various practices of tantra, and more specificallytantric meditation, or mahamudra, that "enable ameditator to cultivate a quality of emptiness withappearance" (Preece, 2006, pp. 132-133). These exercisesare intended to soften our psychosomatic boundaries,thus gradually diminishing the sense of separationbetween one's solidified sense of identity and the outerenvironment. Ultimately this transformation reveals adynamic alchemical process, one that serves to "makea crystal of our minds, so that there is no separationbetween inner and outer" (Tarthang Tulku, 1978/1990,p. 30). Liberation is thus achieved through the dissolutionof a separate ego and the luminous union of observer andobserved, a process that in Highest Yoga Tantra (as thefinal stage of practice) reveals itself as follows:

The meditator experiences the fi rst taste of dharmakayaas clear light awareness dissolves into nonduality like aclear sky, or a drop of water dissolving into the ocean.Once this experience arises, buddhahood, it is said, ispossible within this lifetime, and practitioners withthis quality of awareness can, within their presentbodies, complete the final stages of unification.(Preece, 2006, p. 230)

Tarthang Tulku, founder of the Nyingma Institute inBerkeley, California, described this vital process ofunification as one that involves

meaning which reveals itself not in words or concepts,but in the quality of our lives, in the intrinsic beautyand value of all things. When our actions arisenaturally from a celebration of living, all conceptsdrop away. We become meaning itself, enlightenedhy all existence. (1978/1990, p. 116)

Conclusion

Tibetan Buddhist Tantra and Jungian depthpsychology each represent a complex system ofpsycho-spiritual transformation. In addition, each viewsthe human mind, or psyche, as the primary instrumentthrough which the transcendence of duality is achieved.And it is precisely this experience of transcendence thatis variously facilitated in both methodologies through thecreative use of mythic imagery. Spiritual awakening thusexists as the ultimate aim in both disciplines, a processthat is intended, in Jungian terms, to lead the individual"from the ego to the Self, from the unconscious toconsciousness, from the personal to the transpersonal, theholy, the realization that the macrocosm is being mirroredin the microcosm ofthe human psyche" (Moacanin, 2003,p. 67). In the Tibetan tradition, the path of liberationis understood as leading to an awakening to one's truenaturethe primordial, all-pervasive, inherently empty, non-dual, clear light of bliss.

Further, although it appears that Jung'sunderstanding of ultimate spiritual potential did not riseto the same level as revealed in Tibetan Buddhism, henonetheless made a profound and lasting contributionto the East-West dialogue while addressing many ofcontemporary culture's most pressing issues. Foremostamong these in his mind was the need for humanity toreturn to it inner roots, to reconnect with the powerfuland ever present psychic structures that guide the processof human development. These archetypal structuresreveal an inscrutahle variety of deities and dimensions,the ultimate nature of which remains a profound mysteryand an important subject for further inquiry. But whetherthey manifest as autonomous realms, psychic projections,or some other form of esoteric phenomena, the preceptsand experiential findings of these two vibrant disciplinesclearly suggest that psychic engagement with the sacredmythic imagery of the mind remains an essential partof psycho-spiritual growth and transcendence. In

162 Intemational Journal of Transpersonal Studies Davis

deeply considering this profound inner process, one isreminded of the judicious counsel of Lama Govinda,who stressed that "such penetration and transformationis only possible through the compelling power of innervision, whose primordial images or 'archetypes' are theformative principles of our mind" (1969, p. 91).

Jungian depth psychology and TibetanBuddhist Tantra present an array of fascinating parallels,especially in relation to the creative and meditative useof mythic imagery as a powerful means of effectingspiritual transformation. Their respective methodologiesthus represent valuable avenues through which to deepenthe course of human development, ultimately laying thefoundation for genuine personal and collective growth,

' psychic reconciliation, and further exploration withinthe ever mysterious process of spiritual awakening.

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Clarke, J. J. {IS^A). Jung and Eastern thought: A dialoguewith the Orient. London, UK: Routledge.

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About the Author

Judson Davis is a doctoral candidate in East-WestPsychology at the California Institute of Integral Studiesin San Francisco, California. His present work involves asynthesis of Tibetan Buddhist Tantra and Jungian depthpsychology, with particular emphasis on the healing andtransformative power of mythic imagery and archetypalforms.

About the Journal

The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies is apeer-reviewed academic journal in print since 1981. It ispublished by Floraglades Foundation, and serves as theofficial publication of the International TranspersonalAssociation. The journal is available online at www.transpersonalstudies.org, and in print through www.lulu.com (search for IJTS).

164 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Davis

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