RHETORICAL MANUALFor AP English Language and Composition

Rhetoric calls for the artful use of language in order to craft persuasive arguments.

Rhetorical devices fall into two broad categories: tropes and schemes.

Trope: The use of a word, phrase, or image in a way not intended by its normal signification. To put it simply, and to use “metaphor” in the broadest sense of the word, a trope is a metaphor.

Scheme: A change in standard word order or pattern. To put it simply, and broadly, a scheme is a sentence construction that stands out because it is unusual, aesthetically pleasing, clever, memorable, or all of those things.

The best authors use rhetorical devices to elicit a visceral response. The best use of rhetorical devices marries the inherent nature of the chosen device to the subject at hand; in other words the rhetorical device “says” what the author is saying (or feeling) at the moment.

Above, I asserted that a rhetorical device “says” something. How does a rhetorical device “speak”? For this concept, I am indebted to Roy Peter Clark and an idea contained within his book Writing Tools. In Writing Tools, Clark posits that there is a secret language of sentences. Here is what he has observed:

The One-Idea sentence: Conveys truth and power.

The Two-Idea sentence: Denotes a comparison or a contrast; or possibly both. A Two Idea sentence often defines each term in its pairing as a result of contrasting those two terms.

The Three-Idea sentence: Conveys a sense of wholeness and completeness.

The Four-Idea sentence: Implies that the writer could go on listing his examples indefinitely. The effect is an emphatic one.

So, a rhetorical device that happens to be a One-Idea sentence says … “This idea is the truth; it is powerful.” A rhetorical device that happens to be a Two-Idea sentence might be saying … “This idea is contrasting two subjects in order to define both of those subjects.” Or, alternately, “This idea is comparing two subjects.”

When analyzing an author’s argument, you MUST identify rhetorical devices. But that is not enough. You must then state what EFFECT the rhetorical device is intended to have upon the reader. This is why I’ve supplied you with Clark’s theory on the secret language of sentences. For, this secret language of sentences is precisely what the

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various rhetorical devices “say.” The respective effects of the one, two, three, and four-idea sentences are, in turn, the intended effects of the various rhetorical devices.

I have grouped this manual following Clark’s theory; I have segregated the devices according to whether they are one, two, three, or four-idea sentences. All devices within a given segregated category will have (at least) one particular effect common to all sentences of its type, in keeping with Clark’s theory.

Note: Within this handbook, the use of “phrase” is not the grammarian’s use of the term. For our purposes here, only, “phrase” is sometimes understood to include verses, clauses, and sentences.

One-Idea Rhetorical Devices Convey the sense of truth and power

THE RHETORICAL QUESTION

rih-TORE-ih-kuhl question: Is a scheme. It is a question which is not intended to be answered, or a question to which the answer is obvious. The effect is an engaging one. A rhetorical question is not meant to be answered, but, ironically, a rhetorical question draws the reader in and leads him to actually answer the question. What's the matter with you?

Are you crazy?

Who cares? How are you?

How do you do?

HYPOPHORA

hy-PAHF-uh-ruh: Is a scheme. It is the device of raising one or more questions at the opening of a sequence, and then answering the question(s) after a period of time in the same sequence. Its effect is identical to a rhetorical question: it engages the reader and leads him to answer the question before the author does.

When the enemy struck on that June day of 1950, what did America do? It did what it always has done in all its times of peril. It appealed to the heroism of its youth.

What of the mother whose house is in flames and both of her children are in their beds crying and she loves them both with the whole of her heart but she knows she can only carry one at a time? She's choking on the smoke of unthinkable choices. She

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is haunted by the voices of so many desires. She's bent over from the business of begging forgiveness while frantically running around putting out fires.

Note: Even though there are two questions at the start of the following passage, each is meant to be considered singularly, and so, the device should still be listed, properly, under the one- idea sentence category:

Since we have come so far, who shall be rash enough to set limits on our future progress? Who shall say that since we have gone so far, we can go no farther? Who shall say that the American dream is ended? For myself, I believe that all we have done upon this continent is but a prelude to a future in which we shall become not only a bigger people but also a wiser people, a better people, an even greater people.

PROCATALEPSIS

pro-kat-uh-LEAP-sis: Is a scheme. It is a device in which the writer, in trying to prove his case, will bring up possible objections to his argument and then answer them. Procatalepsis is not in the form of a question as is the case with hypophora, or as with the rhetorical question. The effect is powerful; it is engaging.

But someone might say that this battle really had no effect on history. Such a statement could arise only from ignoring the effect the battle had on the career of General Bombast, who was later a principal figure at the Battle of the Bulge.

Occasionally a person of rash judgment will argue here that the high-speed motor is better than the low-speed one, because for the same output, high speed motors are lighter, smaller, and cheaper. But they are also noisier and less efficient, and have much greater wear and shorter life; so that overall they are not better.

ANTIPHRASIS

ahn-TIFF-fruh-sis: Is a scheme . It is the use of a word or phrase in a sense contrary to its normal meaning. The effect is ironic or humorous, as well as being powerful.

Now there's a midget for you.(Referring to a tall person)

“Come here, Tiny," he said to the fat man.

It was a cool 115 degrees in the shade.

HYPERBOLE

hy-PUR-buh-lee: Is a scheme. It deliberately exaggerates conditions. Its effect is powerful and emphatic. In formal writing, hyperbole must be clearly intended as an

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exaggeration, and should be carefully restricted. Treat hyperbole like an exclamation point – use it sparingly.

There are a thousand reasons why more research is needed on solar energy.

I said rare, not raw. I've seen cows hurt worse than this get up and get well.

This stuff is used motor oil compared to the coffee you make, my love.

UNDERSTATEMENT

understatement: Is a scheme. It is the opposite of hyperbole; understatement seems to want to make its subject appear less important than it really is. However, this is not in fact the case, since understatement is used ironically. So, while the effect is powerful (as is true with all one-idea sentences), understatement is not truthful – on the contrary, understatement, as with all irony, says the opposite of what it means in order to achieve its effect. In sum, in considering effect, understatement is both powerful and ironic

It's just a flesh wound.(Said of an amputated leg from the movie, Monty Python and the Holy Grail)

… a stream ….(Said of the Mississippi River)

I think there's a problem between Shias and Sunnis. (Statement in an interview regarding current affairs in the Middle East with the Egyptian Foreign Minister)

Ladies and gentlemen, this is your Captain speaking. We have a small problem. All four engines have stopped. We are doing our damnedest to get them going again. I trust you are not in too much distress.

(Announced during a British Airways flight. Volcanic ash caused all four engines of the Boeing 747 aircraft to fail. As the plane rapidly lost altitude, Captain Eric Moody still managed to make this announcement to the passengers)

LITOTES

lih-TOH-teez: Is a scheme. It is a form of understatement that uses a double negative where one might expect a positive declaration. As with understatement, its effect is often ironic. Another effect that is specific to litotes (as opposed to understatement) is that litotes often conveys a sense of half-heartedness; a reluctance to commit to a position or a point of view; a sense that the writer has reservations about what he is saying.

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I am not against the idea of writing a letter of recommendation for you.

Heat waves are not rare in summer.

The herbs and spices combine to make the dish not at all disagreeable to the palate.

I was not a little upset.

APOPHASIS

ah-POH-fay-sis: Is a scheme. It is a writer’s allusion to an accusatory statement whereby the writer pretends to remain divorced from – or unaware of – the impact of the accusation. It’s effect? Apophasis is ironic.Hint: The operative word in this definition is “pretends.” This rhetorical device is “tongue-in-cheek.” It’s slick. The writer is saying precisely what he claims he is not saying; and the reader knows it.

If you were not my father, I would say you were perverse.(Antigone)

I shall not mention Caesar's avarice, nor his cunning, nor his morality.

APORIA

uh-PAWR-ee-uh: Is a scheme. It is a rhetorical device whereby the writer pretends not to know what to do or say; therefore the sentence seems to express a doubt or difficulty. The word is Greek; it means “puzzlement.” The effect is both powerful and ironic.Hint: As with apophasis, the operative word in this definition is “pretends.” The writer knows exactly what he thinks of the subject at hand.

I am not sure whether to side with those who say that higher taxes reduce inflation or with those who say that higher taxes increase inflation.

I am not sure about the other reasons offered in favor of the new freeway, but I do believe....

I am not so sure I can accept Tom's reasons for wanting another new jet.

Whether he took them from his fellows more impudently, gave them to a harlot more lasciviously, removed them from the Roman people more wickedly, or altered them more presumptuously, I cannot well declare.

(Cicero)

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DISTINCTIO dis-TINK-tee-oh: Is a scheme. It is a writer’s clarification of his exact meaning of a key word. It is usually used to remove ambiguities. The effect is powerful and informative.Hint: Many words, like those of evaluation (better, failure, high quality, efficient, unacceptable), and those referring to abstract concepts that are often debated (democracy, justice, equality, oppression), have different meanings to different people. In order to clarify the word's meaning, distinctio can be used. In short, with distinctio you are making a distinction, as its very name suggests; and this distinction/distinctio connection can serve as the mnemonic device to remember the term’s meaning. To make methanol for twenty-five cents a gallon is impossible; by "impossible" I mean currently beyond our technological capabilities.

The precipitate should be moved from the filter paper to the crucible quickly - - - that is, within three minutes.

Mr. Haskins describes the process as a simple one. If by ‘simple” he means easy to explain on paper, he is correct. But if he means there are no complexities involved in getting it to work, he is quite mistaken.

METANOIA  

met-uh-NOY-uh: Is a scheme. It is the correction of a preceding phrase by expressing it in a stronger way. A negative is often used to express the correction. The effect is not only powerful; it is spontaneous, even conversational.Note: With this device, the writer interrupts himself, and edits his remarks in the middle of his narrative.

 This is the worst --- no, the absolute worst --- excuse I have heard.

 And if I am still far from the goal, the fault is my own for not paying heed to the reminders --- nay, the virtual directions --- which I have had from above.

(Marcus Aurelius)

Even a blind man can see, as the saying is, that poetic language gives a certain grandeur to prose, except that some writers imitate the poets quite openly, or rather they do not so much imitate them as transpose their words into their own work, as Herodotus does. (Demetrius)

PARENTHESIS

puh-ren-thuh-sis: Is a scheme. It is a thought set apart from the whole of one’s original thought. It can be an explanation, a qualification, or a digression. In sum, the writer is interrupting himself. A parenthetical expression is not grammatically tied to the words before it or after it. Parentheses are set off from the surrounding sentence in which they

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find themselves by commas, parentheses, square brackets, or dashes. The effect is either attention-getting; or clarifying; or conversational – or all three.

Every time I try to think of a good rhetorical example, I rack my brains but – you guessed it – nothing happens.

But the new calculations – and here we see the value of relying upon up-to-date information – showed that man-powered flight was possible with this design.

It was so emphatically a fallen sport – a something, once innocent, delivered over to all devilry – a healthy pastime changed into a means of angering the blood, bewildering the senses, and steeling the heart. Such grace as was visible in it, made it the uglier, showing how warped and perverted all things good by nature were become.

(from Dickens’ novel, A Tale of Two Cities)

A dog (not a cat) is an animal that barks.

Karl, a great singer, was not a good dancer.

EPTITHET

EHP-uh-theht: Is a scheme. It is the addition of an adjective or phrase to a word or name and is used to express the characteristic of that person, thing, or idea. An epithet is sometimes attached to a person's name, and in this respect might be thought of as a glorified nickname. The effect is powerful and descriptive.

 Ivan the TerribleAlexander the Great Rosy-fingered Dawn Gray-eyed Athena

APOSTROPHE

uh-PAHS-truh-fee: Is a scheme. It is a device that interrupts the narrative and directly addresses a person (or idea, or deity). Its most common purpose in prose is to give vent to intense emotions. It is used as a kind of formal invocation. The effect is powerful and prayerful. Hint: The interjection “O” or “Oh” almost always appears in this rhetorical device.

O value of wisdom that fadeth not away with time, virtue ever flourishing that cleanseth its possessor from all venom! O heavenly gift of the divine bounty, descending from the Father of lights, that thou mayest exalt the rational soul to the very heavens! Thou (Father of lights) art the celestial nourishment of the intellect.

For Brutus, as you know, was Caesar's angel. Judge, O you gods, how dearly Caesar loved him.

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O books who alone are liberal and free, who give to all who ask of you and enfranchise all who serve you faithfully!

O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, the city that kills the prophets and stones those sent to her! How often I wanted to gather your children together, just as a hen gathers her brood under her wings, and you would not have it!

APOSIOPESIS

ah-PAHS-ee-oh-PEE-sis: Is a scheme. It is the device of stopping abruptly and leaving a statement unfinished. The effect is powerful, conversational, and dramatic.

If they use that section of the desert for bombing practice, the rock hunter will - - -

I’ve got to make the team or I’ll - - -

ANACOLUTHON

AHN-uh-koh-LEW-thun: Is a scheme. It is the device of finishing a sentence with a different grammatical structure than that which first began the sentence. The effect is powerful, conversational, and dramatic.

And then the deep rumble from the explosion began to shake the very bones of - - - no one had ever felt anything like it.

Be careful with these two devices because improperly used they can - - - well, I have cautioned you enough.

SENTENTIA

sen-ten-CHEE-uh: Is a scheme. It is a device in which a wise, witty, or short saying is used to sum up the preceding material. It is powerful. Note: the saying has to have history behind it; it has to be well-known and often repeated; it is not a saying composed by the author who uses sententia – the saying comes from some other writer; quotes from Shakespeare, or the bible, or famous authors are classic examples of sententia.

So, I'm happy tonight. I'm not worried about anything. I'm not fearing any man. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord.

(from Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.’s last speech, I've Been to the Mountaintop. Dr. King was quoting the bible.)

We're not computers, Sebastian, we're physical. I think, Sebastian, therefore, I am." (from the movie Blade Runner. This line quotes the famous philosopher, Descartes.)

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For as Pascal reminds us, It is not good to have all your wants satisfied. (Pascal, himself, is the source of the sententia.)

I think that if women aspired higher, took on the problems involved, that they might find surprising support from men. Time marches on.

(from Betty Friedan’s book, Do We Dare NotDiscriminate? The saying has been around for centuries. The original source is unknown.)

Two-Idea Rhetorical Devices Denote either a comparison or a contrast, or both

Note: simile, synecdoche, metonymy, and eponym could all be said to be metaphors, if one were to use the term “metaphor” very loosely. Metaphors compare two subjects for the purposes of clarification. In sum, when talking about the effect of the devices listed, above, one could say that they compare in order to clarify.

SIMILE

SIM-uh-lee: Is a trope. It is a comparison between two different things that are not literally alike, but which bear distinct similarities.

Note: When comparing a noun to a noun, it is suggested that “like” be used The soul in the body is like a bird in a cage.

Note: When comparing a verb or phrase to another verb or phrase, it is suggested that “as” be usedThey remained constantly attentive to their goal, as a sunflower always turns and stays focused on the sun.

METAPHOR

METT-uh- fore: Is a trope. It is a comparison of two different things by speaking of one in terms of the other. Unlike a simile, it does NOT use “like” or “as” to draw the comparison. It DOES frequently use the verb “to be” to arrive at the comparison. I wonder when motor mouth is going to run out of gas. The fountain of knowledge will dry up unless it is continuously replenished by streams of new learning. All the world's a stageAnd all the men and women merely playersThey have their exits and their entrances.

(from William Shakespeare’s play, As You Like It,Act2, scene 7)

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SYNECDOCHE

sih-NEK-duh-kee: Is a trope. It is a type of metaphor in which a part of a subject stands for the whole subject.

Note: In the following example, “a pair of ragged claws” is the synecdoche. Eliot used a part of the crab to represent the whole crab.I should have been a pair of ragged clawsScuttling across the floors of silent seas. (from T.S. Eliot’s poem, The Love Song of J. Alfred

Prufrock)

Note: In the following example, “willing ears” and “newspapers” are the synecdoches. “Willing ears” is used to represent those editors who might hopefully have a sympathetic view; “newspapers” is used to represent newspaper companies.And I began a little quiet campaign of persuasion with certain editors, seeking to show the unlimited possibilities for education and amusement. One would have thought that we would find willing ears on the part of the newspapers.

(Lee D. Forest)

Note: In the following example, the word “faces” is the synecdoche and is used instead of the word, “people.”I saw some new faces in the meeting today.

METONYMY

meh-TAH -nuh-mee: Is a trope. It is another form of metaphor, in which the thing chosen for the metaphorical image is closely associated with (but not an actual part of) the subject for which it stands. Hint: “Closely associated with” is the key concept here.

The orders came directly from the White House. (A metaphor for the president, or his subordinates)

You can't fight city hall. (A metaphor for the mayor, or his subordinates)

Boy, I'm dying from the heat. Just look how the mercury is rising. (A metaphor for the temperature, as indicated by a thermometer – which contains mercury)

EPONYM

ehp-UH-nim: Is a trope. It is a device that uses the name of a famous person as a substitute for a particular attribute ascribed to that aforementioned famous person.Hint: Think of the famous person’s name as a metaphor, of sorts. 

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Is he smart? Why, the man is an Einstein. (Einstein’s name is synonymous with intelligence).When it comes to watching girls, Fred is a regular Argus.

You think your boyfriend is cheap. I had a date with Scrooge himself last night.  Does she get jealous? Why, she’s Hera herself! Thou art the Mars of malcontents.

(from William Shakespeare’s play, The Merry Wives of Windsor, Act 1, scene 3)

 But love is blind and lovers cannot seeThe pretty follies that themselves commit;For if they could, Cupid himself would blush To see me thus transformed to a boy.

(from William Shakespeare’s play, The Merchant of Venice, Act 2, scene 6)

 I want music tonight. It seems to me that you are the young Apollo, and that I am Marsyas listening to you.

(from Oscar Wilde’s novel, A Picture of Dorian Gray)

ANALOGY

uh -NAL-uh-GEE: Is a scheme. It is a comparison of two things for the purposes of clarification. The comparison might be between the abstract and the concrete (the latter explains the former); or the unfamiliar with the familiar (again, the latter explains the former). Analogy is very similar to a simile; however, analogies are literal, whereas similes are metaphorical.

You may abuse a tragedy, though you cannot write one. You may scold a carpenter who has made you a bad table, though you cannot make a table. It is not your trade to make tables.

(Samuel Johnson)  Knowledge always desires increase: it is like fire, which must first be kindled by some external agent, but which will afterwards propagate itself.

(Samuel Johnson)

The body is a unit, though it is made up of many parts; and though all its parts are many, they form one body. So it is with Christ.

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ANTITHESIS

ahn-TITH-uh-sis: Is a scheme. Antithesis contrasts two subjects by means of a symmetrical arrangement of words with opposite meanings. Antithesis is one of the most popular rhetorical devices. In analysis, you will be expected to recognize this device readily; in writing, you will be expected to utilize this device effectively. Here are its effects: it clarifies and defines its two subjects as a result of their juxtaposition; furthermore, it shows the interrelatedness of its two subjects (even though they are opposite); finally, it creates a sense of balance and symmetry. They promised freedom and provided slavery.It has been my experience that folks who have no vices have very few virtues.

Listen, young men, to an old man to whom old men were glad to listen to when he was young.

CHIASMUS

ky-AZ-mus: Is a scheme. Chiasmus both compares and contrasts. Chiasmus employs two phrases (or clauses) whereby the order of key words in the first phrase (or clause) is then reversed in the second phrase (or clause).  Hint: The “chi” in chiasmus is from the Greek word for the letter “X.” If the two phrases (or clauses) in question were to be placed on top of one another, one could draw an “X” to connect the key words that are repeated in reverse order.

Ask not what your country can do for you,

but what you can do for your country.

One should eat to live, not live to eat.

Home is where the great are small and the small are great.

It’s not the dog in the fight; it’s the fight in the dog.

PROZEUGMA

pro-ZOOG-muh: Is a scheme. Prozeugma compares. Prozeugma employs two phrases, whereby the verb in the first phrase is then omitted in the following phrase – but is understood to be there, still.Hint: The “zeugma” in this, and all of the “zeugmas,” is from the Greek word that means “to yoke,” “to tie together.” Through the yoking of all of the “zeugmas,” something is left out of the larger sequence.

Another way to think of the “zeugmas” is that they are devices that employ the practice of ellipsing. In an ellipse, a word or phrase is omitted, but is understood to be

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there. The most common example of this is the ellipsed “you” in sentences that are commands. “Go to the store” is actually saying, “You go to the store.” The “you” is not literally there, but it is understood to be there – the “you” is ellipsed.

With prozeugma, the verb in the first phrase is ellipsed in the latter phrase or phrases.

Her voice pierced my ears; her words, my heart. (The verb, “pierced,” is ellipsed in the second phrase).

The queen of England sometimes takes advice in that chamber, and sometimes tea. (The verb, “takes,” is ellipsed in the second phrase).

EPANALEPSIS

eh-puh-nuh-LEAP-sis: Is a scheme. It is a device that begins and ends a phrase with the same word or words. The effect is one of contrast.Hint: The mnemonic device here is that the repeated word or words leaps (eh-puh-nuh-LEAP-sis) from the beginning to the end of the phrase.

A minimum wage that is not a livable wage can never be a minimum wage.(Ralph Nader)

In times like these, it is helpful to remember that there have always been times like these.

(Paul Harvey)

A lie begets a lie.

METABASIS

met-uh-BAY-sis: Is a scheme. It is a brief statement of what has been said, and what will follow. It is a transitional summary, which keeps the discussion ordered and clear in its progress. One might think of it as both a summary (of what has already been said) AND an introduction (of what is about to be said). Its effect is to contrast; it also engages the reader.

Such, then, would be my diagnosis of the present condition of art. I must now, by special request, say what I think will happen to art in the future.

We have been examining the proposal advanced by Mr. Smith only in regard to its legal practicability; but next we need to consider the effect it would have in retarding research in private laboratories.

I have hitherto made mention of his noble enterprises in France, and now I will rehearse his worthy acts done near to Rome.

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OXYMORON

ahk-see-MORE-ahn: Is a scheme. It is a device in which two words of opposing meaning are paired together to express the inherently contradictory nature of the subject at hand. Thus, its effect is to contrast, as well as to suggest ambiguity.

O miserable abundance, O beggarly riches!(from John Donne’s poem, Devotions on Emergent Occasions)

 I do here make humbly bold to present them with a short account of themselves.... (Jonathan Swift )

 The bookful blockhead, ignorantly read, / With loads of learned lumber in his head....

(Alexander Pope)

 He was now sufficiently composed to order a funeral of modest magnificence....(Samuel Johnson)

 O anything of nothing first create! / O heavy lightness, serious vanity! / Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms! / Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health!

(from William Shakespeare’s play, Romeo and Juliet, Act I, scene I)

DIACOPE

dy-AHK-uh-pee: Is a scheme. It is an uninterrupted repetition of a word or a phrase; or, the repetition of a word or a phrase in which the repetition is briefly interrupted by one or two words. The effect, here, is not to compare or contrast, but to emphasize. All lost! To prayers, to prayers! All lost!

(from William Shakespeare’s play, The Tempest, Act 4, scene 1)

 Patience, Iago, patience. The people everywhere, not just here in Britain, everywhere — they kept faith with Princess Diana.

(Britain’s Prime Minister, Tony Blair)

ANTANAGOGE

AHN-tuh-NAY-goh-gee: Is a scheme. It is the device of placing a good point or benefit next to a bad point, in order to reduce the impact of the bad point. The effect is to compare and contrast. True, he always forgets my birthday, but he buys me presents all year round.

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The new anti-pollution equipment will increase the price of the product slightly, I am aware; but the effluent water from the plant will be actually cleaner than the water coming in.

Many are the pains and perils to be passed But great is the gain and glory at the last.

Three- Idea Rhetorical Devices Convey a sense of wholeness or completeness

ASYNDETON

AH-sin-deh-ten: Is a scheme. It is a stylistic device in which conjunctions are purposely omitted from a series of related phases. In addition to its sense of wholeness, the rhetorical effect is an energetic one.

I have done. You have heard me. The facts are before you. (from Aristotle’s book, Rhetoric, Book III)

...and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth.

(from Abraham Lincoln’s, Gettysburg Address)

I came, I saw, I conquered. (Julius Caesar)

PARALLELISM

pahr-uh-LELL-iz-im: Is a scheme. It is a series of phrases that displays identical grammatical characteristics. If those phrases contain verbs, it is especially important that the tenses of the verbs within each phrase be identical in order for the entire sequence to be considered truly parallel. Here are its effects: Parallelism sounds like the refrain of a song, thus it is musical; parallel construction creates logical coordination and coherence (all the elements that are paralleled belong together); if the parallel construction is comprised of three elements, it suggests completeness or wholeness.

Parallel construction has tremendous aesthetic appeal. In analysis, you should recognize it readily; in writing, you should use it frequently. He left the engine running freely, idling erratically, and heating rapidly.

Great minds talk about ideas; average minds talk about events; small minds talk about people.

He walked down the aisle, through the door and into the room.

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DIAZEUGMA

dy-uh-ZOOG-muh: Is a scheme. Diazeugma puts forward several phrases, whereby the subject in the first phrase is then ellipsed in the following phrases.

Note: The following example uses three phrases, so, regarding its effect, you would say that the author was attempting to convey a sense of completeness regarding the subject of aging:With maturation, physical beauty grows; with disease fades; with age dies. (The subject, “physical beauty,” is ellipsed in the subsequent phrases).

Note: The following example uses four phrases, so, regarding its effect, you would say that the author could have gone on listing indefinitely:The Romans destroyed Numantia, razed Carthage, obliterated Corinth, overthrew Fregellae. (The subject, “Romans,” is ellipsed in the subsequent phrases).

HYPOZEUGMA

hy-po-ZOOG-muh: Is a scheme. It is a device employing several subjects in a row at the beginning of a sentence, whereby those several subjects are then yoked (linked, tied) to a single predicate (i.e., the sentence’s lone verb and its complement). Note: In the following examples, the subjects displaying hypozeugma are in bold type; the verb and the complement are italicized.

Note: The following example uses three phrases, so, regarding its effect, you would say that the author was attempting to convey a sense of completeness regarding those in danger:The little baby from his crib, the screaming lady off the roof, and the man from the flooded basement were all rescued.

Note: The following example uses four phrases, so, regarding its effect, you would say that the author could have gone on listing indefinitely:Hours, days, weeks, months, and years do pass away.

EPISTROPHE

uh-PIS-truh-fee: Is a scheme. It is the repetition of a word or words at the conclusion of a succession of phrases. In structure, it is the opposite of anaphora (see pg.19), since the repetition comes at the end of the successive phases. But in its effect, it is similar to anaphora – epistrophe is musical and memorable. It is most common that the pattern in epistrophe repeats three times, and, so, I’ve put it within the three idea sentence category. But as you will see, epistrophe sometimes repeats only twice, and sometimes repeats four or more times.

Note: The following example uses two phrases, so, regarding its effect, you would say it contrasts:

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Now I want you to remember that no bastard ever won a war by dying for his country. He won it by making the other poor dumb bastard die for his country.

(from the movie, Patton)

Note: The following examples use three phrases, so, regarding its effect, you would say that the author was attempting to convey a sense of completeness:We are born to sorrow, pass our time in sorrow, end our days in sorrow.

What lies behind us and what lies before us are tiny compared to what lies within us. (Ralph Waldo Emerson)

 And that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth.

(Abraham Lincoln)

Note: The following example uses four phrases, so, regarding its effect, you would say that the author could have gone on listing indefinitely:The minister who has been called by God, ordained by God, appointed by God, and anointed by God, is assumed guilty until proven innocent. 

ANADIPLOSIS  

ah-nuh-dih-PLOH-sis: Is a scheme. It is a device whereby the last word in an initial phrase is repeated at (or very near) the beginning of the next phrase. Beyond its three-idea effect (i.e., wholeness or completeness), the secondary effect of anadiplosis is that it creates a sense of linkage and of slow building; an impression of gradual climbing towards a desired goal. It is often used for the climax of a sequence. It is energetic and dramatic.Hint: Think of the image of leapfrogging. The last word in the first phrase leaps to the front of the next phrase; and that leapfrogging pattern is then repeated with the subsequent phrase or phrases. The love of wicked men converts to fear,That fear to hate, and hate turns one or bothTo worthy danger and deserved death.

(from William Shakespeare’s play, Richard II, Act 5, scene1)

Aboard my ship, excellent performance is standard, standard performance is sub-standard, and sub-standard performance is not permitted to exist. (from the movie, The CaineMutiny Court Marshall)

Note: It is sometimes the case that anadiplosis repeats only twice, in which case the effect (in addition to linkage and building) calls for a comparison on the part of the audience:

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This treatment plant has a record of uncommon reliability, a reliability envied by every other water treatment facility on the coast.

CONDUPLICATIO

KAHN-doo-plih-KAH-tee-oh: Is a scheme. It is a device whereby one or more words are repeated near the beginning of a series of phrases. Hint: The root “duplicate” in conduplicatio provides the mnemonic device to remember its definition. Conduplicatio duplicates a word from phrase to phrase.Note: Conduplicatio is akin to anaphora (see pg. 19). It differs from anaphora, however, in that its repetition is of a single word (anaphora can and does repeat phrases); and with conduplicatio, the repeated word is near to – but not right at – the beginning of the successive phrases. Anaphora has its repetition strictly at the very beginning of its successive phrases. I answered their questions truthfully, including questions about my private life – questions no American citizen would ever want to answer.

(Bill Clinton) So I ask you tonight to return home, to say a prayer for the family of Martin Luther King -- yes, it's true -- but more importantly to say a prayer for our own country, which all of us love -- a prayer for understanding and that compassion of which I spoke. We can do well in this country.                                                               (Robert F. Kennedy)

CLIMAX

KLY-max: Is a scheme. It is the arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of increasing importance, often in parallel structure. In addition to the effect of completeness or wholeness, this device is dramatic and powerful.

And now abideth faith, hope, charity, these three; but the greatest of these is charity.(1 Corinthians 13:13)

I think we've reached a point of great decision, not just for our nation, not only for all humanity, but for life upon the earth.

(from George Wald’s book, A Generation in Search of a Future)

Lost, vaded, broken, dead within an hour. (from William Shakespeare’s sonnet, The Passionate Pilgrim, Stanza 13)

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EPIZEUXIS

ehp-ih-ZYOOK-sis: Is a scheme. It is a device consisting of the immediate repetition of a word, and only a word (i.e., not a phrase). In addition to completeness, the effect is powerful, energetic, and emphatic.

Dig-dig-dig ….(from Dickens’ novel, A Tale of Two Cities)

Words, words, words ….(from William Shakespeare’s play, Hamlet, Act 2, scene2)

Pancakes – yum, yum, yum.Simplify, simplify, simplify.

(Henry David Thoreau)

Four-Idea Rhetorical Devices Convey the idea that the author could have gone on listing his

ideas indefinitely; they are emphaticNote: Within this category, certain sentences may contain more than four ideas. This category is really the four – or more! – idea rhetorical devices.

POLYSYNDETON

pahl –EE-sin-deh-ten: Is a scheme. It is the use of a conjunction between each phrase in a series of phrases, and is thus structurally the opposite of asyndeton (see pg. 15). In addition to achieving the effect that the author could go on indefinitely, the secondary effect of polysyndeton (like asyndeton) is one of energetic enumeration, of building momentum.

I said, “Who killed him?” and he said, “I don't know who killed him, but he's dead all right,” and it was dark and there was water standing in the street and no lights or windows broke and boats all up in the town and trees blown down and everything all blown and I got a skiff and went out and found my boat where I had her inside Mango Key and she was right only she was full of water.

(from Ernest Hemingway’s short story, After the Storm)

ANAPHORA

uh- NAHF-uh-ruh: Is a scheme. It is the deliberate repetition of the same word (or group of words) at the very beginning of several consecutive phrases. Anaphora isn’t anaphora, unless the anaphoric pattern is repeated at least three times (although it’s more common to find anaphora repeated four or more times – which is why I’ve listed it here). In its secondary effect, anaphora is musical and memorable. It has tremendous aesthetic appeal. It is fruitful to think of anaphora as a rising tide of emotion – just what that

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emotion is, is up to you to figure out. In analysis, you should recognize it readily; in writing, you should use it frequently. Note: The following example uses three phrases, so, regarding its effect, you would say that the author was attempting to convey a sense of completeness regarding the world: Mad world! Mad kings! Mad composition!

(from William Shakespeare’s play, King John, Act2, scene 1)

 Note: The following examples use four phrases, so, regarding its effect, you would say that the author could have gone on listing indefinitely:We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender.

(Winston Churchill)

It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way . . .

(from Charles Dickens’ novel, A Tale of Two Cities)

AMPLIFICATION

am-pluh-fih-KAY-shun: Is a scheme. It is the process of enlarging the impact of a particular word by adding more details to it. The purpose of doing so is to call attention to the word in question.Hint: One amplifies sound in order to hear that sound better. In this case, you’re amplifying a particular word, with more words, in order to better understand that word; in order to better “hear” it.

In my hunger after ten days of rigorous dieting, I saw visions of ice cream – mountains of creamy, luscious ice cream, dripping with gooey syrup and calories.

Note: In the following example, the amplification does not extend to four (or more) iterations, but the spirit of amplification certainly suggests that each example of amplification should be placed in the four-idea sentence category, since amplification always implies that the writer could go on, and on:In everything remember the passing of time, a time which cannot be called again.The Lord also will be a refuge for the oppressed/ A refuge in times of trouble.  

(Psalm 9:9)

ENUMERATIO

uh-new-muh-RAY-shee-oh: Is a scheme. It is a device of amplification in which a subject is expanded upon. Enumeratio lists the parts or details of the subject in order to

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amplify its meaning; or defend an argument. In addition to suggesting that the author could continue indefinitely, the effect is energetic. A very important feature to note about enumeration is that it is emphatic.Hint: The mnemonic device here is to remember that enumeratio, enumerates – it lists. 

We formed in 1979, June, in Washington D.C. the Moral Majority, with a handful of people…which has grown now to over a hundred thousand priests and rabbis and pastors and blacks and whites and young and old and all kinds. Catholics are the largest part of the constituency – 30% – because of our strong pro-life emphasis.

(from Jerry Falwell’s book, The Role of Religion in Politics)

 The terrorist threat to our nation did not emerge on September 11th, 2001. Long before that day, radical, freedom-hating terrorists declared war on America and on the civilized world: the attack on the Marine barracks in Lebanon in 1983, the hijacking of The Achille Lauro in 1985, the rise of al-Qaida and the bombing of the World Trade Center in 1993, the attacks on American installations in Saudi Arabia in 1995 and 1996, the East Africa [embassy] bombings of 1998, the attack on the USS Cole in 2000. These and other atrocities were part of a sustained, systematic campaign to spread devastation and chaos and to murder innocent Americans.

(Condoleezza Rice, 9/11 Commission Hearing)

One Last CategoryCertain rhetorical devices don’t really belong to the categories of the one, two, three, and four-idea sentences. Their ambition is not to convey a secret message (to borrow Clark’s phrase). These rhetorical devices, to which I allude, exist strictly to elicit aesthetic pleasure from the reader. Their effect is playful, musical, and memorable.

 ALLITERATION

uh-LIT-er-ay-shun: Is a scheme. It is the repetition of initial consonants in several successive words.

Note: We often find alliteration in clichés …sweet smell of success, a dime a dozen, bigger and better, jump for joy, sink or swim, do or die, fuss and feathers, the more the merrier, watchful waiting, poor but proud, hale and hearty, green as grass, live and learn

Step forward, Tin Man. You dare to come to me for a heart, do you? You clinking, clanking, clattering collection of caliginous junk…And you, Scarecrow, have the effrontery to ask for a brain! You billowing bale of bovine fodder!

(from the movie, The Wizard of Oz)

In my time, I have suffered absolute acute agony after an attack by an angry and aggressive ant, been bitten by a bellicose bull-ant, clawed by a cunning, calculating

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cat, savaged by a sneaky, snarling schnauzer, and received painful injuries from other members of the animal kingdom. But I'm still fond of most animals.

ONOMATOPOEIA

ah-nuh-MAH-tuh-pee-uh: Is a scheme. It is a describing word (or words) that imitates the sound of the describing word’s subject, and thus suggests that subject. Hint: Think … comic book words.

"Buzz," for example, when spoken is intended to resemble the sound of a flying insect, and thus suggests the flying insect. “Buzz” is an example of onomatopoeia. Other examples include: slam, pow, screech, whirr, crush, sizzle, crunch, wring, wrench, gouge, grind, mangle, bang, blam, zap, fizz, urp, roar, growl, blip, click, whimper, snap, crackle, pop, meow, moo and quack.

Compare these sentences, for instance, and see how onomatopoeia improves the writing:

Someone yelled, "Look out!" and I heard the skidding of tires and the horrible noise of bending metal and breaking glass.

Someone yelled "Look out!" and I heard a loud screech followed by a grinding, wrenching crash.

Onomatopoeia can produce a lively sentence, adding a kind of flavoring by its sound effects:

The flies buzzing and whizzing around their ears kept them from finishing the experiment at the swamp.

No one talks in these factories. Everyone is too busy. The only sounds are the snip, snip of scissors and the hum of sewing machines.

But I loved that old car. I never heard the incessant rattle on a rough road, or the squeakitysqueak whenever I hit a bump; and as for the squeal of the tires around every corner --- well, that was macho.

If you like the plop, plop, plop of a faucet at three in the morning, you will like this recording.

HYPERBATON

hy-PURR-buh-tun: is a deviation from normal or logical word order

Note: In the following examples, the adjective comes after the noun, not before it, as it normally would.

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From his seat on the bench he saw the girl content – content with the promise that she could ride on the train again next week.

She had a personality indescribable.

Note: In the following example, two adjectives are separated by the noun that they modify. It was a long operation but successful. So many pages will require a larger stapler, heavy-duty style.

Note: Another form of hyperbaton involves the separation of words normally belonging together.In this room there sit twenty (though I will not name them) distinguished people.

Note: A verb can be emphasized by putting it at the end of the sentence. I will not, from this apartment, under any circumstances, be evicted.

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