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Journal of Global Management Research 1

Copyright© Institut Fidal Inc (2011)

Journal of Global Management Research

This journal strives to publish original articles of major interest to academicians, managers, consultants, politicians,

teachers, and students. This journal is published twice a year, in December and June. Special issues are released

following an international conference or devoted to a special theme. All papers submitted to the journal are subject

to strict review by the Editor followed by double blind peer review.

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State University of New York

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Dr.Michel Plaisent, PhD

INTERNATIONAL EDITORIAL REVIEW BOARD

Dr. Raymond A. HACKNEY (Manchester Metropolitan University Business School)

Dr. Lucila PÉREZ, director, Graduate Studies Department, University CASA GRANDE, (Ecuador)

Dr. Geni Satiko SATO, Researcher at the IEA-Agriculture Economy Institut, and Mackenzie Presbyterian

University

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(Tunisie), président du World E-Management Consortium

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Dr. Samer HIJAZI, Florida Keys Community College ([email protected])

Julian MIRANDA, Universdad Autonoma de Guerrerro, ([email protected])

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Vol 7 No 1 June 2011

TABLE OF CONTENT

ARTICLES PAGE

ABOUT CGI 5

GOVERNMENT ASSISTANCE DOES NOT HELP EXPORTS: THE CASE OF TAIWAN

L'AIDE GOUVERNEMENTALE N’AIDE PAS L’EXPORTATION : LE CAS DE TAIWAN

Dr. James Ming-Hsun CHIANG & José SALINAS

7

CONSTRUCTING A HARMONIOUS WORK RELATION ADJUSTMENT MODEL

CONSTRUIRE UN MODÈLE D’AJUSTEMENT SUR LA RELATION HARMONIEUSE AU

TRAVAIL

Pervaiz IQBAL, Zhang HUI-FENG

17

GROWTH AND SURVIVAL OF THE ENTERPRISE: A NON-LINEAR RELATIONSHIP

LA CROISSANCE ET LA SURVIE DE L’ENTREPRISE : UNE RELATION NON LINÉAIRE

Dr Ezzeddine TRIGUI

23

A CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH TO LEARN A PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE.

APPRENDRE UN LANGAGE DE PROGRAMMATION AVEC UNE APPROCHE

CONSTRUCTIVISTE

Lucila PEREZ, Dolores ZAMBRANO, Mariuxi ZEA

33

SERVICE QUALITY AND CUSTOMER SATISFACTION IN SRILANKA TELECOM

LA QUALITÉ DES SERVICES ET LA SATISFACTION DES CLIENTS DANS LES

TÉLÉCOMMUNICATIONS AU SRILANKA

Puwanenthiren PREMKANTH

45

L’IMPACT DE LA SATISFACTION SUR LA CONFIANCE DES CONSOMMATEURS A

L’ENSEIGNE DE DISTRIBUTION

THE IMPACT OF SATISFACTION ON CONSUMER CONFIDENCE TO RETAIL

COMPAGNIES

Hechmi NAJJAR & Imed, ZAIEM

55

SEE YOU IN FACEBOOK: THE EFFECTS OF INCORPORATING ONLINE SOCIAL

NETWORKING IN THE LANGUAGE CLASSROOM

LES EFFETS DE L’INTÉGRATION D’UN RÉSEAU SOCIAL DANS UNE CLASSE DE

LANGUE: LE CAS DE FACEBOOK

Yupaporn PIRIYASILPA

67



ABOUT CGI

Founded in 1976, CGI Group Inc. is one of the largest independent information technology and business process

services firms in the world. CGI and its affiliated companies employ approximately 25,000 professionals. CGI

provides end-to-end IT and business process services to clients worldwide from offices in Canada, the United States,

Europe, Pacific Asia as well as from centers of excellence in North America, Europe and India. CGI's annualized

revenue run rate stands at $3.6 billion (US$3.1 billion) and on December 31st, 2006, CGI's order backlog was at

$12.6 billion (US$10.9 billion). CGI shares are listed on the TSX (GIB.A) and the NYSE (GIB) and are included in

the S&P/TSX Composite Index as well as the S&P/TSX Capped Information Technology and MidCap Indices.

Website: www.cgi.com.

CGI provided financial support to this publication since 2006

À PROPOS DE CGI

Fondé en 1976, le Groupe CGI inc. figure parmi les plus importantes entreprises indépendantes de services en

technologies de l'information (TI) et en gestion des processus d'affaires dans le monde. CGI et ses entreprises

affiliées emploient environ 25 000 professionnels. CGI offre la gamme complète des services en TI et en gestion des

processus d'affaires à des clients du monde entier, à partir de ses bureaux au Canada, aux États-Unis, en Europe et

en Asie du Pacifique, ainsi qu'à partir de ses centres d'excellence en Amérique du Nord, en Europe et en Inde. Les

produits annualisés s'établissent actuellement à 3,6 milliards de dollars (3,1 milliards de dollars US) et, au 31

décembre 2006, son carnet de commandes s'élevait à 12,6 milliards de dollars (10,9 milliards de dollars US). Les

actions de CGI sont inscrites à la Bourse de Toronto (GIB.A) ainsi qu'à celle de New York (GIB). Elles figurent

dans l'indice composé S&P/TSX, dans l'indice plafonné de la technologie de l'information S&P/TSX et dans l'indice

des titres à moyenne capitalisation. Site Web : www.cgi.com.

CGI fournit un support financier à cette publication depuis 2006.

outbind://6/VOL3N1-June2007/www.cgi.com

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GOVERNMENT ASSISTANCE DOES NOT HELP EXPORTS:

THE CASE OF TAIWAN.

L'AIDE GOUVERNEMENTALE N’AIDE PAS L’EXPORTATION :

LE CAS DE TAIWAN

Dr. James Ming-Hsun CHIANG

José SALINAS, C. Ph.D

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to determine if government assistance is an important factor in export performance of

electronic firms in Taiwan. It does achieve this objective by looking at the reasons why some of Taiwan‟s

electronics exporters have a better export performance than others. In particular, the research determines that

government assistance is not a factor to explain the export performance.

In order to see the impact of government assistance, this study looks at 13 factors generally found in the literature as

having an impact on export performance and able to explain the differences among the firms of the same industry.

Government assistance is one of them. The literature generally refers to these 13 factors:

Firm Characteristics : Firm Size, Export Involvement, and Export Experience.

Firm Competencies : Managerial Characteristics, Motivation to Export, Export Commitment, Export

Perception, Personal Characteristics of Manager, Product Characteristics, and

Export Marketing Strategy.

External forces : Industry Characteristics, Export Market Characteristics, and Government

Export Assistance (Nazar & Saleem 2009).

This comprehensive empirical study initially applied the viewpoint of the joint influence of environment,

organization and strategy in international business, and the internal and external forces affecting the export

performance, in order to search out the appropriate match between these factors that best facilitates the Taiwan‟s

electronics exporters and examine which factors are important to export performance.

Taiwan is a small country with a population of only 24 million people in 2010. However, its influence upon the

world has been much greater than its size. It has considerably more importance on the world electronics

manufacturing and trading activities than most other countries. Recent figures show Taiwan to be the world‟s 24th

largest economy; its gross national product in 2009 reached US$ 358 billion, and it is also the 12th

biggest exporter

of electronics manufactured products (CIA, 2010). Taiwan has transformed itself from a wholly agricultural society

into a leader in the group of newly developing countries. Taiwan‟s economy is based on manufacturing and trading.

It performed remarkably well in the 1980s and is continuing to grow at about 4 percent annually (CIA, 2010).

Taiwan has gained wide attention as one of the most dynamic economies within the Asian region. Together with

Hong Kong, Singapore and South Korea, it is one of the “Four Tigers” or New Industrialized Countries (NICs) that

have achieved impressive economic results.

Taiwan‟s natural resources are scarce and most raw materials and critical industrial equipment have to be obtained

from other countries. Now, one severe handicap for Taiwan‟s export expansion has been the lack of formal

diplomatic relations with many of the developed countries of the world. In 2010, only 23 countries keep official

diplomatic relation with Taiwan. Notwithstanding, this Taiwan‟s export market now embraces more than 150

countries. It may be odd that numerous countries have no official diplomatic tie with Taiwan; nevertheless, they

continue to increase their trade with the country. Taiwan‟s exporters have to improve their effort to keep going

under high global competition around the world market.

Recently, the economic environment in Taiwan has undergone tremendous changes. Unfavorable trade imbalances

with Japan have been expanding rapidly for many years, causing very negative effects upon Taiwan‟s foreign trade.



Furthermore, the protectionism has become a very serious threat from overseas markets to Taiwan exporters, and

competition in the market is getting much difficult than before. Taiwan must face the reality that direct and indirect

trade barriers have been imposed to restrict foreign goods and to protect domestic markets. Fourthly, income has

been rising quickly and Taiwan‟s labor cost and operation overhead are no longer cheap by comparison with some

other developing countries. Finally, after China‟s economic reform, the export sector is aggressive. China has

succeeded in this effort because of competition in the export sector, constant improvement in export incentives,

openness to foreign traders, and its competing with Taiwan directly (World Bank, 2009). Consequently, Taiwan‟s

electronics manufacturers must learn how to compete more advantageously in international markets. In this period

of high instability, Taiwan‟s electronics manufacturers must seek out new overseas markets and develop appropriate

strategies to cope with these challenges in order to enhance export performance.

Exports play a predominant role in Taiwan‟s economic development. The electronics industry is Taiwan‟s most

important industrial category and many people would say that the role of the government is crucial in its

development. In order to explore why some Taiwanese electronics exporters have better export performance than

others, and to examine the determinants of export performance, the present research attempts to examine the

relationship between, on the one hand, environment, strategy, firm characteristics and the managerial characteristics

of the firms engaged in export marketing and, on the other hand, their export performance. Export performance can

be conceptualized as a strategic response by management to the interplay of internal and external forces (Cavusgil,

Sinkovics & Ghauri, 2009).

The internal forces relate to organizational characteristics such as firm characteristics, product characteristics, and

type of management, while the external forces include industry characteristics, export market characteristics, and

government supporting relationships. The degree of coalignment of these forces with the strategy of the firm

determines the results of export performance, in line with the strategy-environment coalignment principle (Porter,

1980).

An empirical investigation of internal and external forces as regards Taiwan‟s electronics exporters was performed.

This was a cross-sectional study intending to examine and investigate the determinants of export performance

among Taiwan‟s electronics exporters as well as to analyze the internal and external forces of the exporters. In order

to complete this study, a survey research design was employed. A survey was made of 200 among Taiwan‟s

electronics exporters. The sampling selection used a stratified systematic process. Data was analyzed using simple

and multiple regression analysis.

The population in this study consisted of those electronics products manufacturers engaged in exporting for at least

one year. The participants were selected from Taiwan Electrical and Electronic Manufacturing Association. There

are 15 product categories in TEEMA‟s listing: 8 categories for electric products, and 7 categories for electronics

products. The sample size of 550 electronics exporters (about 20%) were chosen from 2,733 electronics exporters of

TEEMA‟s registered firms using a stratified sample method to select the sample. The sample in this research

population totaled 550 electronics exporters. The subjects of this study were randomly selected from the

membership regardless of the size of firm, the number of employees, age of the company, total sales of the company

and so forth. Management level positions (top managers or exporting managers) involved in electronics and

electronics manufacturers were selected as the respondents. A questionnaire in Mandarin was developed to

successfully measure the factors mentioned above.

In order to improve the effectiveness of the measurement instrument, content validity and reliability tests of the

Chinese version of the questionnaire were conducted. The content validity of a measuring instrument is the extent to

which it provides adequate coverage of the topic under study (Cooper & Schindler, 1998). For each variable group,

several conceptual items were investigated. The conceptual variables chosen have a strong foundation from the

literature and also are supported by previous empirical export performance studies. Each conceptual variable was

measured by multiple indicators items. The purpose of such a procedure is to allow the development of measures to

improve the validity and reliability of the measures (Churchill, 1991). In the pre-test, the results from the Cronbach

Alpha showed each section of questionnaire had relatively high coefficient alphas around 0.87. The score of the

fourteen constructs were 0.7050, 0.7280, 0.6715, 0.8704, 0.8728, 0.8732, 0.8728, 0.8729, 0.8729, 0.8729, 0.8728,

0.8727, 0.8731, and 0.8734. Following the validity and reliability test, several modifications were made in the

questionnaire based on the committee‟s comments and the results from the pre-tests.



The data was collected using a mailed questionnaire and follow-up personal calls to export marketing managers who

were involved in the exporting operations of exporters. The four-page questionnaire was pre-tested with experts and

non-experts to check primarily the wording and understanding of this research study. The follow-up personal calls

interviews were used in order to get a higher response rate for this research study.

The data was analyzed by both simple and multiple linear regression analysis. The simple linear regression

technique was used to analyze the results. The multiple regression analysis was conducted to find the best predictive

variable for the export performance of Taiwan‟s electronics exporters. Questionnaires were mailed to the export

marketing managers of 550 Taiwanese electronics exporters. These firms were chosen from 2,733 electronics

exporters. The questionnaires were returned by 211 of the 550, amounting to a response rate of 38.36 percent. Only

200 firms completed them in details worth analyzing. This amounted to a 36.36 percent effective response rate. The

questionnaire was divided into three sections. Section A was developed for a company profile which was based on

the export experiences. Section B was developed for examining the internal forces of Taiwan‟s electronics exporters.

Section C was developed for examining the external forces of Taiwan‟s electronics exporters.

Products Population Sample Response

Computer & Peripheral 327 66 28

Telecommunication Equipment 594 119 44

Test and Measuring Instrument 175 160 70

Electronics Finished Products 796 160 70

Semiconductors 131 27 7

Optoelectronic Products 19 4 2

Electronic Components 691 139 40

TABLE 1 -

A multiple regression analysis was conducted to evaluate the prediction of export performance, and was used to

determine whether the internal and external forces were useful in explaining the export performance of the firms in

the sample. Export sales volume consisted in the measures of export performance. These are the results for the 13

factors listed above:

VARIABLE B SE B β R2

P Relationship to

performance

Firm Size 8.169E-02 0.14 0.393 .,154 0.000 yes

Export Experience 6.488 0.933 0.446 0.199 0.000 yes

Export Involvement 0.424 0.086 0.331 0.109 0.000 yes

Firm Competencies 5.836 8.360 0.050 0.002 0.486 no

Export Motivation 14.541 15.199 0.068 0.005 0.340 no

Export Commitment 25.935 10.541 0.173 0.030 0.015 yes

Export Perception 34.478 12.328 0.195 0.038 0.006 yes

Personal Characteristics 6.901 12.027 0.041 0.002 0.567 no

Product Characteristics 14.063 15.078 0.066 0.157 0.018 yes

Export Marketing Strategy -19.210 14.719 -0.093 0.29 0.036 yes

Industry Characteristic 21.010 10.525 0.141 0.141 0.047 yes

Export Market Characteristics 2.871 11.617 0.018 0.09 0.805 no

Taiwan Government help -1.745 8.551 -0.015 0.005 0.839 no

TABLE 2 -

The findings showed that firm size, export involvement, export experience, expert commitment, export perception,

product characteristics, export marketing strategy, and industry characteristics have a direct impact on export

performance. The results revealed that export performance stemmed from relationships between many different

factors. Neither operation environment, firm managerial characteristics, nor export marketing strategy acting alone

could sufficiently explain the differences in export performance. The total annual sales and total number of



employees were chosen as a measure of firm size in this study. The positive relationship between firm size and

export performance has been confirmed by many previous studies (Axinn & Matthyssens, 2001).

The result suggested that there is a significant relationship between the size of firms and the export performance of

Taiwan‟s electronics exporters. Firm size seemed to be the most significant factor according to both the simple

regression and the multiple regression analysis. Firm size was extremely important in determining the export

performance of a firm. The large firms possess more managerial and financial resources, have greater production

capacity, and attain perceived risks in exporting business. In examining the impact of firm size on export

performance, we found that there is a general tendency for higher export performance to be associated with firm

size. The fourth highest R², at 15.4% of the export performance, was accounted for by its linear relationship with the

size of firms. The number of export staff was chosen as a measure of export involvement of a firm in this study.

Export involvement is used to describe the extent to which an exporter is dependent upon export activity for its

business (Bernard & Jensen, 2004).

There is a significant relationship between the export involvement of firms and the export performance of Taiwan‟s

electronics exporters. It was found that firms engaged in relatively high levels of exporting activities employ large

numbers of export staff and have better organized export departments, and that higher export involvement shows a

firm‟s greater capacity for developing the export operation. The greater the number of export staff, the more

probable it is that the firm would be an aggressive exporter. The number of export staff is positively related to export

sales, and a significant relationship is indicated between the number of export staff and export performance. The

standardized beta showed export involvement of firms to be the second highest beta associated with one of the

highest levels of significance at p = 0.000. Moreover, it yielded the fifth highest R², at 10.9% of the variance of the

export performance, and was accounted for by its linear relationship with the export involvement of firms. The

international experience of a firm has been shown to influence its export behavior (Cavusgil and Zou, 1994;

Leonidou 2000; Majocchi, Bacchiocchi, & Mayrhofer, 2005).

There is a significant relationship between the export experience of firms and the export performance of Taiwan‟s

electronics exporters. The relationship yielded the highest R square, at 19.9% of the variance of the export

performance, and was accounted for by its linear relationship with the export experience of firms. The standardized

beta showed export experience of firms to be the highest beta associated with one of the highest levels of

significance at p = 0.000. The present study found that firms that had extensive experience in international markets

tended to have better export performance than firms with limited experience; the export experience being one of the

key success factors of export business. With respect to the effect of export experience upon export performance, the

assumption of a significant relationship between export experience and export performance was confirmed. Multiple

years of export experience have a direct influence on export performance. The greater the number of years of export

experience, the better the export performance of the firm would be.

The firm competencies are probably more important in export operation; many studies suggest that firm

competencies are significantly related to the export performance. The firm competencies have been found to affect

export performance in the areas of export planning, technology level, quality control, and human resources. Several

studies confirmed that all these were important for export performance (Balabanis & Katsikea, 2003; Tan, Brewer,

& Liesch, 2007; Axinn, 1988).

No significant relationship is found betwen firm competencies and export performance. There was not a significant

relationship between the firm competencies and the export performance of Taiwan‟s electronics exporters. This

result was not consistent with the studies of Aaby & Slater (1989) and Zou & Stan (1998), who found firm

competencies to be an important determinant of export performance. Management‟s particular orientations do have

an impact on the firm‟s performance; specifically, export motivation is assumed to have an impact on export

performance. This result was not consistent with the studies of Albarm, Strandskov, & Duerr (1998) and Da Rocha

& Christensen (1994).

Export commitment has long been identified as an important construct in the export literature. The result shows that

there is a significant relationship between the firms‟ export commitments and the export performance of Taiwan‟s

electronics exporters. Firms with more managerial and financial resources can be expected to display high

commitment to export markets. By testing the impact of the two dimensions of export commitment on export

performance, the present study makes an important contribution. The standardized beta showed export commitment



of firms to be the fourth highest beta associated with one of the highest levels of significance at 0.015, while

commitment yielded only 3% of the variation in explaining the export performance.

Successful export performance for firms has been linked to management‟s positive expectations concerning the

effects of exporting on the business‟s profitability, as well as to negative perceptions about risk and potential

barriers to export (Cavusgil & Nevin, 1981; Ogunmokun, Chin, & McPhail, 2005). There is a significant

relationship between the firms‟ export perceptions and the export performance of Taiwan‟s electronics exporters.

This study has already confirmed that the managerial perceptions of export profit, export sales, and firm goal are

factors that affect the firm‟s export performance for Taiwan‟s electronics exporters. Success of Taiwanese

electronics exporters has been linked to management‟s positive export perceptions concerning export sales.

Personal characteristics of managers of exporting firms have not been studied in the Taiwanese exporting literature.

In general, Da Rocha and Christensen (1994) found no significant associations between export performance and the

top executive‟s formal education, knowledge of foreign languages, professional experience and amount of time

traveling overseas.

Four personal characteristics of managers have been included in this study: education level, overseas experience,

foreign language skills, and age. The result shows there is no significant effect on export performance. The most

interesting result in this study is that the personal characteristics of managers did not have any significant

relationship with export performance. Results reported in the literature indicate that personal characteristics of

managers may have an important effect (Deng & Benson, 2003).

The result suggested that there is a significant relationship between the product characteristics of firms and export

performance. R² was 5.7%, showing 15.7% of the variance of the export performance, and was accounted for by its

linear relationship with product characteristics. It is these characteristics of a given product that create in managers a

sense of opportunity as regards foreign markets, and these characteristics also build in managers a sense of need for

additional sales in foreign markets. The quality and price of the product are the key successful factors as regards

export markets. This study provides strong evidence for the influence of product quality and price on export

performance.

There is strong empirical evidence supporting the importance of the export marketing strategy for exporters.

Successful export marketing requires the development and implementation of marketing strategies responsive to

different markets worldwide. Understanding the link between export strategies and performance is crucial for the

success of multinational firms as world markets globalize (Aulakh & Kotabe, 2000).

There is a significant relationship between the export marketing strategy of firms and the export performance of

Taiwan‟s electronics exporters. In explaining the export performance, the relationship yielded the highest R² at 29%

of the variation. The international business environment is highly complex; the exporters have to assess their firms‟

resources and capabilities, changes in business conditions, the competitive environment, the regulatory environment,

and consumer behavior, as well as to implement their export marketing strategies. This study confirmed that all

components of export marketing strategies are very important for export performance.

The empirical studies have established that the relative contribution of industry structure, corporate and business

units affects performance (Christmann, Day, & Yip, 1999). Industry growth affects the extent to which competitors

have to compete with each other for sales growth. Industry growth has also been found to be related to high levels of

profitability. Technological leadership and substantial R & D are important for the international success of

exporters. Firms must analyze their industry structures and competitors, understand their buyer and the sources of

buyer value, diagnose their relative competitive positions, and seek to establish a sustainable competitive advantage

(Porter, 1986). The result of the test confirmed that there is a significant relationship between the industry

characteristics of firms and the export performance of Taiwanese electronics exporters. In explaining the export

performance, the relationship was a low R² of only 2% of the variation. But the standardized beta showed the

industry characteristics of firms to be the third highest beta associated with one of the highest levels of significance

at p = 0.044. The study suggested that industry characteristics are one of the key factors affecting the export

performance, and the degree of competition in industry is most important for export marketing. In evaluating export

performance, firms must pay attention to the effects of conditions beyond management‟s control, such as

macroeconomic and industry characteristics.



The role of market conditions as a determinant of firm performance is especially important to exporters; the export

market characteristics pose both opportunities and threats for exporters. Such exporters face many challenges not

faced by purely domestic competitors. The higher profit potential of high-growth markets should make these

markets more attractive to non-incumbent businesses. Trade barriers may determine the attainable profitability for

complete or only partial exporters (Bernard & Jensen, 2007).

Firms should be able to compete successfully in international markets, regardless of their general resources, the

technological intensity of their product, the type of market in which they operate. However, firms with large

resources and high technological intensity might expect slightly better export performance. In summary, the key

export market characteristics that can affect the choices of export marketing operations included amount of trade

barriers, physical distance to market, competitor pressures, economic development and market sizes in export

market, as well as cultural similarity to home markets. The result of the test confirmed that there was no statistically

significant relationship between the export market characteristics of firms and export performance among Taiwan‟s

electronics exporters.

In explaining export performance, the relationship yielded a low R² at only 9% of the variation. According to the

Hypothesis testing, the export performance of firms is not influenced by export market characteristics.

Government Export Assistance

The study looked at all the 13 factors, but our main interest is on government assistance. Generating exports is a

primary policy concern for most governments. Many dollars are devoted to export promotion programs designed to

increase the propensity of companies to export. Government export assistance refers to the policies that a

government puts forth to help exporters conduct international business (Weaver, Berkowitz, & Davies, 1998; Ghosh,

2003).

Typically, they help by providing information, sales leads, tax incentives, insurance, promotions, and financing

programs. In this study, there was three major government export assistance activities designed to support Taiwan‟s

electronics exporters: gathering marketing information, promotion and advertising, and financing and tax reduction.

The result confirmed that there was not a statistically significant relationship between Taiwan government export

assistance programs and export performance among Taiwan‟s electronics exporters. There was only a weak positive

relationship between Taiwan government export assistance programs and the export performance in Taiwan‟s

electronics exporters. This result was not consistent with the results of Czinkota and Ricks (1981) and those of Reid

(1983), which found that government export assistance could stimulate export activities by providing information,

promotion, and financial support (Gençtürk & Kotabe, 2001).

CONCLUSION

The performance of exporters is the result of the complex interaction of many factors of both the internal and

external environments at the firm level. Improving the understanding of the factors impacting export performance is

an important strategic concern in view of the rapidly changing global scope of business.

The study found that contrary to the literature and to the general beliefs, at least in the case of Taiwan, Government

Assistance is not a factor in export performance, in the electronic industry at any rate.

The findings confirmed that firm characteristics such as firm size, export involvement, and export experience can all

substantially influence a firm‟s export performance. Other managerial characteristics such as export commitment

and export perception have an impact on export performance, but export motivation and personal characteristics of

manager have weak positive relations with export performance. There is a lack of relationship between firm

competencies and export performance.

There is a growing belief that new and innovative products with competitive costs have a better than average chance

of developing strong export sales, and a significant relationship between product characteristics and export



performance was confirmed. A marketing strategy that emphasizes a new product may be an effective way for a firm

to build greater exporting sales.

Successful exporters require the development and implementation of an export marketing strategy responsive to

different environments. The present study was concerned with the choice of export market numbers and the

adaptation of the export marketing mix. This study confirmed that the export marketing strategies such as product

adaptation, pricing strategy, promotion adaptation, and distribution strategy can all substantially affect a firm‟s

export performance. The intensity of exporting activity and the nature of export marketing strategy vary

considerably across industries. Industry characteristics have been considered key determinants of a firm‟s strategy in

the exporting areas. This study confirmed that there is a statistically significant relationship between industry

characteristics and the export performance.

Governments seem to be searching for more effective ways to intervene to promote and support exporting. In the

present study, government export assistance was found to have no impact on a firm‟s export performance. Maybe

governments should review the way they assist in the export! Maybe they should focus on training the managers as

regards the factors indicated above, that is, the ones having an impact.

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U.S. Export Performance.” (April 28, 2010).



CONSTRUCTING A HARMONIOUS WORK RELATION ADJUSTMENT

MODEL

CONSTRUIRE UN MODÈLE D’AJUSTEMENT SUR LA RELATION

HARMONIEUSE AU TRAVAIL

Pervaiz IQBAL, China University of Mining & Technology, [email protected]

Zhang HUI-FENG, associate professor, School of Management, China University of Mining &

Technology Xuzhou-221008, [email protected]

ABSTRACT One of the most important factors for constructing a harmonious society is to establish some kind of harmonious

work relation. In China, the non-harmonious phenomenon of work relations is very prominent, which has already

affected the entire economical development and the enhancement and development of enterprise benefit. China

should solve the problems of work relations by using a model where human resources management takes a leading

role and collective negotiations for work relations adjustments take an auxiliary role. Constructing harmonious work

relations is also the core of human resources management in theory and in practice.

KEY-WORDS: Labor Relation, Industry Relation Adjusting Pattern, Human Resource

Management

1. NECESSITIES OF CONSTRUCTING A HARMONIOUS WORK

RELATIONSHIP

Harmony of work relations is not only the premise of economical development, but also the objective of

constructing a harmonious society. The most important factor for constructing a harmonious society is to establish

harmonious work relations, because it is one of the most basic social relations; And the stability of the work relation

is the foundation and premise of the social harmony; whereas, the social harmony is also the incarnation and

warranty of the stable work relation. The human society is a total sum of various kinds of social relations. The basic

connotation of a harmonious society should be a harmony of various social relations, namely, the harmonious

society mainly refers to the harmony of various social relations among the members of different social classes and

between human beings and nature. Productive activity is the foundation of existence and development of the human

society; productive relations are the most important ones among the social relations; but work relations are the main

part of productive relations.

Work relations refer to the social economic relations established by workers and employers (including enterprises,

commercial individuals, institutions, etc.) in the course of labor realization. It is a kind of special social relations,

which refers mainly to the relationship between rights and obligations aroused by the workers and the organizations

because of labor. It is a kind of productive relations, and it is an essential factor in constituting the productive forces,

which are of a different nature and reflect the different economic forms in different historical periods and different

social systems1.

The harmonious society is an inevitable request when material civilization and spiritual civilization of human

society develop to a certain stage. At present, the marketwise work relations already occupied a dominant position in

China, but this does not mean that the work relations of the planned economy have already completed the transition

like the marketwise ones2. China's laws and regulations, mediation system, and labor disputes arbitration system,

have been widely acknowledged worldwide. However, despite all the achievements in both systems and practices,

some local authorities merely emphasize the development of economy and ignore the staff‟s rights and interests, or

even worse, get engaged in cahoots with business owners, which lead to illegal activities, or legal ones but without

strength and strictness. In view of China present situation in business management, unharmonious work relations



can be seen everywhere, whether macroscopically or microscopically, like laborers not being paid, problems of the

weak community, etc. All these show that uncoordinated work relations are at present already unusually prominent

in our country, and have already affected the development of entire economy and enhancement of enterprise benefit.

The harmony of work relations is relative and dynamic, and the factors affecting harmony will not wither away in

the course of development. Under the market economy conditions, laborers and employers are both relatively

independent subjects of interests, and their bilateral interests are either unified or contradictory: When an enterprise

is well operated, the income of investors and laborers can be assured, and at the end both sides will form a benefit

community; at the same time, in the market competition, enterprises always reduce costs by any means in order to

pursue the maximized benefit, but employees aim for stability of work and maximization of income, which will

inevitably arouse conflicts between the conflicting interests. Along with enhancement of the market economy

growth and acceleration of the industrialization advancement, more and more complicated problems will inevitably

appear in the domain of work relations. The background where contradictions between labors and employers take

place is profound, mechanically complex and it is a very difficult problem to solve. Since work relations obviously

take on the nature of economy and society, slight carelessness might turn a simple labor dispute into a sudden social

conflict, which would affect the harmony and stability of entire society. Therefore, an important part of constructing

a harmonious society is to construct the harmonious work relations.

As the fundamental component of productive relations, work relations deeply affect the formation and development

of productive relations. The overtop structure is decided by the economic basis, and the stability of social structure is

decided by the stability of the economic structure. Therefore, the state of work relations turns out to be the

barometer and wind vane that show whether the society is harmonious or not3. If work relations are not harmonious,

the society will be not harmonious; if work relations are unstable and uncoordinated, to construct a harmonious

society is like setting up a tower on the sand. From this point of view, the harmonious work relation is the important

foundation of the harmonious society; while a harmonious society is the incarnation and guarantee of harmonious

work relations. The currently proposed construction of a harmonious society is, in fact, to establish the harmony

among the people, and macroscopically, to solve the problems of employment, as is the foundation of the livelihood

of the people. From the viewpoint of enterprise, harmonious management is absolutely necessary to establish a

harmonious society, because the harmonious society is consistent with the harmonious management. Where there is

a harmonious enterprise or a harmonious management, there is a harmonious society. If we are to establish a

harmonious society, we have to establish harmonious work relations4.

2. PRESENT SITUATION AND PHENOMENON OF CHINA’S

DISHARMONIOUS WORK RELATIONS

After 20 years of reform and development, China‟s work relations are in an unprecedented complicated state. On

the one hand, the marketionized work relations have been formed and have gradually attained a dominant position;

on the other hand, the things left by the planned economy need to be eliminated.

In the marketionized domain, the work relations also present an extremely complex situation: there are normative

enterprises that observe the laws, but also lots of enterprises who violate the labor laws and encroach upon the

workers basic rights and interests. But generally speaking, the adjusting mechanism and system that are fit for

adjusting the marketionized work relations have not yet been set up in the marketionized domain. The serious

unbalances between employers and employees powers, and the intensified contradictions between the employers

and employees, have already constituted serious hidden dangers for the stability and sustainable development of the

economic society5.

1st. The marketionized work relations have been formed and have gradually occupied the dominant position.

In the leading market department, i.e. in the non-public ownership domain, the work relations, from the start, are the

typically marketionized work relations: Both parties of the work relations are clearly identified and the relationship

is typically the one between laborers/employees and investors/employers; Since the disposition of labor forces is

completely decided by market price, the class, rank and status make no sense here and there is no discrimination

towards rural labor forces; Fixed status as managers and workers does not exist; the price of labor forces is

completely measured by the market, which reflects the scarceness of labor forces with different qualities and the

workers‟ actual contribution; both parties of work relations maintain an explicit contractual relationship, thus the

enterprise and its staff are both retaining the rights of dismissal and resignation according to the employment



contract, etc. Each kind of non-state-owned economy, especially the non-public ownership economy, has become an

important strength to impel the Chinese economy‟s development, and the number of employees has greatly

surpassed that of the state-owned enterprises. It can be seen, from the number of employees, that non-public

economy employed personnel in our country has greatly surpassed that of the state-owned enterprises and public

departments, and has become a main part of the employment in China. And the majority of employees being in

privately operated enterprises means at least that, in China, the marketization of work relations has attained the

dominant position in the quantity.

2nd

. Things left by the planned economy need to be eliminated.

The status and rank systems formed during the planned economy still exist, which is reflected obviously by the

discrimination of agricultural laborers and the division between city and countryside laborers. Along with the

implementation of a countryside household undertaking system, the development of an urban non-public economy

and the expansion of the independence on the employment of state-owned enterprise, the policies that forbade

farmers to enter cities are now becoming flexible, even invalid. Until the end of last the century, millions of rural

labor forces entered cities. But, for a long time, city authorities have been discriminating agricultural laborers by

means of limitations with the original system of registered permanent addresses. A perfect social insurance system,

especially an unemployment insurance system and employment service system should be established for the staff in

state-owned enterprises to move towards the marketized employment, i.e. to create a macroscopic social

environment for their marketized employment. But the first problem to solve is the work relation between the staff

and enterprise, i.e. to prompt the staff in the state-owned enterprises to change their status by compensations and

other means.

3rd. In the marketionized domain, as the power between employers and employees is seriously unbalanced, the

workers rights and interests have been seriously aggrieved.

Laborers are working in miserable conditions since their basic rights and interests cannot be guaranteed. Problems

like: Seriously overtime working; Embezzled and delayed payment; Poor working conditions; Serious industrial

accidents; Poor safety and health conditions; Unceasing industrial accidents; Seriously violation of workers other

legal and personal rights.

The power between employers and employees is seriously unbalanced. In most privately operated enterprises, and

all the middle or small foreign, Hong-Kong, Macao and Taiwan capital enterprises, the workers are manipulated by

the capitalists and have no strength and ability to negotiate with them. One reason is that, in the labor force market,

supply is much bigger than demand; but the other important reason is that trade union's power is too weak, because

the trade unions established in these enterprises are mostly controlled by the bosses, and they do not represent and

maintain workers rights. Simultaneously most collective contracts signed in many enterprises cannot be

implemented.

Government intervention is not strong enough, and there exist problems in government's labor policies. Besides, on

the problems of work relations, some ideas and rules that appeared during the planned economy are still lingering.

Government intervention and investigation are insufficient against the widespread and serious irregularities of

coping with work relations, which is represented by insufficient enforcement of the labor laws and the labor dispute

processing system not meeting the needs in the situation. But more importantly, in the state of the serious

unbalanced power between laborers and capitalists, there lacks one explicit and correct labor policy, and to great

extent, the ideas and systems developed when the planned economy was in force still exist, such as treatment of

trade unions and "workers‟ three rights" (i.e. workers' unity, collective negotiation and going on strike).

3. CONSTRUCTING A HARMONIOUS WORK RELATION

ADJUSTMENT MODEL

The industrial relation adjustment model in market economy countries has experienced three phases in its nearly

300 years‟ evolvement: The first stage: The industrial relation model appeared during the capitalism primitive

accumulation time, i.e. primitive industrial relation adjustment model, which is also called free contract industrial

relation adjustment model; The second stage: The collective negotiation industrial relation model, which is also

called “investment-output” industrial relation model; The third stage: The human resources industrial relation

model.



The primitive industrial relation adjustment model, or free contract industrial relation adjustment model was in

vogue during the capitalism primitive accumulation time. Under this model, the workers sold their labor forces to

the capitalists in the name of “freedom” and “equality” in the labor force market and rented their labor forces to the

capitalists. But once the workers were engaged in the production process organized by capitalists, they would be

used merely as tools. The collective negotiation work relation model acknowledged the rights of both parties,

especially the "workers‟ three rights" (i.e. workers' unity, collective negotiation and going on strike) and established

the workers‟ rights to set up trade unions, to negotiate collectively and to go on strike. The reason why it is called

“investment-output model” is that it is established on the basis of “multi-viewpoints” of industrial relations, which

means that there are different benefit conflicts between employers and employees, and these conflicts are regarded

as “input” or “investment”; After bargaining, negotiations and contests, all parties of the industrial relations reach an

agreement on the protocols, rules and systems that would be observed by all of them. Those protocols, rules and

systems are considered as “output”. The "investment-output" model takes the adjustment of work relations as an

unceasingly circulation that begins with conflicts, results in rules and systems after transformation.” Since the end

of 19th century, especially in the 20th century, this industrial relation adjustment model has become principal in

western market economy countries, and was considered as a popular one under the market economy conditions.

In the later 20th century, western developed countries successively came into the knowledge economy time. The

work relations in western developed countries were gradually changing from the "input-output model" to the

“human resources management model”. The “human resources management model” is established on the common

interests of employers and employees, or capitalists and workers. This model connects the staff growth with their

enterprise development. The employer realizes his purpose of enhancing the productivity rate by means of meeting

the staff needs, stimulating their enthusiasm, while the staff put their hope in the expansion and development of the

company to raise their own income. The workers and investors don‟t need to reach balance through resistance and

dispute, but both can benefit from cooperation. Because of its obvious merit, it might take the place of the “input-

output” model and become the primary model in adjusting the work relations. The drop of trade union participation

rate and the declining function of collective negotiations in developed countries precisely account for this tendency.

China had two big prominent problems in the work domain since the reform and opening-up: One is that the level of

income for workers income did not increase with the economical development and the capital accumulation, but, on

the contrary, dropped greatly in many places, especially in those developed areas with many private enterprises;

another is that in recent years, the labor disputes rose greatly in our country, which has become a primary factor that

affects our social stability. The work relations need to be established on basis of respecting the workers‟ basic

human rights and all labor rights, so as to enable all the laborers to share the achievement of progress of the society

and development of the economy, thus making the entire economy and society‟s develop harmoniously. In other

words, what kind of work relation adjustment model should be chosen and what kind of work relation adjustment

system should be established to achieve this goal?

The author believed that, China should not simply choose the “collective negotiation model” which has been

generally adopted in the market economy countries, but ought to solve the problems in the work relations domain by

establishing the model that takes the human resources management as leading, and takes the collective negotiations

work relation adjustment model as auxiliary. The reason is that the collective negotiation pattern is set up on basis of

the contest power of workers and investors, and the cost is high, it is an unavoidable choice to implement this model

even in the developed countries.

China has already carried on reforms and open policies for more than 20 years and has obtained huge achievements.

Moreover, the birth of China‟s market economy and the developing path are not certainly the same one as the west

market economy countries; therefore it is unnecessary for China to turn back and make up for a missed lesson in the

work relation adjustment model.

Undoubtedly, the human resources management model is more reasonable and more economical than the others, and

it has substituted the collective negotiation model and become the main model in the market economy countries.

But, in view of the immaturity of China‟s work relations, as well as the influence of China's systems and cultural

traditions, it is still essential for the government to be involved in the work relation adjustment. The human

resources management adjustment model is an ideal pattern, and it came into being and developed and substituted

for the collective negotiation model naturally with its interior causes and basis6. It should be specially pointed out



that, the strengthening power of trade unions is another important reason why the human resources management

model can emerge. Because of the strengthening power of trade unions, the capitalists have to pay a very high price,

thus forcing the capitalists to seek another more economical managing method, which can stimulate the workers

enthusiasm at the same time. A very big motive for companies in the market economy countries to adopt the human

resources management model is to resist the trade unions and avoid high cost which collective negotiations create.

In other words, the existence trade union power itself is an important power and factor to implement the human

resources management model. Many big companies that have implemented the human resources management

model, do not completely abandon the collective negotiation adjustment form, but simply transform it.

In order to solve the problems in China‟s work relation domain, law enforcement and surveillance of the

government must be strengthened, and the idea and model of human resources management be propagandized and

promoted vigorously. But so far as China‟s present situation is concerned, the major problem is that the power of

trade union is too weak to protect workers.

In this case, in order to establish the work relations adjustment system that can present the spirit of modern market

economy and maintain effectively the rights and interests of workers‟, the main duty is to strengthen the power of

trade union so as to establish true collective negotiation system; to strengthen legislative construction, especially

strengthen the law enforcement and surveillance of the government; to strengthen the construction of labor

supervision and dispute processing system so that they can be more powerful, effective and convenient; and on

basis of the above two, the human resources management work relations adjustment model can be established.

4. CONSTRUCTING A HARMONIOUS WORK RELATION IS THE CORE

OF HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT THEORY AND PRACTICE

It can be seen from the history of human resources management that the U.S. have experienced about a hundred

years market economy and the work relations were already in a stable pattern. It is only then and on the basis of this

foundation that the so-called work relation human resources adjustment model was proposed. However, the subject

of China's human resources management is completely an imported product without taking into account the

domestic conditions when it was introduced: China's market economy has not experienced the industrial revolution,

and its work relations take its own characteristics compared with the western market economy countries, because

China emerged from a semi-feudal and semi-colonial country with an underdeveloped industry. Under this

background, copying mechanically and applying slavishly the US human resources management model, will

inevitably create the result that the personnel of human resources do not know how to manage the enterprise.

At present, the major job in many human resources sections is to process the lower-class human affairs in the

enterprises such as the staffing, deregulations, and turnovers, etc. Therefore, theoretical human resources

management is quite different with what Chinese enterprises practically need. Just on account of this, China must

currently introduce and develop the content of work relations in human resources management.

The objective of business management is to achieve the harmony through the management, including the harmony

between person and thing, and person and person. The last one of Tailor four big principles in the scientific

management is to advocate the staff and enterprise's sharing and double-wins, and this is the typical harmony

between laborers and capitalists. From the viewpoint of harmonious management and enterprise's development,

special attention must be paid to the humanist management; Humanist management is an important symbol of

appraising a successful management by whether or not the enterprise and the individual could realize their goals at

the same time.

From the viewpoint of management, the harmonious, coordinated work relations are the essence of human resources

management science. The authors believe that work relation management should be mainly embodied in the entire

process of human resources management in addition to the law and the policy. The harmonious work relations need

the joint efforts from the enterprise, the society and the government.

In the subject of human resources management, theories must be introduced and discussed from various angles and

aspects, on how to construct harmonious work relations; In the curriculums as well as in the teaching process, ideas



must be advocated to achieve the harmonious work relations, because most students raised in human resources

management will be employed in the labor department of the government, and in the enterprises in the future.

In the enterprises internal sections, advanced ideas of harmonious work relations must be introduced. In the

enterprise, the high /middle managers and HRM specialists, or whoever, should carry on harmonious work relations

from beginning to end in the human resources management; only by advocating the harmonious work relations in

the entire process can the enterprise guarantee the harmonious development.

In each section of the human resources management from recruiting, performance evaluation, prompting, salary to

labor protection, medical insurance, social insurance, in teaching students, carrying on research, suggesting the

government, consulting the enterprise, if the idea of harmonious work relations can be instilled into and realized in

the management practice, China will be able to have a big leap in the human resources management aspect.

REFERENCES

Research China Work Relations in Reforming Time (A), the Labor Science Institute (2004). Material origin:

"Economy Vital Reference", No. 15.

PAN HONG, Lin “Discussing on Constructing Harmonious Work Relations --- the Objective Demand of

Constructing a Harmonious Society”: The Guilin Municipal Administration Committee, the Guilin Passenger Train

Industry Group Company, http://www.gll-gx.org.cn/skl/.

LI, Ling-yun, “A Study of Constructing Harmonious Work Relations”, Material From: www.chinalawedu.com.

LU, Fu-cai, “Harmonious Work Relations Are Currently the Core of Human Resources Management in our

Country”, From: Forum Scene, www.XINHUANET.com, (2005/09/16).

ZHANG, Chang-sheng (2005). “Work Relations Decide Social Stability”, School of Chinese Communist Party,

Guangdong Province, Nanfang Daily

http://www.gll-gx.org.cn/skl/

http://www.xinhuanet.com/



GROWTH AND SURVIVAL OF THE ENTERPRISE:

A NON-LINEAR RELATIONSHIP

LA CROISSANCE ET LA SURVIE DE L’ENTREPRISE :

UNE RELATION NON LINÉAIRE

Dr Ezzeddine TRIGUI, Maître assistant en sciences de gestion, Ecole supérieure de

Commerce Tunis, Université de la Mannouba, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The relationship between growth and survival has been given a purely economic connotation for a longtime. But

more recently, growth supporters have avoided this apprehension to granted a much broader approach to the

relationship by introducing other multidisciplinary variables. These approaches are inspired from aspects relating to

the leader owner, to the organizational development, the corporate management and to the market. Our issue plans a

questioning of the approaches taken in an isolated manner in order to delimit the relationship between the concepts:

growth and survival of the enterprise. These concepts are part of the strategic management which includes issues

falling under the scope of the main areas of the firm life. So both the theoretical and the practical interest for the

topic is assured. Our contribution in this article is to construct the relational logic between the growth and the

survival of the enterprise. This contribution is based on a criticism of the theoretical approaches so as to improve an

incomplete explanation and to better the understanding. It is reinforced by empirical verification within Tunisian

enterprises

KEY-WORDS: Growth, survival, determinants.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION:

The concepts of growth and survival were approached by several disciplines. Economics has granted then more

interest. If they enjoy a voluminous literature, they lack a theoretical framework overview. This theoretical failure

arises actually from differences of apprehension expressed by followers of growth, enhanced by the multitude of

evaluation methods and the recent attempts of the interpretation of these concepts. These theoretical explanations

have not established a causal link between these concepts. However, the only relationship, expressly stated, is

derived from economic contributions. It assumes that growth is a survival condition for the company sustained

necessarily by investment. But, a company in difficulty means lack of growth, lack of resources, and lack of

capacities... How can such an enterprise keep its steady position on the market with so many problems? These are

the two main questions we arise for our issue.

1-is growth a necessary condition for the survival of the company, according to the classical model?

2-what maintains a firm in survival while its growth is absent?

Moving between theoretical knowledge and observations, we try to link answers in order to identify more factors

determining the relationship between the growth and the survival of the company. Therefore, to achieve these goals

let‟s state to say the two following assumptions:

H1: equipment/financial investment is not the only growth determinant.

H2: growth is not always a key to survival.

Our assignment will be presented in three steps. We will discuss at first growth within different perceptions

theoretical in order to identify the various factors that affect it. (Object of our first assumption). Secondly we will

steady the concept of survival as well as the various factors that determine it, in addition to growth. (Our second

assumption object). Thirdly, referring to the empirical study of a sample of Tunisian companies, we will verify

assumptions.



1. DEFINITION, PERCEPTION AND DETERMINANTS OF GROWTH

COMPANIES:

1.1 Definition of growth:

The study of the literature agrees on a perception of growth as being "a movement of development activity" of the

company. This motion reflects the actual capacity of the company to preserve or enhance its position in market

constituted by hostile forces (depending on the approach of Porter) positioning business.

1.2 Multiple perceptions of growth:

Initially, growth has been apprehended in the purely economic point of view. Then, this concept continues to grab

the attention of other disciplines to occupy an important place in the strategic management and organization.

However, it seems that the extent of these researches remains still limited. It is unable to agree on a single

perception. If growth enthusiasts agree, generally about the result of growth, they are demonstrating differences in

how they are approaching it. Therefore, different axes of growth analysis produce five categories of theoretical

approaches.

1.2.1 Investment centered approaches:

The Keynesian approach advocates the direct relationship between growth and investment in production assets.

Therefore growth is inevitably dependent on investment. But what we first seek to question is rather the weight of

the investment in the determination of growth. We look at the findings of the survey INSEE about the impact of the

rate of investment on that of growth, we observe both the correlation and paradoxes between these two variables.

Indeed, as shown in table 1 below:

Year 1970 1981 1983

Investment rate 18,50% 12,60% 11,60%

Growth rate 5,70% 1,20% 1 ,40%

TABLE 1, source: article without investment not growth.

The correlation is demonstrated after a decrease in the rate of investment in 1981, resulting in a decrease of 4.5%.

Besides, the paradox lies in the case of a reduction of 1% between 1981 and 1983, the rate of investment,

corresponding to an increase of 0.2% growth rate. These two situations make us doubt of the absolute validity of the

classical theory in the matter. Therefore, there are inevitably other variables that determine growth apart from

investment. We should perhaps update this traditional approach.

1.2.2 approach related to executive owners:

This approach selects characteristics of the leader, which are likely to influence the growth process. These

characteristics concern the intrinsic behavior of the leader (Woywode and Lessat, 2001; Delmar, 1997), his

education, his type of training (Woywode and Lessat, 2001; Jake, 2000), his experience and skills (Littunen and

Tohmo, 2003; Jake, 2000).

1.2.3 Approach related to organizational development :

This approach combines theories based on models of stages of development, by referring to: executive owner goals

(OECD, 2002; Jake, 2000; Kolvereid, 1992), models of the stages of companies‟ growth (Mitra and Pingali, 19991;

Churchill and Lewis, 1983) and research on the influence of networks (Littunen and Tohmo, 2003; OECD, 2002;

Mustar, 2001; Jake, 2000).



1.2.4 the management-centric approach :

This approach emphasizes the elements the management process as factors that could influence the growth process.

In fact, the work of Becchetti and Trovato (2002), of Mustar (2001) and Jake (2000) emphasize the availability of

resources as a factor affecting the process of growth; Julien works (2000) underline the influence of operational and

strategic planning on the growth of the company; the work of Littunen and Tohmo (2003), OECD (2002), Calvo and

Lorenzo (2001), of Mustar (2001), Woywode and Lessat (2001) and Jake (2000) point to the impact of the strategic

guidelines of the leader on the process of growth; Julien works (2000) insisted on the level of flexibility as a factor

influencing the growth enterprise.

1.2.5 approach linked to the market :

Some work has focused on the environmental aspects that may influence the process of growth. Indeed, we note:

constraints and sectorial issues determining the growth process; structure of the industry affecting the companies

growth. (Calvo and Lorenzo, 2001; Woywode and Lessat, 2001; Almus and Nerlinger, 1999); the potential growth

of different types of businesses (Delmar, Davidsson and Gartner, 2003; Littunen and Tohmo, 2003). These multiple

approaches explored the probable influence of variables other than the investment on the growth process. A census

of different determinants of growth based on the approaches is useful to our problem.

1.3 Research on the growth determinants:

At this level we can simply identify characteristics of the leader as well as those of the enterprise that might

influence the pace of business growth.

1.3.1 the characteristics of the leader:

"The company is often regarded as an extension of his personality" Mc Mahon and Forsaith (1996); this statement

illustrates the importance of the impact of personal features of the leader on the company's growth strategy. These

features called "the executive human capital" comprise age, training, and experience Woywode and Lessat, (2001)

the leader and "personal goals of leader-owners" that necessarily integrate in the strategic choices of the business

growth. A part from the “human capital”, the objectives of the leader determine the growth trend of the company;

because Kolvereid, (1992) belongs to him. If the values of the decision of growth seem conclusive, the intrinsic

characteristics of the company are also significant growth factors leader.

1.3.2 the characteristics of the company:

The summary of studies undertaken in the apprehension of the process of growth can be summed up through the

size of the company. The research resulted in contradictory results concerning the relationship between growth

and the size of the enterprise. Indeed, if conclusions at the outset, stressed an independence between the size of the

enterprise and the growth rate (Hart and Paris, (1956); Pashigian and Hymer, (1962); Bonini and Simon, (1958);

Chesher, (1979), others have found the opposite affirming the existence of a negative relationship between the size

and the growth rate of the company. Besides, adecision of growth cannot succeed and be maintained if it is not

supported by a human resource integrated in this process and characterized by a better qualification, competence,

motivation and profit-sharing, Saint-stone and Mathieu, 2003; Mustar, 2001. Together, these business characteristics

constitute an engine of growth and flexibility potential to better its position on the market. At on other level, that

innovation is an essential factor to improve adaptability capacities and the flexibility of a business. Indeed, several

studies have proven that this innovative capacity, i.e. in price and processes, is a growth track. This growth would be

much bigger than that of a company without this ability, Crepon and Lung 19991. Therefore, we say that innovation

stimulates growth, Saint-stone and Mathieu, 2003; Calvo and Lorenzo, 2001; Jake, 2001.

In conclusion, we have well-defined, initially, growth through theories and with its various determinants. We have

emphasized the invalidity of the old templates in any time and any structure. As among other things, to analyze our

first assumption which calls into question uniqueness of investment in the determination of the growth? In the

second paragraph we will answer the questions that arise through our second assumption: growth is not always

driving survival.



2. WHAT IS THE RELATION BETWEEN GROWTH AND SURVIVAL?

The owner-leader tends to favour the survival of his business on its growth. He combines the growth with a risky

situation which may cause the dilution of his asset. He may consider the growth to the extent that it does not

preclude the autonomy and sustainability of his business, (the Cornu, et al, 1996). The balance sheet of the company

tells us if the company is in recession (poverty) or growth (enrichment). In both cases, the company may be

considered in survival. Therefore, "survive" is the fact that a company is still alive in spite of threats of ending.

The company undergoing environmental hazards and the assault of competition behaves as a victim, justifying its

position of decay. It is a pessimistic perception of survival. Besides, one-dimensional and multidimensional

approach disagreed on how to approach the survival of the company. Indeed, while the multidimensional approach

rejects survival study based on a single variable, one-dimensional approach isolates the reserve variable as a

guaranteed for the business survival.

On an other level, by incorporating the time variable, we distinguish two approaches of survival.. Enterprise short-

term survival is motivated by the adoption of the enterprise of a policy fighting the causes that led the company to

difficulties namely an unfavourable environment and a marked incompetence. This strategic implementation

succeeds despite the maximum exploitation of the company resources and sometimes allowing the destruction or the

decrease of these resources. While the short-term business survival is ensured in spite of a premature destruction of

resources, the long-term survival should be increasingly supported by additional resources difficult to obtain

probably insufficient to allow a definitive reversal of the situation. So, under this approach, the question of survival

becomes more and more problematic.

2.2 The key determinants of the company survival:

Study of this paragraph is essentially based on the answer to this question: why have some companies managed to

perpetuate their activity while others failed? We need to identify the factors that determine the survival of the

company and verify the relationship between growth and survival.

The health of the enterprise depends on the profile of its creator, Bonneau and Francoz, 1995; Bruderl et al., 1992;

Storey, 1994; Cressy, 1996. Indeed the age between 39 and 49 helps the company to thrive, unlike the ages outside

of this range, characterized by the lack of experience and excessive rigidity. The study states that it is easier for a

graduate business creator to ensure the sustainability of the project. Besides, several studies have shown that the

strategic positioning of the company is a survival engine: a larger market and a larger number of customers strongly

influence the sustainability of the project. On other level, access to disposable and potential financial resources and

potential reinforces the strategic responsiveness of the business. It provides the tools needed to increase the

probability for survival of the company. However, those who suffer a limitation of access to external financing or

those that start without external financing are vulnerable, De Meza and Webb, 1998

2.3 Comparison between growth and survival:

Interactive logic between growth and survival is supposed positive: growth leading to survival which nourishes, in

its turn growth, survival is not always true. The dynamism of this relationship is done under the contractor's personal

choice and depends on the circumstances of the moment. Hence, It is not a matter of two dynamics resulting from

one another as supported by the neoclassical. The theoretical debate on this matter is based on divergent points of

view. However, it there is a perfect balance between the predominance of the environment on the dynamics of our

concepts. Whatever its degree of development, and its health, the business is exposed, significantly, to any

environmental movement. At the end of this paragraph, let‟s emphasize that exaggerated assistance of public

authorities in favour of firms in difficulty, creates a special, sometimes bizarre relationship between survival and

growth. This relationship will be the topic of the following paragraph. In which we will define a new approach to

growth which is better suited to the current context.



2.4 Growth threatens the survival of the enterprise?

The major issues to focus on are: the true correlation between survival and growth? Is it interesting to grow quickly

in order to survive? What unpredictable or binding factors could prevent growth?

The leader adopts a fearful and careful approach to the risk of endangering the survival of his firm. This attitude is

opposed to that of a rational leader seeking the continuity of his firm. Therefore the "no growth", resulting in a will

often not expressed by the business owner to stop the growth of his turnover, and of recruitment, may be his goal.

We agree here with the governance theory which explains this attitude as being the result of fear of the dilution of

the property of the change of decision-making processes, of the nuisance to the independence and the autonomy of

business leaders. Facing growth, the company encounters more and more urgent financial obligations. In case

growth reaches a sufficiently high level or a fast pace the may become unable to get necessary funds and incapable

of keeping up with the speed of growth resulting in incapacity to assure the growth.

In conclusion, the theoretical debate reveals that growth is necessarily a condition of survival for organizations as

the classic model advocated. Moreover, still later, its mismanagement is a threat to the desired sustainability. The

safest way is to identify different determinants, other than growth, which are likely to affect the survival of the

company.

3. GROWTH AND SURVIVAL OF THE COMPANY: EMPIRICAL

APPROACH:

We are beginning the empirical part, but we focus mainly on our problem to verify the questioning of old theories of

growth, demonstrating that the investment variable that has long interested the authors is the single factor explaining

the growth and survival of the business process.

First, we selected a sample of ten companies containing two categories, namely five companies among the industry

leaders and five others in difficulty. Then we tried to raise the key figures of these companies over the past five

years (2002-2008). This period seemed interesting to us because it was then that we started feeling the effects of the

crisis (statistical dismiss of companies in this sector). Therefore to collect the required data, a questionnaire was sent

to these companies. The topics were:

1-the General Organization of the business enterprise

2-the business environment its structure its technology

3-the strategic positioning of the company

4-The stimulating factors and the growth hinders

Responses were, given by companies‟ executives with 60% of accountants and 40% of Heads of management

department.

We synthesize all collected data in tables 2 and the following summary. Different responses are presented as a

percentage, depending on whether business is one of those growing or those in difficulty.

Type of business with growth in difficulty

Characteristic of the enterprise :

person legal

age less than 25 years

age between 25 and 49 years

age more than 50 years

100%

-

20%

80%

100%

-

60%

40%

Start up

Take over

forwarding company

20%

-

80%

-

20%

80%

50-250 employees

more than 250 employees

100%

-

20%

80%



Strategic position: scope of the market :

local

regional

national

overseas

international

-

-

40%

-

60%

40%

60%

-

-

-

TABLE 2 Summary of collected data


Customer type :

Administration

small business

large private companies

-

-

100%

-

60%

40%

Number of partners :

None

1 or more

-

100%

100%

-

Outsourcing activity :

Yes

Annex

No

40%

60%

-

-

60%

40%

Intention of recruitment :

Yes

No

can be

-

-

100%

-

80%

20%

Strategic approach :

surveying

advertising

promotion (price)

Patent / license

customer redemption

no strategic approach

-

-

20%

60%

20%

-

-

-

100%

-

-

-

Evolution reasons :

external constraints/obstacles

internal constraints

market opportunity

no evolution

40%

-

60%

-

60%

40%

-

-

Means of financing:

credit

cash flow

-

100%

100%

-

Aid or subsidies :

Yes

No

-

100%

80%

20%

Financial arrangements :

activity by debt financing

activity by joint financing

equity financing

-

60%

40%

80%

-

20%

TABLE 2 (continued), collected data synthesis



TABLE 2 (continued), collected data synthesis

This table 2 gives a clear and organized view all of the interest factors by ranking them in major topics as they have

been treated in theories. Interpretation of these results will finally allow us to reveal the common features of

growing businesses and of those in difficulty according to the factors studied to meet our challenges.

Let's start first, by tracing the relations between the evolution of the investment of VA and the average.

TABLE 3 : average evolution of VA and the investment

According table 3, the evolution of the indicator of growth shows an irregular trend which ends by stabilizing at a

rate of growth of approximately 16% from the 4th year of observation. Furthermore, a relatively low growth rate

has been registered in the second period (3.48%) compared to the rate recorded for the remaining periods. We will

therefore try to explain this variability in growth rates by referring to features emerged from these companies.


Operating constraints :

Opportunities issue

financial difficulties

production cost problems

business internal difficulties

other issues

no problem

-

-

-

20%

20%

60%

-

40%

-

60%

-

-

Diploma :

Higher education degree

training

no diploma

80%

20%

-

100%

-

-

Previous qualification :

Executive

firm management

employed

no activity

20%

60%

20%

-

40%

-

60%

-

Motivation :

conception

entrepreneurship

job offer

job‟s search

-

20%

80%

-

80%

20%

-

-

Entrepreneurial background :

family

relatives

no one

-

40%

60%

20%

-

80%

Earlier creation :

none

100%

100%

years Average evolution

of added value

Evarage e volution

of investments

1 - -

2 10,53 % 12,04%

3 3,48 % 5,72%

4 16,4 % 16,85%

5 16,41 % 10,59%



First, we believe that it would be interesting to trace the evolution of investment undertaken by these companies to

verify the empirical validity of traditional theories of growth. It may be noted again that the evolution of investments

is not stable from one period to another. It moves from 12% up to 5, 72% then up to16,85%. However, the intensity

of investments decreased during the last period to end with 10, 59%. This point of developments will be the largest

in our study because it is paradoxically accompanied by a stabilization of rates of growth at the same level as the

previous period. (See table 3). This encourages us to consider the reasons which led to maintain companies‟ growth

at such a high rate despite the considerable reduction of investment rates. Indeed, the division of investments in

tangible investment and intangible investment allows us to reach a first explanation to our poll. A significant

proportion of intangible investments in total investment incurred by companies during the fourth period justify the

previous phenomenon. It seems that the total investment rate declined during this period, the rate of growth is

maintained thanks to the importance of intangible dimension of investment. Indeed, the proportion of intangible

investment rose to reach20.6% of total investment. Therefore, this general observation of the evolution of all the

companies reveals the first important element to meet a part of our first assumption tangible investment is not the

only determinant of growth.

On other level, 80% of respondents have been a transfer of companies against 20% between a start up and a business

take over. Which should however be noted is the category of take over exists only among companies in difficulty.

While start up category exists among companies in growth, especially higher growing companies. Furthermore,

60% of young companies include a firm in difficulty, which has not yet reached the stage of maturity. Although this

business is growing, it found itself in difficulties because it has been surprised by the amplitude of its growth and

failed to handle it.

As for growing businesses, their support for such a situation is limited to a prior schedule, to an eventual recruitment

to increase production and progressive financing needed for this growth. It is limited to a few steps required to

achieve its development. But sustained growth remains ignored or even unknown by decision-markers of these

companies to optimize their growth and perpetuate their projects. Finally, we'll discuss major organizational,

structural and financial changes to be implemented so as to conclude this work.

GENERAL CONCLUSION:

Our theoretical research and our empirical study allowed us to review three important points relating to the growth

and survival of the company.

As a first step, the questioning of classical theories allowed us to draw the limit of the impact of tangible investment

on growth. The conclusion is that tangible investment namely purchase of production goods is not the exclusive key

to growth. It is certainly demonstrated that investment improves managerial capacities of the enterprise (improve its

technology, its productive capacities...), but when the company reaches its critical size, it becomes unnecessary to

invest in machines. However, investment should not be focused on the purely material aspects and should rather be

geared towards the immaterial, such as: R&d, innovation, improving the working conditions, the motivation of

employees, the purchase of patent and license... In short, to invest in any factor increasing the position of the firm on

the market on the level of product and production as wellas on the level of structure and organization. Because all

that is material is imitable and provisional. Therefore, growth depends on a very broad set of factors likely to

stimulate or hinder it.

The second very important point is that the survival of the enterprise does not depend not only on its growth. Indeed,

it dependents on a set of factors suitable to extend its longevity or hinder its sustainability.

To conclude let‟s note that the mismanagement of growth poses a threat to business unless a strong growth strategy

is implemented.

A question still needs answering. Indeed, in the case of financial barriers, public aid to creation and restructuring

measures promote the survival of companies, but seem to penalize their growth. 8o % of surveyed companies

benefit from public aid for the creation and restructuring. Aid can indeed enable these companies with low growth

potential to survive - beyond the average of life expectancy of non-assisted companies with the same profit. It may



also cause an endogenous selection of projects non-parformant, and this despite the public help filtering

mechanisms. In this respect, Duguet Crépon in their recent analyses consider that public aid to organizations

strengthens their capital and encourage entrepreneurs to take less risky initiatives resulting in a longer life for the

business. Public aids for the creation do not therefore aim at boosting growth, but rather at extending the life

expectancy of businesses. On the other hand, companies that do not benefit of these aids will be at risk of

disappearing. In fact, the motivation of these aids is creation and safeguard of labour.

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A CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH TO LEARN A PROGRAMMING

LANGUAGE

APPRENDRE UN LANGAGE DE PROGRAMMATION AVEC UNE

APPROCHE CONSTRUCTIVISTE

Lucila PEREZ, PhD, Universidad Casa Grande, Ecuador, [email protected]

Dolores ZAMBRANO, M Ed, Universidad Casa Grande, Ecuador,

[email protected]

Mariuxi ZEA, M Ed, Universidad Técnica de Machala, Ecuador, [email protected]

ABSTRACT One of the main challenges of higher education institutions is to graduate professionals with the required knowledge

and skills to compete successfully in the labor market. In the information systems domain, professionals must be

able to design and build systems based on business or users needs. In order to develop students‟ competencies, it is

required to apply teaching and learning processes different to traditional ones, where students must be engaged in

real world situations to develop information systems using computer languages, such as Visual FoxPro.

A literature review shows that programming is a complex process, where students have to know not only a

programming language but also to solve problem situation and develop creative solutions. Several researchers claim

that constructivist strategies could improve the programming language learning process.

Applying a mixed approach, an action-research study was developed to demonstrate that a constructivist strategy

could facilitate students develop the professional competencies required in their field of work. The sample size was

34 information systems students from an Ecuadorian university and the research design was a pretest-posttest single

group. The results were analyzed by applying a Paired Sample T-test to the variables Individual Performance and

Group Performance. The findings show that constructivist methods did improve students´ learning outcomes.

KEY-WORDS: Problem Based Learning, Collaborative Learning, Action Research,

Constructivist Strategies, Pedagogical Innovation.



A CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH TO LEARN VISUAL FOXPRO

1. INTRODUCTION

In Ecuadorian universities, frequently, information systems teachers have no previous studies in pedagogy and their

learning experiences were based on traditional lecture classes, which are now the methods they use to teach. As a

result, teachers focus more on programming language codes and strategies to develop information systems and they

are not concern about teaching and learning methodologies to facilitate the integration of students‟ previous

knowledge with the new subjects they are studying to improve students‟ performance. Repetition, codes

memorization, individual work and feedback to correct wrong answers are the activities developed during classes,

which are based on the cognitive theory and knowledge fragmentation by subjects (Bandura, 1997). In this teaching

model, the teacher is the protagonist who knows, explains, sets rules, selects contents and states conditions. On the

other hand, the student is limited to listen, follow order and repeat; he is a reservoir of a certain amount of

information that will use to take a test, but he is not well prepared for a professional performance in the labor world

(Figl, 2010).

The use of constructivist strategies to teach programming languages is a new methodology that researchers and

practitioners are experimenting to facilitate learning and improve performance of students; however, research results

about this area is limited.

This research is a first approach to explore and explain how constructivist pedagogy can help students to learn

programming languages and develop information systems. A pedagogical innovation is proposed to redefine the

course of Programming I, which focus on teaching students Visual FoxPro language and tools. It is expected that

with this innovation, the student will be able to construct his own knowledge (Piaget, 1969) starting from what he

already knows to relate it with the new knowledge he is learning, meanwhile using real problems from the labor

world (Huang et al., 2010; Goel & Kathuria, 2010), and confronting with his pairs opinions and ideas, in a way that

it has some meaning for him (Vygotski, 1985), and allowing him to develop the competencies needed for his future

profession.

2. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS AND RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

The learning process is an intentional act of acquiring knowledge and developing competencies where students and

teachers are the main components. Learning produces a behavior change, which is an intern, voluntary and

conscious act that involves a lot of professional work and time to obtain it. The objective is to encourage students to

be responsible of their professional growth.

Learning must be related to students‟ interest so that they can assimilate knowledge and apply it to real world

situations. As a result, learning must face students to real problems from their professional contexts and teach them

how to use textbooks as guides to adapt theories to practice (Huang et al., 2010).

In Information Systems undergraduate programs, the main objective is to confront students with problems related to

their professional context because they have to be able to develop computer programs from a problem situation

using appropriate tools and equipments such as software, hardware, database, and so on, by integrating them in a

computerized solution that meets users‟ needs (Figl, 2010).

2.1 Information Systems Development

An information system is compound for several elements that allow information automation and, in a limited sense,

this expression is used to name a “….a personal computer with its software” (Whitten, 2008). Software is defined as

the set of computer programs, procedures, rules, documents and data that are elements of an information system.



The System Life Cycle traditional approach to develop information systems is a conceptual model based on five

stages: Analysis, Design, Development, Testing and Documentation. It facilitates the construction of feasible and

efficient proposals to solve a problem, where the programming language plays an important role because it is the

tools developers use to translate the solution written on a paper in software that meets users‟ needs (Whitten, 2008).

Developing programs is an action to solve problems. The ability to resolve problems is not obtained by practicing

“solving problems”; it requires a set of planned activities that assure students a meaningful learning process. In this

way, when students face a problem, it is expected they understand it by reading the information given, identify the

main data, state the results they want to obtain, determine the unknown key factor, select and decide the activities to

do, decompose the problem in small pieces, carry out each operation, find the same result in a different approach

and verify the is accurate (Goel & Kathuria, 2010).

2.2 Constructivism

Knowledge construction is one of the most mysterious and complex problem that has been faced by human beings,

and has been object of philosophical concern since men have started to reflect about their own selves. Knowledge is

not the result of a copy of a preexisting reality; it is a dynamic and interactive process through which external

information is interpreted and re-interpreted by the mind which goes constructing progressively explicative models

more complex and powerful each time (Stone, 2005).

Constructivism emerges an innovative proposal based on the research work of Ausubel, Barlett, Bruner, Dewey,

Piaget and Vygotski, among others. Its postulates state that each person constructs learning according to his

experiences, mental structures and beliefs, forming a set of conceptions about how understand and know something,

which allows to design learning environments where exists relationship between previous experiences and the new

learning (Dede, 2008),.

The constructivism principles define learning as a process that occurs in the interaction of learners with the

environment where they operate (Piaget, 1969). According to Vygotski (1985), learning is obtained during the social

and cultural interaction, influenced by a guided discovery, models, training, previous knowledge, beliefs and

thoughts. Subsequently, the possibility of a person to learn in a social environment, his own knowledge and others

people‟s experience is what facilitates learning.

Teaching for understanding, problem-based learning, and collaborative learning are grounded in constructivism

philosophy and attempt to facilitate the social construction of learning. They are powerful learning strategies used to

develop real world learning environments.

2.2.1. Teaching for Understanding

Several studies have been done in pedagogy to develop new teaching strategies to help information systems teachers

to improve students´ learning, such as the Zero Project, which is based on the teaching for understanding pedagogy

(Stone, 2005), and it created communities of reflexive and independent students.

In the teaching for understanding approach, the teacher encourages students to construct their own knowledge

conception, which is the capacity to use their knowledge in diverse ways. In other words, teaching for understanding

is a pedagogical strategy that involves students in performances of understanding. It is possible to evaluate the

student‟s understanding about a domain just observing his performance on situations where he must apply his

knowledge about it (Stone, 2005).

Understanding performances are students‟ actions that show their comprehension about an issue and based on it

they have the capacity of doing other actions such as explain, demonstrate, give examples, generalize, state

analogies, and present again the same issue in a new way. In summary, a student evidences understanding about a

subject when it is able of applying what he knows in an innovative manner (Gorbaneff, 2006).

In order to get students‟ understanding, teachers have to review students‟ previous knowledge so that they can

associate it with the new problem they face, and as a result they can construct new knowledge and use it as a



spotlight to present efficient solutions to new situations in any context (Piaget 1969;Vygotski, 1985). Furthermore,

in this understanding process, identifying mistakes and learning from them is very useful because learning is a

permanent process and a mistake is an opportunity to understand actual comprehension and eventually modify it.

Oviedo (2002), in his study about Programming Languages Teaching, explains that programming is difficult, more

over when there is no difference between codifying a program and solving the problem that is the basis for this

codification. It is important that students first learn to develop a logical solution of the problem and then the details

about punctuations and syntaxes required by programming languages. According to Levine (2001), in the

programming cycle, the codification represents only one of the steps after the logical design phase and it allows

writing a set of commands in terms of a programming language that will be used by a computer.

Considering that the programming language is a complex process, researchers and practitioners are constantly

looking for new approaches to facilitate and improve students‟ learning. Papert (1981), among others, states that

learning a programming language based on constructivism strategies, such as teaching for understanding, help a

student to improve his learning process.

2.2.2. Problem Based Learning

Problem Based Learning (PBL) is defined as a “learning strategy based on the principle of using problems as a start

point to acquire and incorporate new knowledge” (Masek & Yamin, 2010), where the main actors of the learning

process are students, who assume the responsibility of being active participants.

It is assumed that the ABP approach may renew the zone of proximal development (ZPD), which is defined by

Vygostky (1985) as the imaginary distance between real development level (capacity of learning by own self) and

the potential development level of a person (capacity of learning with the support of others). The extent of the ZPD

limits the impact of instruction actions so that education must begin at the level of students‟ effective development

to help them to improve their learning, rise above their limits and create new knowledge.

The PBL teaching and learning strategy explains that knowledge is actively created by students that meet each

others to work in small groups, guided by a professor to analyze and solve selected problems to get some specific

learning objectives. During this process, students learn the knowledge related with the course they are taking and, in

addition, understand the importance of collaborative work, develop skills to analyze and summarize information,

and make commitment on their own learning (Morales & Landa, 2004; Vygotsky, 1985).

Based on the PBL method, the teacher guides students, identifies what they need to learn in order to better

understand a problem in which they are working, and looks for the information needed to allow them to find a

solution (Gorbaneff, 2006). The problem presented to students must be interesting and challenging to motive them

to look for a solution, and complex to require the collaboration of others participants of the group to solve it

efficiently. The level of difficulty has to be controlled by the teacher to avoid students divide the work and limit

their participation just to develop a small piece of it, as it always happens in group activities (Masek & Yamin,

2010)

PBL approach is valuable to promote the development of generic abilities such as team work, information research,

planning, coordination and organization. The problem solving strategy is closely related to collaborative work

because the knowledge construction in both methods is based on the interaction and synergetic work of participants.

2.2.3. Collaborative Learning

Researchers state that, independent of the domains they are studying, students learn best when they are actively

involved in small groups of work, and define this approach as collaborative learning (Goel & Kathuria, 2010).

The ACADOO software, which is based on collaborative work, was designed to help students to understand object

oriented analysis and design to develop information systems. This application, besides allowing the design of a

problem solution, help students to communicate and share doubts and expectations by chatting (Muñoz et al., 2005),

In the same manner, Redondo (2003) had combined collaborative learning and PBL methods in a software to help



students understand a problem and solve it by interacting with their peers and the teacher guidance. Furthermore,

other reseachers working with the same approach confirmed that students who work in group guided by their teacher

to solve specific problems become active learners and builders of their own knowledge (Huang et al., 2005).

Researchers and practitioners are applying diverse constructivism approaches to improve programming language

learning, and help information systems novices develop the abilities and skills they need. It is recommended to

combine several constructivist strategies to create a synergetic effect on the programming language learning process

due to the complexity and difficulty of the programming work. Even though, there are some evidences about the

benefits of constructivist strategies to improve learning, there are still several concerns about the magnitude of its

impacts on information systems students‟ performance.

Based on a constructivist framework, this research states the following question: The use of a pedagogical

innovation anchored in Problem-Based Learning (PBL) and collaborative learning approaches improve students‟

performance?

3. PEDAGOGICAL INNOVATION DESCRIPTION

In a constructivist class, students are encouraged to work with active techniques such as experiments, team solving

problems, and so on, using data from real world activities. Based on these considerations, a pedagogical innovation

was developed to motivate students to participate actively in their learning process working on real world data and

reflecting on their own experience to construct their new knowledge.

In contrast with the traditional course, which focused mainly on programming language syntax and codes, the

innovated course was based on understanding goals (Stone, 2005), and aimed to teach students to develop an

information system using the Visual Fox Pro language based on the Information Systems Life Cycle Development

method. In this way, students could incorporate their previous knowledge about information system development

process and programming logic to develop a system, starting from scratch to obtain a complete system with its

required manuals and documents.

The new course structure was composed of five Units and each unit had an understanding goal related with a phase

of the system development life cycle. Moreover, each unit had a specific number of sessions in function of the

complexity and amount of work to be done. In order to get the understanding goals, two kinds of activities were

implemented: a) Information Systems Cases to promote individual and team work, and b) Information Systems

Projects to consolidate team work in a real world business environment. The Table Nº 1 illustrates the five units of

the course, its understanding goals, cases and PBL activities, and the manner they interconnect each other.



TABLE 1 – Course Structure

In the cases strategy, two kinds of cases were used: cases that focused a particular step of the information system

development process and a case which covered the whole information systems development process. The first types

of cases were used to help students to develop solving problem skills and team work skills. Students were assigned

these cases as homework to read and solve them individually, and then they had to present their results to their study

group, exchange ideas, discuss and got a consensus for the group solution to be explained in classes. The second

type of case was developed as team work covering one step of the IS development cycle each unit. The purpose of

this experience was to prepare students for the project activities they were developing simultaneously in a business

organization.

In the Information System development project approach, at the beginning of the semester, each student selected a

business organization, determined its needs and proposed an information system, which was built using Visual Fox

Pro language and based on knowledge and strategies studied in classes.

4. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

The following research hypotheses were stated:

H1: Problem-Based Learning (PBL) approach improves Performance of Programming I-course students.

H2: Collaborative Learning (CL) approach enhances Performance of Programming I-course students.

Based on the postulates of Perkins (1997), Performance was defined as the combination of Knowledge, Skills and

Motivation. This research focused only on knowledge and skills, not on motivation, considering that it is a

moderated variable which could be similar in the whole group.

Understanding Goals (TFU) Case Name (CL) Project Activities

UNIT I: Manual vs

Automated Systems

Understand when and why a

problem must be analized before the

process automation

*Century Tool and Die, inc.

* Beck Electronic Supply

Analysis, description,

organization and specification of

problem data and processes

UNIT III: System

Development

Understand how to integrate the

analysis and design documentation

to develop a system based on Object

Oriented Programming

* Wholesale Cost - Plus

* Richard & Sons, Inc.


Develop modular and integrated

programs to input date and get

expected results

UNIT IV: System

Implementation and

Test

Understand programming logic and

syntax

* Precious Jewels, Inc


Organize a tests and

debugging/troubleshooting

database of programming logic

UNIT V: System

Documentation

Understand the importance of

documenting a system to assure its

future update and maintenance

* Beck Electronic Supply Write system manuals for end-

users and programmers

Table Nº 1. Course Structure

UNIT II: System

Interface Design

* Shuster and Petrie, Inc


State differences between a friendly

system and a complex system

Design and development of a

graphic interface and a system

data base

Note. * Cases taken from the book Systems Analysis and Design Methods (Whitten, 2008).



TABLE 2 - Operationalization of the Dependent Variable

The Knowledge indicator is the knowledge of facts, rules, principles and procedures that are required for successful

performance. The Skills indicator has the following components: reading comprehension (RC), critical thinking

(CT), logical reasoning (LR), and creativity (C).

4.1. Subjects

A Visual Fox Pro course was offered to Information Systems Engineering students at the Technical University of

Machala, in Ecuador. A total of 68 students were registered to this course and organized in two groups, 34 subjects

in each one. A group attended morning classes and the other attended evening classes. For this experiment the

morning group was selected considering that the percentage of absence was lower at this time, which helped to

avoid loosing participants during the semester.

The participants were students from the fifth semester who have previously taken courses on structured

programming languages, such as C++ and Java, but they have not taken courses on object oriented programming

languages, such as Visual Fox Pro.

4.2. Experimental Settings

A pedagogical innovation was implemented in a computer lab setting at the Information Systems building of the

Technical University of Machala, Ecuador. The action-research methodology was used to explore and reflect on

teachers´ pedagogical strategies to teach a programming language in order to improve the learning process.

The pre-experimental design for this study was a single group pretest-posttest. Its goal was to determine the effects

of a pedagogical innovation (independent variable) on the performance (dependent variable) of the target group. The

teachers-researchers worked with a convenience sample considering its easy availability to take part in the

experiment and that participants were assigned to groups before the research began. The disadvantages of this

approach are the lack of accuracy due to bias and restricted generalization of results.

The pre-experiment was organized as a regular six-credit course of the Information Systems Program. It consisted of

thirty two sessions of work, three hours per session, and two sessions per week. Two sessions were planned for

individual and group performance testing (pretest and posttest), eleven sessions for team work at the computer lab,

three sessions for Project review (individual work), and sixteen sessions were assigned for field work at business

organizations, where each student developed his final project (Figure Nº1). Each computer lab session was

organized in the following manner: half hour for reviewing the answers of the case questions assigned as homework

(individual work); one-and-a-half hour for team work (practice-case solving and developing Visual Fox Pro

programming codes, and testing at the computer lab); half hour for groups‟ presentations; and half hour for

reflection about groups‟ results and selection of the best solution.

Variable name Operacionalization Indicators Categories Values

Performance * Knowledge Excellent 10 - 9.3

* Skills Very Good 9.2 - 8.5

Good 8.4 - 7.7

Fair 7.6 - 7.1

Fail < 7.1

It was measured by the

changes observed on

students` behaivor as a

result of the intervention

Table Nº 2. Operationalization of the Dependent Variable



FIGURE 1 - Sessions Planning

4.3. Experimental Tasks

Students working in teams solved business cases during computer lab sessions and develop business applications.

The cases were taken from the book Systems Analysis and Design Methods (Whitten, 2008). This book contains a

large set of cases based on real-world situations to facilitate students understanding and skills development about

computer applications to automate or optimize business process and systems, and covers an extensive range of

subjects related with the Information Systems Development strategies and methodologies. The complexity level of

the cases is established by the authors and their solutions are included in the instructor´s manual. Cases‟ solutions

were evaluated with an analytical rubric (Table Nº 3), which objective was to measure the level of knowledge and

skills each group has developed at the end of each unit. Furthermore, cases´ results were verified with the

instructor´s manual solutions.

During the semester, in addition, students developed a computer application based on Visual Fox Pro language

(Final Project). It was an individual work. Each student had to collaborate with a small business and develop an

information system based on its specific needs. At the end of the semester students had to implement the application,

test and improved it if it is necessary. The final project was also evaluated with an analytical rubric.

5. DATA ANALYSIS

The age of participants varies between 20 and 23 years old; 70.6% were male and 29.4% female; and all of them

were full time students, except 8.8% who worked as programmers at business organizations. Moreover, 79.4% were

taken this course for first time and 8.8% for the second time.

6. VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

6.1. Validity

A task-specific analytical rubric was used to evaluate students´ performance during individual and team work. In

order to be valid, an analytical rubric must measure important features of students‟ work, such as ability to use and

apply factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive knowledge based on qualitative performance criteria

(Zazueta & Herrera, 2003). The analytical rubric used is considered task-specific because it was designed to be

applied on particular tasks, solving information systems cases and projects. Table Nº 3 shows a brief version of the

analytical rubric used.



TABLE 3 - Analytical Rubric Sample

6.2. Reliability

A reliable instrument produces comparable results for diverse users. It was applied the interrater reliability approach

to determine the reliability of the analytical rubric because the similarity of raters´ results assure that performance

criteria and scale are clear, appropriate and easy to use (Hittleman & Simon, 2006). Working with a pilot sample of

ten students, it was calculated the Pearson correlation coefficient to verify the consistency of raters‟ evaluations

(Table Nº 4). The calculated r > 0.97 shows a high degree of correlation among raters‟ results.

TABLE 4 - Raters‟ evaluations

Scale Accomplished Satisfactory Unsatisfactory

10 - 9.3 9.2 - 8.5 8.4 - 7.7 7.6 - 7.0 < 7.0

User needsWell identified and

satisfied

Aprox. 75%

identified and

satisfied

Less than 50%

identified and

satisfied

Data DictionaryComplete data

description

Almost all data is

decribed

Data description is

limited

ProcessAppropriate modular

processes

Some processes are

modular designed

Processes are not

modular designed

Variables Sound standarized Some variables are

standarized

Variables are not

standarized

CompositionClearly written and

well organized

Written in

appropiate way but

less organized

Poor written and

unorganized

Content Effective in

conveying ideas

Information is

relevant, but some

details are missing

supporting details

and information are

unclear

Spelling No spelling mistakesFew spelling

mistakes

Several spelling

mistakes

Source: Adapted from Zazueta & Herrera (2003)

Criteria

Interface Design

Report Presentation

Students A B C D E F G H J K

Expert1 7,70 7,93 6,78 8,35 6,50 7,68 8,55 6,95 8,53 7,68

Expert2 7,65 7,63 6,53 7,98 6,53 7,43 8,40 6,65 8,10 7,43

Expert3 7,50 7,78 6,83 7,95 6,63 7,70 8,35 6,90 8,20 7,68

Mean 7,62 7,78 6,71 8,09 6,55 7,60 8,43 6,83 8,28 7,59

Standard

Deviation0,10 0,15 0,16 0,22 0,07 0,15 0,10 0,16 0,22 0,14



7. HYPOTHSES TESTING

7.1. Null Hypothesis One

The first null hypothesis tested was: Problem-Based Learning (PBL) approach did not improve Performance of

Programming I-course students. A Paired Sample T-test was calculated to compare the mean score of pretest and

posttest results of the Individual Performance Variable. The results of the t-test confirm that there is a significant

difference between the mean scores of the pretest and the posttest for the variable examined (Table Nº 5). The

calculated t value is higher than the value of t critic (tc = 1.664), with a df of 33 and a p< 0.001. The pretest has a

mean score of 4.1294 with a standard deviation of 1.96878, and the posttest has a mean score of 7.3294 with a

standard deviation of 1.12695. Based on these results, the null hypothesis one is rejected because the mean score of

the posttest exceeds significantly to the mean score of the pretest.

TABLE 5 - Paired Sample T-Test

The effect size for a Paired Sample t-test was calculated applying the formulas for the indices D and Eta Square. The

D value is 2.579 and the Eta Square value is 0.873 (Table Nº 6), which means that the effect size of the Individual

Performance variable is large (Hittleman & Simon, 2006). The effect size results confirm the significance of the

growth between the pretest score and the posttest score.

TABLE 6 - Effect Size Test

The findings of this experiment confirm the results obtained in previous research works on constructivist approach

to learn a programming language (Gorbaneff, 2006; Morales & Landa, 2004), specifically applying PBL do improve

students performance. As a result, it is possible to conclude that PBL strategy is appropriate to learn a programming

language and must be used by teachers to create learning environments where students can face simulated or real

problems and develop an information system solution.

7.2. Null Hypothesis Two

The second null hypothesis tested was: Collaborative Learning (CL) approach did not improve Performance of

Programming I-course students. A Paired Sample T-test was calculated to compare the mean score of pretest and

posttest results of the Group Performance (TW) Variable. The results of the t-test confirm that there is a

considerable difference between the mean scores of the pretest and the posttest for the variable examined (Table Nº

5). The calculated t value is higher than the value of t critic (tc = 1.664), with a df of 33 and a p< 0.001. The TW

initial has a mean score of 5.6176 with a standard deviation of 1.25565, and the TW final has a mean score of

Performance - Individual 34 15,039 33 p <0,001

Pretest 4,1294 1,96878

Posttest 7,3294 1,12695

Performance - Team Work 34 10,682 33 p <0,001

TW initial 5,6176 1,25565

TW final 8,1765 1,2666

Sig.

(2-tailed) Variable

Number

of casesMean

Standard

Deviation

t

valueDf

D 2,579 1,832

Eta Square 0,873 0,776

Performance

Individual

Performance

Team Work

Effect Size

Indices



8.1765 with a standard deviation of 1.2666. Based on these results, the null hypothesis two is rejected because the

mean score of the TW final is higher than the mean score of the TW initial.

The effect size for a Paired Sample t-test was calculated applying the formulas for the indices D and Eta Square. The

D value is 1.832 and the Eta Square value is 0.776 (Table Nº 6), which means that the effect size of the Group

Performance variable is large (Hittleman & Simon, 2006). The effect size results corroborate the importance of the

increase between the pretest score and the posttest score of the Group Performance (TW) variable.

The experiment results of former studies claim that collaborative learning improves students performance because

they learn best when they are actively involved in small groups of work (Muñoz et al., 2005; Redondo et al., 2002 ),

which is confirmed by this research findings. Based on these results, it is likely to suggest that a constructivist

strategy such as collaborative learning must be applied to facilitate authentic learning based on group activities.

8. CONCLUSIONS

This research presents the experience developed in the Information Systems School at the Technical University of

Machala (Ecuador), where a language programming course was redesigned based on understanding goals and

learning environments grounded in constructivist strategies.

The first research question of this study considered the hypothesis that the use of PBL approach to learn Visual

FoxPro would enhance students´ performance. The results show that there was a relevant rise between the individual

performance pretest and the individual performance posttest. Consequently, the null hypothesis one is rejected. The

second research question considered the hypothesis that CL strategy to learn Visual FoxPro would improve students´

performance. The findings denote that the performance of students increase significantly when they work

collaboratively to solve programming problems. Then, the null hypothesis two is rejected.

Based on the results of this study, it is possible to conclude that constructivist approaches to learn a programming

language do facilitate students´ learning. It was demonstrated that the use of PBL allows students to be more

autonomous in solving problems, improving their capacity for critical thinking, to look for and analyze information

needed to propose a solution and develop an information system. Furthermore, CL strategy builds up students‟ team

work skills and communications abilities.

8.1. Limitations

Considering that this study was based on an action-research design and applied to a specific group under determined

conditions, its results can not be generalized. Furthermore, this experiment was developed with a convenient sample

and without control group, which means that there was not control on the external or intervenient variables that

could affect its results. Thus, it is not possible to assure that the findings of this research could be similar working in

different environments or with other target groups.

8.2. Theoretical and Pedagogical Implications of the Findings

During the last few years, there has been an increasing interest on the application of constructivist methodologies to

teach and learn the information technology domains, specifically in the programming languages area. This research

develops an accurate technique to learn a programming language combining constructivist strategies to improve the

individual and group performance of information systems students using classroom settings to simulate business

problems and real world situations at business organizations to face students with real information systems

problems. As a result, experiential learning based on constructivist environments help students to transfer

knowledge and skills developed in academic settings to real business situations.

The pedagogical implications of these conclusions are that Information Technology instructors and teachers could

enrich learning environments using constructivist approaches to learn programming languages and avoid traditional

techniques based on code programming language memorization that limits students‟ engagement and motivation.



REFERENCES

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Information Technology Education. Vol. 9, 183-196.

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HUANG, I., HWANG, G. & YANG, I. (2010). Optimization of a Cooperative Programming Learning System by

Using a Constructivist Approach. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Computers in Education.

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sumativa. México: Centre d'Estudis Vall de Segó Joaquin Rodrigo.



SERVICE QUALITY AND CUSTOMER SATISFACTION IN SRILANKA

TELECOM

LA QUALITÉ DES SERVICES ET LA SATISFACTION DES CLIENTS

DANS LES TÉLÉCOMMUNICATIONS AU SRILANKA

Puwanenthiren PREMKANTH, Faculty of Management studies and Commerce, University of

Jaffna, Jaffna, Sri Lanka, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The research on service quality and customer satisfaction in Sri Lanka telecom sector undertaken to find out that to

what extent the Service quality influence on the customer satisfaction.Tele communication has become extremely

competition in today‟s world. Service Quality focuses on the needs of the customers in the Communication sector.

The more expansion of Service Quality, services in communication sector creates the more opportunity for new

entrants by satisfying customer needs in proper manner. The finding of the study is, there is positive linear

relationship between the Service Quality and customer satisfaction. Best Service Quality will lead to the high

customer satisfaction. Customers are satisfied through the Service Quality in the Tele Communication sector. The

main favorable factors that are connected regarding Pricing strategy, Improve customer employee relationship,

Introduce new technologies, Improve existing facility in the Srilanka telecom should be carefully noted.

1. INTRODUCTION

This study is based on the services provided by Sri Lanka Telecom and the satisfaction rendered is its customers and

their effects. It is to identify activities which provide satisfaction to the customers by the services provided by the

organization.An organization involved in providing services could attract more customers if it could maintain at a

higher standard its quality and e economy in costs, speed and safety. Much satisfaction could be given through this

consequently the forget of the organization could be achieved. But if there is no efficiency and skill in the providing

of services the idea of customers‟ satisfaction will not be fruitful. Hence this is a ascertain as to how the Sri Lanka

Telecom provides the services and meets satisfactory approval of the customers.

1.1 Research Problem

Does the service of the Sri Lanka Telecom give the satisfaction to its customers?

1.2 Objectives of Study

1. To find out the relationship between service quality and customer satisfaction

2. To find out the factor which determent customer satisfaction

1.3 Significance of the Study

Customer is the main person to be considered for the organizations to achieve their targets. Any organization

wishing to achieve its target should ensure customer satisfaction. The reality of the management is the concern of

the customer as to what they are looking for, about what they are thinking, about what they are desirous and

believes. Hence the organizations should be considered about the consumers‟ actual position, behaviors, their

expectations and environment. It is important for both the consumer and the organization to keep the level of

satisfaction on the provision of services higher than of other organizations. This research help future researcher and

Sri Lanka Telecom, Sri Lanka Telecom Ltd can know its objective and can achieve the it‟s goals and how are the

change its service customers can know Sri Lanka Telecom‟s services. That research in this connection is essential as

every organization is interested in the modern international world to satisfy its customers.



2. EMPIRICAL STUDY

Magnus Söderlund et al (1995) there is analysis Customer Satisfaction and Links to Customer Profitability. This

paper explores links between customer satisfactions; repurchase intentions, purchase behavior, and customer

profitability. The survey was conducted in July 1995. It comprised telephone interviews with randomly selected

customers. The analysis reveals a strong link between customer behavior and customer profitability, while modest

links exist between repurchase intentions and subsequent behavior. Only a weak and non-significant direct link can

be observed between customer satisfaction and customer profitability.

Yap sheau fena et al (-1998) there is analysis service quality and customer‟s satisfaction: - antecedents of customer‟s

re-patronage intentions.This study was designed to examine the relationship between service quality, customer

satisfaction and customer‟s re-patronage intentions in the context of the restaurant industry. The respondents were

377 restaurant patrons who completed the self-administered questionnaire. Pearson Correlation analysis indicated

that service quality and customer satisfaction had a direct positive effect on customer‟s re-patronage intentions.

Multiple Linear Regression highlighted customer satisfaction as a stronger predictor of re-patronage intentions

compared to service quality.

Nor Khalidah Abu (1996) in his study he says analysis Service Quality Dimensions: A Study on Various Sizes of

Grocery Retailers. The slow growth of grocery products in Malaysia since the Asian financial crisis and the influx of

multinational and large scale retailers since early 1990s allow Malaysian consumers to be more selective of their

choice of grocery stores. Smaller grocery stores in Malaysia are seen as offering more personal services but with

inadequate stocks and facilities; a contrast to the larger retailers which are seen as offering better merchandise

choice and public amenities but with standardized and non-personalized services. As grocery retailers are seen as

offering similar products in the store, improving service quality is seen as critical to ensure customer loyalty.

Despite the extensive research on the measures used by consumers to measure service quality in the service sector,

there is lack of empirical studies on it in the retail sector. A need to look into service quality dimensions for each

country is called for, as each country is believed to have its own unique set of quality dimensions. This conceptual

paper identifies the service quality dimensions critical to urban grocery shoppers for small, medium, and large-sized

grocery stores.

A.T. Stewart et al (1995) there is analyzed “ Tracking consumer satisfaction in the united states” based on the

analysis of ASCI results, business often make three common mistakes that lead to lower levels of customer

satisfaction. First, many firms continue to view customer service as a cost rather than as an investment. Second,

firms tend to forget that customer satisfaction is a constantly rising bar. Finally the third, most common mistake is a

firm‟s inability to link customer satisfaction to its bottom line. Some firms still do not see (or fail to appreciate) the

connection. However in customer retention rate translates into a 95% increase in customer net present value.

Dinuku Wijetunga et al (2003) there is analyzed “The customer satisfaction in Srilanka retail banking- The role of

the service quality” this study attempt to identify the determents of customer satisfaction in the Retail banking sector

of Srilanka. The findings indicate that service quality is more important in determining satisfaction than service

features or price of the different service quality dimensions. Relational quality & core services quality are found to

be more important than the other dimension (Empathy & Tangibles) The opinions of top level officers of the

banking sector regarding the important determination of satisfactions are found to be somewhat different to the

findings of the customer survey . Several studies have examined the important of various qualities determining

customer satisfaction (at the overall level) in a retail banking setting. Some of the studies have also examined other

determinants of satisfaction in retail banking.

Antaneo et al (2002) there is analyzed “The important of each „p‟ and classification of different market”. Each

business organization has several aims. But this study tries to explain how the bank achieve it‟s objectives by

increasing the customer orientation. The meaning that marketing mix will yield advantages profits was brought by

Calisan in 1948. Myrkethy in 1996, first he introduced 4 variables in marketing mix. Following Boden in 1964

brought 12 variables in marketing mix. It should be noted in all variables „p‟ is the 1st letter. Generally 4p‟s means

product, place, price, promotion.



Parasuraman et al. (1985) there is looks at perceived quality of service as the difference between customers‟

expectation and their perceptions of the actual service received. Other researchers look at perceived service quality

as an attitude. Arnauld et al., (2002) defined perceived quality “whether in reference to a product or service” as “the

consumers‟ evaluative judgment about an entity‟s overall excellence or superiority in providing desired benefits” (p.

327). Hoffman & Bateson (2001) defines service quality as an attitude “formed by a long-term, overall evaluation of

a performance”. Attitude is defined as “a consumer‟s overall, enduring evaluation of a concept or object, such as a

person, a brand, or a service.”

3.0 CONCEPTUALIZATION FRAMEWORK

3.1 Definition of Key Concepts

Customer Service

Customer service encompasses every thing a company deeps to satisfy its customers and to keep them realize the

greatest possible value from the good and service.

Customer Satisfaction

This is person‟s feelings at pleasures or disappointment resulting from comparing a product‟s perceived

performance in relation to his or her expectation.

Pricing Strategies

Pricing strategies is a strategic. Use to the organization achieving their objectives. Can he use following variables.

• Rate of Return

• Full cost plan

• Marginal

• Price

Improve Customer Employee Relation Ship

Every organization should improve customer employee Relationship. In order to provide better service to customers

satisfy their expectations.

Introduce new technologies

Every organization introduce new technologies in order to provide better service to customer satisfy their

expectation.

E.g:- Sri Lanka telecom service Change into Analog into Digital

Improve exiting Facilities

The organization improve existing facilities in order to provide better service to customer satisfy their expectation.

E.g: Cost reduces

Pricing Strategy

Improve customer employee relationship

Improve existing facilities

Introduce new technology

Better services Customer satisfaction



3.2 Operationalization

Concept Variables Indicator Measure

Customer service Pricing strategy

Improve customer

employee relationship

Introduce new technologies

Improve existing facility

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Customer

satisfaction Motive for new connection

Behavior

Stability with originations

Regular payment

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

3.3 Hypothesis

The research falls following Hypothesis in research manner;

H1:- The higher Perceived quality the higher the Customer Satisfaction

H2:- The lower the Perceived Quality the Lower the Customer Satisfaction

3.4 Research Sample

It used questionnaires to collect information in order to evaluate the customer service, customer satisfaction which is

being provided by Sri Lanka telecom Ltd in Sri Lanka. Among the telecom contributor call area. Therefore my

research will be issued to different types of customers will be used to different type of customers according their

proportion in this area.

3.5 Data collection techniques

Data are independence for any research there could be collected in two ways.

They are.

1. Primary data

II. Secondary data

3.6 Methods of analysis

Various method are utilized to analyze the varies method information derived from this study.

1. Correlation analysis

2. Regression analysis

4.0 CUSTOMER SATISFACTION ACCORDING TO THE AGE.

Age

range

Respondents

(high)

Percentage Respondents(low) Percentage Total Percentage

15-29 15 16.48% 30 32.96% 45 49.45%

30-44 08 8.79% 16 17.58% 24 26.37%

45-49 07 7.69% 07 7.69% 14 15.38%

Over60 - - 08 8.79% 08 08.79%

Total 30 32.96% 61 67.02% 91 100%



On the basis of information obtained from questionnaires age distribution are 15 – 29, 30 – 44, 45 – 59 and over 60.

There are 15%, 8% and 7% samples are satisfied in high level and 30% 16% 7% and 8% of samples are satisfied in

low level.Here 15-29, 30-44, 45-59 and over 60 age range consist of 15,8,7 respondent in high level satisfaction and

30,16,7,8 respondents in low level satisfaction. As for as the over all 30 respondents are satisfied (33%) in 15 – 29

age range.

4.1 Customer satisfaction according to Gender

Gender high Low Total

Respondents Percentage Respondents Percentage Respondents Percentage

Male 22 24% 42 46% 64 70%

Female 09 10% 18 20% 27 30%

Total 31 34% 60 66% 91 100%

According to above table 4.5 22 male and 09 female are satisfied in high level. 47 male and 18 female are satisfied

in lower level. There 20% of male and 10% of female are satisfied in high level. 46% of male and 20% of female

are satisfied lower level.

4.2 Customer satisfaction according to their Profession

Profession High Percentage Low Percentage Total Percentage

Respondents Percentage Respondents Percentage Respondents Percentage

Farmers 03 3% 05 05% 08 09%

Business Men 10 11% 22 24% 32 35%

Wages earners 02 02% 03 03% 05 05%

Government

officers

12 13% 24 26% 36 40%

Others 04 04% 06 07% 10 11%

Total 31 33% 60 65% 91 100%

People doing various types of occupation have been interviewed. Due to similarities between their occupations.

Researcher have categories them as farmer, business man, wage, varies about officers and others. It is shown above

table On the basis of information obtained from questionnaires no of categories occupation of 8 farmers, 32 business

man, 5 wage carrier 36 officers and 10 others. There are consist of 9% of farmer, 35% of business man, 5% of wage

carriers, 40% of govt. officers, and 11% of others in total sample. It is shown about table There are 03 farmers, 10

business man 02 wages carriers 2 govt. officers and 4 others are satisfied in high level. 5, 22, 3, 24 and 6

respondents are satisfied in lower level. There are 3% of farmers, 11% of business man, 2% of wage earners 13%

of govt officers of satisfied in high level. 5%, 24%, 3%, 26%, & 7% of respondents an satisfied in lower level.

4.3 Research information

Type of Service

Types of Services Respondents Percentage

Local only 63 69%

IDD 28 31%

Email 03 03%

Internet 02 02%

Is.N.D - -

Data Transmission - -

Total 91 100%



The type of service which is provided by S.L.T. Ltd to its customers and sample of 91 respondent‟s response in

relation to this service are given below. The customers, who have obtained in E- mail on internet service, also have

obtained local or IDD Service facilities. The service provided by S.L.T.Ltd in Sri lanka and data transmission have

not been implemented in Jaffna district. Further internet and E-mail have been implemented recently and have

earned popularity. But these service are not famous like local and 300 connection, because due to heavy

expenditure and are on fixed cost. This is because of two fact. That these are interconnected with computer system.

On the research carried on the 91 customers 63 person are interests in receipt in local call only. That means 61% of

the 91 respondents. The balance 28 in use of local and IDD service. This is equal to 31% more over out of the total

customers only 5% are using E – mail and internet service

4.4 The Unit Usage

The average unit Use per month were categorized in to four classes. 17 respondents call under the category of

below 200 units use for month, 21 respondents fall under monthly average unit range of 1000 – 3000 and 8

respondents use more than 3000 unit per month.

No Respondents Total

Unit Range Resident Business& Office Respondents Percentage

Below 200 12 05 17 20%

201-1000 16 10 26 31%

1000-3000 11 15 26 31%

above 3000 06 10 16 18%

Total 45 40 85 100%

4.5 Customers

Potential customers waiting period is divided into 06 categories at present approximately 21% of total customers of

S.L.T.Ltd are waiting list for the purpose of getting telephone line connection by considering the sample of 19 future

customers response. Researcher was able to develop the following table

Waiting period Responded Percentage

Below period 1 5%

3 Month 4 21%

6 Month 4 21%

1 Year 1 5%

03 Years 2 11%

Over 03 years 7 37%

Total 19 100%

4.6 Level of the Service and satisfaction

To assess the service of S.L.T Ltd. customer‟s there were questionnaire question. from 7 – 35 out of the 80

question are statement to find the customer service, out of 11 question or statement to find the customer satisfaction.

the customer decision on strongly agree, uncertainly disagree, and strongly disagree. As representation, to study the

situation, 91 customers were interviewed on consulted to as certain their views and at least the study reveal

minimum satisfaction on S.L.T.Ltd‟s service among its customers. In order to measure the level of satisfaction of

S.L.T.Ltd customers regarding various activities and services. I have



4.7 Charges

On the basis of information obtained from the questionnaire, most of the respondent have reveal their uncertainly

level on this case. I am a shown in table as follow.

Strong

Agree

Agree Unagree Disagree Strong

Disagree

Total

Discription Res % Res % Res % Res % Res %

Charge payable

for Service

3 3 30 33 12 14 36 43 10 11 91

Updating of

payment

2 2 38 42 8 9 41 45 2 2 91

facility made for

payment

1 1 50 55 7 8 30 33 3 3 91

will regards to

for

1 1 26 29 17 19 40 44 7 8 91

On the basis of the information obtain from questionnaire 2% are strongly agree, 40% are agree, 12% are

uncertainly, 41% are disagree and 6% are strongly disagree of total sample size with regarding overall charges made

by S.L.T Ltd. in relation to charges pay able for service. 3 respondents are strongly agree, 30 respondents are agree,

12 respondents are uncertainly, 32 respondents are disagree and 10 respondents are strongly disagree with regarded

to up dating of payment. There 2,38,8, 41, and 2 respondents are strongly agree, uncertainly, disagree and strongly

disagree. As for as overall charges is concern 41% of respondents are in disagree.

4.8 Customer – employee Relationship

Most of the respondents are on uncertainly in relation with customer employer relationship. In gathered

data from questionnaire in given below in table

Description Strong

agree

Agree Un

certainly

Dis

agree

Strong

Disagree

Total

Behaviour of employee 10 48 24 7 2 91

Expected helps 6 39 30 14 2 91

Suggestion and explanation 7 37 30 7 5 91

Percentage 8 45 32 10 5 100

Any organization on it business employee to help in it business. It‟s motive is to do a better business and to achieve

the target. therefore it is a most, request the employee to be courteous with the customers. This sort of behavior will

benefit on the customer employee relationship. It the employee does not behavior decently with the customers, for

example in a rood on rough way the customer may not come to the organization when the customer come in the

business will flourish. On a research carried out on the customer employee relationship out of the 91 questionnaire

the respondents receiver have been analysis that is strongly agree 8% agree 45% uncertain 32% disagree 0% and

strongly disagree 5%. There are based on the behavior of employee, there cooporation and assistance on compliance

is made.

4.8 Technology

Technology in this aspect at samples have been analysis in the basis of information collected from questionnaire, I

have formulate the table to present the data regarding the technical facility.



Description

Respondents

Strong

agree

Agree Un

certainly

Dis

agree

Strong

Disagree

Total

Distrubance ,noice, unclearness 2 27 50 08 4 91

Last advance technology 1 23 34 31 2 91

Percentage 2 28 46 21 3 100

On the basis of the information from questionnaire 2% are strongly agree, 25% are strongly, 46% are uncertainly,

21% are disagree and 3% are srongly disagree of the total sample size. On the basis of the information collected

form questionnaire most of the customer have revealed their uncertainly levels on the case. I have taken into

consideration on installing telephone connection. As and when you design, motivation for installing. A new

telephone connection and notice for payment or disconnection for the purchase of anglicizing to satisfaction level

on the existing facility. It can be summarize in a table. There 4% or strongly agree 33% of agree. 44% of

uncertainly, 17% of disagree and 3% of strongly disagree

5.0 FINDINGS OF THE RESEARCH

Analysis regarding SLT‟S service Quality and Customer Satisfaction are carried out totally and independently on the

basis of data gathered from 91 customer of the Srilanka telecom

According to the analysis presentation the following findings could be stated.

There is positive relation ship between service Quality and Customer Satisfaction.

In age group 15-29 years, 16.48% Customers is getting high level of Satisfaction

24% male are enjoying high level Satisfaction.

In age group over 41 years, are getting fully satisfying motivation.

25% female employees are reached fully satisfying motivation.

5.1 Discussion of finding

When Customer Satisfaction is correlated with total Service Quality the correlation is 0.756182. Since the

correlation is higher positive. There is a positive relation ship between two variables that is Service Quality and

Customer Satisfaction Further only 57% of variance in Customer Satisfaction (R2 0.5781) is accounted by total

service Quality of the organization.When Customer Satisfaction is correlated with pricing strategy, the correlation is

0.74, since the correlation is higher positive. The relation ship between Pricing Strategy and Customer Satisfaction is

positive that is organization have provide Proper Pricing Strategy the Customer Satisfaction will also be high.R2 is

0.5327 this means that only 53% of variance if Customer Satisfaction is accounted for by Pricing Strategy of the

organization.

1. When Customer Satisfaction is correlation with Introduce new technologies the correlation is 0.61 since the

correlation is positive. There is a positive relation ship between two variables. That is the organization have

reasonable level of Technologies, Customer Satisfaction will also be average high.

R2 is 0.3361 this means that only of variance if Customer Satisfaction is accounted for by Technology of

the organization.

In age group 15 – 29 years, 16.48% customers are getting high level of Satisfaction Other age group which

30 –49and over 60 are 8.79% and 7.69 Customer are getting respectively.

25% female are enjoying high level Service other are lower level reward system.

In age group over (15-29) years, 16.48% Customer are getting fully satisfying service there are no others

(age group (29-44), (45 -49) are in fully satisfying service



REFERENCE

AHMED, sM and KANGARI, R. (1995). Analysis of client satisfaqction factors in Construction Industry journal of

management in Engineering Vol 11 no 2 pp 36-42

ANDERSON, E. W. and SULLIVAN, M. W. (1993). The antecedents and Consequences of Customer Satisfaction

for firms marketing management Vol 12 No 2 pp 125-143

BARON, Steve and HARRIS (1995). “Service Marketing”.

BROCKMANN, C. (2002). Modeling customer satisfaction for the ACE Industry AACE International Transections

pp 36-44

IRELAND, LR. (1992). Customer satisfaction The project manager‟s role International Journal of Project

management vol 20No2 pp 123-127

KOLTER, Philip (2003). “Marketing Management”, 11th

edition.

“Marketing”, study pack, Certificate of Banking Course, Institute of Bankers of Sri Lanka.

R.EVANS, Juel. “Principles of Marketing”, 4th

edition.



L’IMPACT DE LA SATISFACTION SUR LA CONFIANCE DES

CONSOMMATEURS A L’ENSEIGNE DE DISTRIBUTION

THE IMPACT OF SATISFACTION ON CONSUMER CONFIDENCE TO

RETAIL COMPAGNIES

Hechmi, NAJJAR, Faculté des sciences économiques et de gestion de Tunis,

[email protected]

Imed, ZAIEM, Faculté des sciences économiques et de gestion de Nabeul,

[email protected]

ABSTRACT The object of this article is to show the superiority of the causal link Satisfaction Trust in retailing. To do, an

empirical study was developed from a sample of 400 Tunisian consumers. The validation of causal model allows to

verify the significance of these links and to propose recommendations for supermarkets‟ operators.

KEY-WORDS: Satisfaction, Trust, Store, Sem

RÉSUMÉ L‟objectif de cet article est de montrer la supériorité du lien causal Satisfaction Confiance dans le domaine de la

grande distribution. Pour ce faire, une étude empirique a été élaborée auprès d‟un échantillon de 400 consommateurs

tunisiens. La validation du modèle causal permet de vérifier la significativité de ces liens et de proposer des

recommandations en faveur des opérateurs de la grande distribution.

MOT-CLEFS: Satisfaction, Confiance, Enseigne De Distribution, Equations Structurelles

1. INTRODUCTION

La satisfaction et la confiance représentent deux concepts extrêmement importants au niveau du paradigme

relationnel. Dans le domaine de la grande distribution, les chercheurs et les praticiens en marketing accordent à ces

construits relationnels une importance particulière car ces variables permettent l‟élaboration des stratégies capables

de développer et de conserver des relations durables et rentables entre les consommateurs et les enseignes de

distribution. A cet égard, les orientations théoriques émergeantes ont déjà montré que la satisfaction et la confiance

représentent deux composantes incontournables de la qualité relationnelle, favorisant ainsi le développement de la

relation entre les partenaires de l‟échange (Mimouni et Volle, 2003 ; Rauyruen et Miller, 2007).

Par conséquent, l‟étude de la relation entre la satisfaction et la confiance constitue une préoccupation majeure dans

le champ du marketing relationnel. D‟ailleurs, la majorité des travaux de recherches en marketing (notamment

Dixon et al, 2005; Opsomer et Kaâbachi, 2006 ; Chumpitaz et Paparoidamis, 2007) ont pu démontrer l‟existence

d‟une relation positive et significative entre ces deux construits relationnels.

Cependant, la question du sens de causalité n‟a pas été résolue théoriquement. En effet, « la satisfaction peut être

considérée comme étant un élément de résultat et de renforcement de la confiance » (Sirieix et Dubois, 1999). Cet

aboutissement crée une controverse au niveau des orientations théoriques et rend cette relation beaucoup plus

complexe (Audrain et Evrard 2001, Georges et Decock Good 2004, Zboja et Voorhees 2006). En effet, les tentatives

de synthèse et de comparaison entre les modèles de causalité ont abouti en conséquence à des résultats

contradictoires concernant le lien entre la satisfaction et la confiance. En plus, les justifications relatives au choix du

sens de causalité sont moins nombreuses et d‟autant plus limitées (Selnes 1998, Chouk et Perrien 2003).



Dans cette perspective, l‟examen de cette relation présente un intérêt croissant et constitue une opportunité majeure

aux marqueteurs permettant de mieux comprendre la nature et les spécificités de cette relation dans le contexte du

marketing relationnel. A cet égard, le présent article s‟attache à montrer la significativité et l‟importance du lien

causal entre la satisfaction et la confiance, et de vérifier la supériorité du sens de cette relation dans le domaine de la

grande distribution.

2. CADRE THEORIQUE

2.1 Les fondements conceptuels de la satisfaction

La satisfaction représente une notion incontournable en marketing. Les travaux de Fécikova (2004), ont montré que

la satisfaction nécessite une culture orientée vers le marché, une organisation centrée sur le client, des personnels

compétents, un processus autonome, un travail en équipe et une collaboration entre les partenaires.

Au regard de la littérature, plusieurs définitions ont été avancées pour présenter ce concept. Selon Oliver (1981), la

satisfaction est « un état psychologique où il y a une différence entre l’émotion émergente et l’attente anticipée et

accumulée du client à l’égard de ses achats accomplis ». Pour Halstead et al (1994), la satisfaction désigne « une

réponse émotionnelle associée à une transaction spécifique qui résulte de la comparaison entre un résultat de

consommation et un standard avant achat ».

Par ailleurs, les premiers travaux sur la satisfaction se sont développés en se basant sur le paradigme de non

confirmation des attentes (Allagui et Temessek, 2005). Ce paradigme stipule que le client est satisfait lorsque

l‟expérience vécue dépasse ses attentes (Boss, 1999).

En partant d‟une perspective relationnelle, la satisfaction cumulée représente l‟ensemble des expériences vécues par

les consommations. En effet, les satisfactions éprouvées par le consommateur après plusieurs actes d‟achats et de

consommations ne sont pas indépendantes les unes des autres (Ben Youssef et al, 2005).

Sur le plan managérial, les entrepreneurs ont élaboré un ensemble d‟actions pertinentes en vue d‟atténuer les

conséquences négatives d‟insatisfaction des consommateurs. Selon Fécikova (2004), le traitement des plaintes réduit

la défection des clients. En outre, l‟identification des principales causes d‟insatisfaction rend l‟entreprise capable de

faire face à ses conséquences négatives (Lendrevie et al, 2003).

2.2 Les fondements conceptuels de la confiance

La confiance représente un vecteur principal en faveur des orientations relationnelles et contribue énormément à

l‟évolution de la théorie des échanges (Guibert, 1999). Sur le plan conceptuel « la confiance est l’ensemble de

croyances confrontant le client que les intentions ainsi que les comportements de son partenaire d’échange

produiront les résultats attendus » (Frisou, 2000). Selon, Scheer et Stern (1992), la confiance est considérée comme

étant « la croyance que le partenaire est capable de réaliser à long terme ses obligations conformément aux besoins

et aux intérêts de ses clients ».

Par ailleurs, la confiance représente une variable clé dans le développement de la relation avec les clients (Yoon,

2002). En effet, la confiance garantit la stabilité des échanges (Gatfaoui et Lavorata, 2001), réduit l‟incertitude dans

un environnement incertain (Chaudhuri et Holbrook, 2001) et représente un moyen de sécurité pour les clients

(Georges et Decock Good, 2004). A ce propos, les travaux de Morgan et Hunt (1994), ont montré que la confiance

forme un indicateur pertinent de la volonté et la capacité du partenaire à respecter ses engagements envers ses

clients. Les travaux de Ganesan (1994), et de Bories (2006), ont montré que la confiance favorise l‟interaction entre

les partenaires.

Dans le domaine de distribution, les travaux d‟Opsomer et Kaabâchi (2006), prouvent que la confiance exerce un

rôle primordial au niveau de la relation entre le consommateur et l‟enseigne. La confiance constitue alors une source

d‟information, un indicateur de qualité et un moyen de garantie pour les consommateurs.



Sur le plan managérial, la confiance garantit la continuité des investissements à long terme (Abbes, 2006). Selon

Guibert (1999), la confiance favorise les bénéfices à long terme. Ainsi, la confiance constitue une source d‟avantage

compétitif (Barney et Hansen, 1994) et un axe stratégique pertinent pour les opérateurs de la grande distribution.

2.3 Relation entre la satisfaction et la confiance

Le lien entre la satisfaction et la confiance a fait l‟objet de plusieurs travaux en marketing. En effet, un grand

nombre de chercheurs (notamment Geyskens et al 1999, Bloemer et Odekerken – Schröder 2002, Bigne et Blesa

2003, Benyoussef et al 2005, Chumpitaz et Paparoidamis 2007) ont mis l‟accent sur l‟importance que revêt cette

relation au niveau des mécanismes relationnels. Ainsi, le tableau 1 synthétise les contributions théoriques les plus

récentes concernant la relation entre la satisfaction et la confiance.

Auteurs Résultats de la littérature en marketing Contextes

d’application

Sirieix et Dubois

(1999)

La confiance du consommateur à la marque agit

positivement sur la satisfaction des clients.

Mc Donald‟s (Mc).

Quick (Q).

Georges et Decock

Good (2004)

La satisfaction exerce un effet positif sur la confiance

des clients.

Relation fournisseur –

service client.

Allagui et Temessek

(2005)

La confiance agit positivement sur la satisfaction des

internautes. Le cas des e – services.

Dixon et al (2005) La satisfaction agit positivement sur la confiance des

clients au point de vente.

Relation consommateur

– magasin.

Abbes (2006)

La confiance en les intentions, la confiance en les

relations et la confiance globale de l‟enseigne agissent

positivement sur la satisfaction à l‟enseigne.


– enseigne de

distribution.

Béjaoui et M‟henna

(2006) La satisfaction exerce un effet positif sur la confiance. Secteur hôtelier.

Opsomer et Kaâbachi

(2006)

La satisfaction cumulée agit positivement sur la

confiance à l‟enseigne de distribution.


– enseigne de

distribution.

Zboja et Voorhees

(2006)

La satisfaction à la marque agit positivement sur la

confiance à la marque.

La satisfaction au distributeur agit positivement sur la

confiance au distributeur.

Milieu Business to

Consumer.

Chumpitaz et

Paparoidamis (2007)

La satisfaction relationnelle agit positivement sur la

confiance.

Milieu Business to

Business.

TABLEAU 1: Le lien entre la satisfaction et la confiance

Comme le montre le tableau 1, les recherches antérieures s‟accordent sur l‟existence d‟une relation positive, directe

et significative entre la satisfaction et la confiance. Toutefois, le sens de causalité représente la principale source de

divergence entre les chercheurs en marketing. Les tentatives de synthèse et de comparaison entre les différentes

alternatives ont abouti à des résultats contradictoires concernant le sens de causalité entre la satisfaction et la

confiance. En effet, les résultats de Geyskens et al (1999), menés des travaux d‟une méta – analyse, ont montré que

la satisfaction agit positivement sur la confiance. Par contre, la démarche comparative de Bigne et Blesa (2003),

basée sur la comparaison entre deux modèles antagonistes en se basant sur l‟ajustement comme étant un critère

d‟évaluation pertinent, a montré la supériorité du lien confiance → satisfaction au niveau de la relation producteur –

distributeur.

Au regard de la littérature, l‟étude du lien causal entre la satisfaction et la confiance a été argumentée par un

ensemble de justifications théoriques permettant de favoriser un sens de causalité.

D‟une part, plusieurs orientations théoriques ont justifié l‟importance de la satisfaction dans l‟explication de la

confiance. Selon Béjaoui et M‟henna (2006), « la satisfaction a été auparavant une finalité en soi ». Par conséquent,



les objectifs ont été axés sur la satisfaction des clients pour faire face à la concurrence. L‟avènement du paradigme

relationnel a rendu le rôle de la confiance plus important au niveau de la chaîne relationnelle. Par conséquent, la

confiance représente une conséquence majeure de la satisfaction dans le mécanisme relationnel.

Selon Georges et Decock Good (2004), la continuité des expériences satisfaisantes entre les partenaires forme un

déterminant important de la confiance. Pour Opsomer et Kaâbachi (2006), les expériences satisfaisantes à l‟égard de

l‟enseigne de distribution favorisent la confiance des consommateurs. Selon Garbarino et Johnson (1999),

l‟orientation relationnelle des clients favorise l‟impact de la satisfaction sur la confiance.

Finalement, les travaux de Geyskens et al (1999), ont montré que le lien entre la satisfaction et la confiance s‟intègre

dans le cadre d‟une perspective longitudinale au niveau de la chaîne relationnelle. Ces auteurs se sont basés sur le

cycle de vie relationnel de Dwyer et al (1987) afin de justifier l‟impact de la satisfaction sur la confiance.

D‟autre part, Plusieurs chercheurs ont prouvé que la satisfaction représente une variable subséquente de la

confiance. En effet, les travaux de Sirieix et Dubois (1999), ont montré que la confiance représente un médiateur

incontournable entre la qualité et la satisfaction. Autrement dit, lorsque le consommateur accorde sa confiance à la

marque, il éprouve une satisfaction plus élevée. Ainsi, la confiance permet de mieux comprendre le lien entre la

qualité et la satisfaction du consommateur.

Finalement, les travaux de Allagui et Temessek (2005), ont montré que la confiance permet la formation des

jugements évaluatifs des consommateurs. Ces auteurs se sont basés sur la théorie de l‟action raisonnée d‟Ajzen et

Fishbein (1980), pour justifier l‟impact de la confiance sur la satisfaction. Cette théorie stipule que les réactions du

consommateur suivent la séquence croyance – attitude – intention – comportement. Etant donné que la confiance

représente une croyance et que la satisfaction reflète une variable attitudinale (Allagui et Temessek, 2005), les

auteurs ont montré que la confiance détermine la satisfaction des consommateurs à l‟égard du e-service.

3. METHODOLOGIE

L‟objectif de cette recherche est de mieux comprendre la nature et les spécificités de la relation entre la satisfaction

et la confiance d‟une part, et de vérifier la supériorité d‟un sens causal entre ces deux variables. Pour ce faire, une

enquête en face à face a été administrée auprès d‟un échantillon de convenance composé de 400 personnes (dont

51% sont des hommes et 49% sont des femmes). Le questionnaire s‟adresse aux consommateurs tunisiens qui

fréquentent les hypermarchés et qui habitent dans la région de Grand Tunis.

L‟opérationnalisation des variables relationnelles a été fondée sur l‟utilisation des échelles de mesure multi-items

validées en marketing. Chaque item a été évalué sur une échelle de Likert allant de 1 (pas du tout d‟accord) à 5 (tout

à fait d‟accord).

A cet égard, nous avons fait appel à l‟échelle de Gurviez et Korchia (2002), pour mesurer la confiance à l‟enseigne

de distribution. Par ailleurs, nous avons eu recours à l‟échelle de mesure de la satisfaction cumulée d‟Oliver (1980).

Cette échelle a été développée en anglais et comporte six indicateurs de mesure de la satisfaction. Par conséquent,

nous avons retenu la version française traduite par Vo et Jolibert (2005). Conformément aux préconisations de

Devellis (2003), nous avons éliminé l‟item correspondant au sentiment de déception du consommateur afin de faire

face au problème de la multidimensionnalité artificielle.

Par la suite, l‟ensemble de ces items a été soumis à une analyse préliminaire en vue d‟optimiser les propriétés

psychométriques de nos échelles de mesures. Après analyse, l‟item « Sat 5 » a été éliminé car il dispose d‟une

qualité de représentation relativement faible.

Finalement, les données collectées ont été soumises à une analyse exploratoire dans le but d‟identifier la structure

des variables latentes. Nous avons adopté la démarche en deux étapes d‟Anderson et Gerbing (1988), qui consiste à

valider le modèle de mesure moyennant une analyse confirmatoire, puis tester les relations linéaires entre les

variables latentes moyennant une analyse structurelle.



Les paramètres sont estimés par la méthode des moindres carrées généralisés (GLS). Selon Roussel et al (2002),

cette méthode d‟estimation est plus robuste aux problèmes de la multi-normalité des indicateurs de mesure.

4. LES RESULTATS

4.1 Les résultats des analyses exploratoires

Les analyses exploratoires permettent de détecter les variables latentes et de déterminer la cohérence interne de ces

variables relationnelles. Les résultats de l‟ACP (tableau 2) indiquent une bonne qualité de représentation des

indicateurs de mesure. Le KMO (0,8) permet d‟aboutir à une solution factorielle acceptable Les composantes après

rotation Varimax montrent que la première dimension intègre les items relatifs à la variable satisfaction. En plus, la

crédibilité, la bienveillance et l‟intégrité forment les dimensions de la variable confiance.

Finalement, l‟examen du coefficient Alpha de Cronbach ( ), permet de vérifier la fiabilité de chacune de ces

dimensions au niveau exploratoire. Les résultats montrent que les valeurs de ( ) sont supérieures à 0,6 pour les

dimensions obtenues. Par conséquent, nous pouvons déduire que les mesures de la satisfaction et la confiance sont

fiables au niveau exploratoire.

Items Qualité de

représentation

Composantes après rotation Varimax

Satisfaction Crédibilité Bienveillance Intégrité

Sat 1 0,647 0,802 - - -

Sat 2 0,666 0,782 - - -

Sat 3 0,611 0,777 - - -

Sat 4 0,606 0,771 - - -

Conf 1 0,691 - 0,780 - -

Conf 2 0,826 - 0,847 - -

Conf 3 0,746 - 0,842 - -

Conf 4 0,716 - - 0,812 -

Conf 5 0,708 - - 0,788 -

Conf 6 0,740 - - 0,826 -

Conf 7 0,843 - - - 0,873

Conf 8 0,856 - - - 0,880

Valeurs propres 4,16 2,23 1,18 1,09

Alpha de Cronbach 0,795 0,834 0,801 0,827

KMO = 0,805 Signification de Bartlett = 0,000

Pourcentage de la variance expliquée = 72,119 %.

TABLEAU 2 : Résultats de l‟analyse exploratoire

4.2 Les résultats des analyses confirmatoires

L‟analyse confirmatoire permet de tester la fiabilité et la validité des construits (tableau 3). En effet, le Rhô de

Jöreskog indique des valeurs supérieures à 0,7 pour chacun des dimensions obtenues. Par ailleurs, la procédure de

Fornell et Larcker (1981), a été suivie pour calculer la validité convergente et la validité discriminante. Le Rhô de la

validité convergente indique des valeurs satisfaisantes qui dépassent le seuil minimal de 0,5. En plus, les conditions

de la validité discriminante sont respectées (Tableau 3). Par conséquent, nous pouvons affirmer que les dimensions

obtenues de la satisfaction et la confiance sont fiables et valides.



Dimensions Fiabilité (Rhô de

Jöreskog) Validité convergente Validité discriminante

Satisfaction (Sa) 0,81 0,51

0,51> δ2Sa – Cr = 0,08

0,51> δ2Sa – Bi = 0,04

0,51> δ2Sa – In = 0,05

Crédibilité (Cr) 0,84 0,64

0,64> δ2Cr – Sa = 0,08

0,64> δ2Cr – Bi = 0,24

0,64> δ2Cr – In = 0,31

Bienveillance (Bi) 0,83 0,71

0,71> δ2Bi – Sa = 0,04

0,71> δ2Bi – Cr = 0,24

0,71> δ2Bi – In = 0,23

Intégrité (In) 0,81 0,59

0,59> δ2In – Sa = 0,05

0,59> δ2In – Cr = 0,31

0,59> δ2In – Bi = 0,23

TABLEAU 3 : Vérification de la validité convergente et de la validité discriminante

4.3 Les résultats des modèles de causalité

Les résultats de l‟analyse structurelle montrent l‟existence d‟une relation positive entre la satisfaction et la

confiance. L‟examen des indices obtenus montre que les modèles de causalité présentent un bon ajustement. Afin de

vérifier la supériorité du lien causal « Satisfaction → Confiance » dans notre contexte d‟étude, nous avons comparé

entre les coefficients de régression standardisés pour chacun des modèles structurels M1 et M2 (figure 1). Par

conséquent, les résultats montrent que les coefficients de régression du modèle M1 sont significatifs et plus

importants que ceux du modèle M2. Ainsi, ces résultats constituent un appui aux orientations théoriques selon

lesquelles la satisfaction détermine la confiance entre les partenaires de l‟échange.

Satisfaction

Crédibilité

Bienveillance

Intégrité

conf3 e3

,70 conf2 e2,89

conf1 e1,62

conf4 e6,67

conf5 e7,69

conf6 e8

,73

conf8 e5,84

conf7 e4,76

sat2e10 ,77

sat1e9,71

sat3e11

,65

sat4e12

,68

cr

in

bi

,50

,46

,39

Modèle : M1



FIGURE 1 : Comparaison entre les modèles M1 et M2

Modèle: M1 Modèle: M2

Satisfaction → Confiance Confiance → Satisfaction

Liens de causalité Test de Student P Liens de causalité Test de Student P

Satisfaction →

Crédibilité 5,57 0,000

Crédibilité →

Satisfaction 2,13 0,033

Satisfaction →

Intégrité 5,32 0,000

Intégrité →


Satisfaction →

Bienveillance 4,47 0,000

Bienveillance →


P < 0,05 (Significatif)

Ajustement des modèles structurels

Chi2/ ddl GFI AGFI RMSEA IFI CFI Chi

2/ ddl GFI AGFI RMSEA IFI CFI

2,64 0,944 0,914 0,06 0,82 0,82 2,86 0,939 0,907 0,06 0,8 0,79

TABLEAU 4 : vérification de la supériorité du lien Satisfaction → Confiance

5. DISCUSSION DES RESULTATS ET CONCLUSION

Les résultats empiriques nous ont permis de conclure que la satisfaction exerce un impact positif et significatif sur la

confiance à l‟enseigne de distribution. Ces résultats sont cohérents avec ceux de Dixon et al (2005), et d‟Opsomer et

Kaabâchi (2006), établis dans le domaine de distribution. Ainsi, notre postulat dispose d‟un double intérêt dans le

cadre de la théorie en marketing relationnel. D‟une part, il permet de confirmer que l‟ensemble des expériences

gratifiantes vécues par les consommateurs favorise l‟instauration et la cristallisation d‟un climat de confiance envers

l‟enseigne de distribution dans le temps. De ce fait, l‟évolution positive de la satisfaction cumulée améliore les

présomptions de crédibilité, de bienveillance et d‟intégrité des consommateurs envers le distributeur.

D‟autre part, notre recherche permet de justifier la supériorité du lien causal (Satisfaction → Confiance) dans le

champ du marketing relationnel. En effet, les justifications proposées dans la théorie sont souvent restrictives et

moins nombreuses. Par conséquent, la procédure comparative que nous avons utilisée prouve que c‟est la

satisfaction qui exerce un effet positif sur la confiance des consommateurs à l‟enseigne de distribution. Ainsi, la

prédominance de ce sens de causalité constitue un appui aux travaux de Dwyer et al (1987), de Geyskens et al

Satisfaction

Crédibilité

Bienveillance

Intégrité

conf3e3

,65conf2e2,87

conf1e1 ,56

conf4e6 ,65

conf5e7,63

conf6e8

,69

conf8e51,52

conf7e4,39 sat2 e10,75

sat1 e9,72

sat3 e11

,68

sat4 e12

,68

,12

,05

,18

S

Modèle : M2



(1999), de Dixon et al (2005), et d‟Opsomer et Kaabâchi (2006). Ces auteurs ont souligné que la confiance forme

une conséquence majeure au niveau du paradigme relationnel.

5.1 Implications managériales et recommandations

Sur le plan managérial, cette recherche permet de présenter les leviers sur lesquels les responsables doivent agir en

vue d‟entretenir une relation durable et rentable entre les consommateurs et les enseignes de distribution.

Par conséquent, les résultats ont été prometteurs en ce qui concerne la significativité des liens de causalité entre la

satisfaction et la confiance comme ils permettent aux praticiens de mieux comprendre et analyser les mécanismes

qui valorisent le comportement de magasinage en vue d‟accroître le capital clients et d‟assurer la rentabilité des

enseignes de distribution. A cet effet, la satisfaction permet l‟appréciation de la performance perçue par les

consommateurs à l‟égard des hypermarchés et forme une opportunité pour comprendre les conséquences des

expériences de consommation lors de la visite des enseignes de distribution. De même, la confiance représente une

variable clé car elle contribue à la stabilité de la relation dans le temps.

Compte tenu des résultats du modèle causal, il est devenu nécessaire pour les marqueteurs de prendre en

considération la contribution de la satisfaction à la confiance des consommateurs lors de la fixation des objectifs

stratégiques et opérationnels des enseignes de distribution.

C‟est la raison pour laquelle les responsables doivent assurer un climat de confiance favorable à la continuité de la

relation notamment par la diversification des choix, l‟amélioration de la qualité des services ainsi que la mise en

place d‟une communication crédible.

5.2 Apports, limites et Voies futures de recherche

Notre recherche dispose d‟un apport considérable au niveau de la recherche en marketing relationnel. En effet, la

contribution de la satisfaction à la formation de la confiance constitue un axe de recherche prometteur dans le

domaine de la grande distribution. Par ailleurs, notre recherche permet de tester et justifier empiriquement la

supériorité du lien causal (Satisfaction → Confiance) dans le contexte du marketing relationnel.

Toutefois, la méthode d‟échantillonnage de convenance adoptée constitue la principale limite de notre recherche. De

ce fait, il est fortement préconisé de généraliser les résultats avec précautions.

Finalement, les perspectives de recherche laissent penser qu‟il serait possible d‟intégrer un ensemble de variables

modératrices (notamment les variables individuelles ou situationnelles) afin de tester la stabilité du lien de causalité

entre la satisfaction et la confiance. Par ailleurs, notre recherche constitue un point de départ vers l‟intégration

d‟autres variables relationnelles permettant d‟étudier les déterminants et les conséquences de la confiance des

consommateurs à l‟enseigne de distribution.

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ANNEXE : Les échelles de mesure adoptées après purification

Echelle de mesure de la confiance (Gurviez et Korchia, 2002)

Crédibilité

Conf 1 : L‟offre de cet hypermarché m‟apporte de la sécurité.

Conf 2 : J‟ai confiance envers la qualité de l‟offre de cet hypermarché.

Conf 3 : cet hypermarché assure la garantie des produits achetés.

Intégrité

Conf 4 : cet hypermarché est sincère envers les consommateurs.

Conf 5 : cet hypermarché est honnête envers ses clients.

Conf 6 : cet hypermarché montre de l‟intérêt pour ses clients.

Bienveillance

Conf 7 : Je pense que cet hypermarché réalise toujours des améliorations pour tenir compte des progrés de la

recherche.

Conf 8 : Je pense que cet hypermarché cherche continuellement à améliorer ses réponses aux besoins des

consommateurs.

Echelle de mesure de la satisfaction (Oliver, 1980 ; Vo et Jolibert, 2005)

Sat 1 : Le choix de cet hypermarché a été un bon choix.

Sat 2 : Je suis globalement satisfait de cet hypermarché.

Sat 3 : Visiter cet hypermarché représente généralement une bonne expérience.

Sat 4 : Si je devrais refaire mon choix, je choisirais cet hypermarché.

Sat 5 : Ce point de vente propose exactement ce dont j‟ai besoin. (Item purifié)



SEE YOU IN FACEBOOK: THE EFFECTS OF INCORPORATING

ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORKING IN THE LANGUAGE CLASSROOM

LES EFFETS DE L’INTÉGRATION D’UN RÉSEAU SOCIAL DANS UNE

CLASSE DE LANGUE: LE CAS DE FACEBOOK

Yupaporn PIRIYASILPA, Rajamangala University of Technology Isan, Khon Kaen Campus

[email protected]

ABSTRACT Recent advances of technology have been employed in many contexts, including educational contexts. Especially,

the development of these technological advances is currently playing an important role in the language classroom to

help students better learn the language. For successful application, it is important for the language teacher to

examine their efficiency and two possible ways to do so are: by investigating students‟ attitudes toward the

application of technology and by investigating the nature of language used by students in this new way of

communication. This paper discusses the effects of the application of the Facebook activity as part of the language

classroom by examining students‟ opinions toward the activity and the use of language in their interaction. It was

found that the activity was useful for students to create their social network and keep connected with friends and was

also beneficial for them in terms of language learning. Students stated that training in the use of Facebook and useful

expressions is needed to support them in more successful communication. Based on the findings, some implications

in terms of language learning will be discussed for future study to successfully employ this activity in the language

classroom.

1. INTRODUCTION

Many of the latest technological advances, including mobile broadband, web blogs, virtual reality and different

kinds of social networking tools are currently employed in many classrooms and have been playing an important

role in many social contexts, including educational contexts. There have been a number of studies reporting the

benefits of the application of new technologies (for example, Chuarayapratib, 2009b; Firth, 2009; Horizon, 2008;

Yun-hong, 2009) and the purposes for the application vary in different social settings, for example: to create

collaborative learning (Bisenbach-Lucas, 2004; Greenfield, 2003), to promote cultural exchange (e.g Fedderholdt,

2001; Liaw & Johnson, 2001), or to increase students‟ participation (e.g. Absalom and Marden, 2004). Yun-hong

claims that the application of emerging technologies in the classrooms can be grouped in four modes:

The use of computer as tutor in stand alone training programs;

The use of computer as input, providing unprecedented access to motivating, authentic, topical material;

The use of computer as output, offering through websites and online publication a real audience and

communicative purpose for target-language production;

The use of computer as social environment, to promote interaction among the participants and to promote a

wealth of possibilities for communication.

(2009: 113-114)

The application of technology in the classroom has resulted in a rapid change in the way students communicate and

the role they perform during the process of communication. In other words, in addition to communicating in

speaking or writing in traditional ways, people also communicate via text messages, online chatting or conferencing

and these ways of communication create new social spheres and require them to perform different roles. This leads

to a number of educational effects in the classroom, for example, (1) creating networked interactivity between

students, (2) enabling autonomous learning, and (3) enhancing the feeling of social presence during the

communication.



2. TECHNOLOGIES AND THE LANGUAGE CLASSROOM

The development of new technologies is also having a great impact on the teaching and learning of language in the

classrooms. The most common types of online mediums which have been used in the language classrooms are:

online discussion (e.g. Chuarayapratib, 2009a; Chun, 1994; Paulus, 2005; Piriyasilpa, 2007; Piriyasilpa, 2009;

Watson Todd, 2003), emails (e.g Greenfield, 2003; Leahy, 2001; Li, 2000; Liaw, 1998; Tori-William, 2004), web

blog (e.g. Horvath, 2009), chat program (e.g Almeida d'Eça, 2003), and video conferencing (e.g. Hanson-Smith,

2007).

As far as language learning is concerned, the application of new technology in the language classroom can enable

two significant changes: an increased opportunity for authorship and social networking (cf. Horizon, 2007).

Communication websites such as Wikipedia or YouTube allow participants to perform dual roles in communication.

That is, they not only perform the passive role as a reader, but also have the freedom to become an author, creator or

even film maker. This new way of communication allows learners to exercise their learnt knowledge in real

experiences out of class and represents a new form of contribution and an increasing trend towards authorship

(Horizon, 2007: 6). On the other hand, communication through different types of technology allows students to use

language to participate in and collaboratively create their own communities, where they can connect with friends,

colleagues, teachers or even native speakers for different purposes, for instance, to exchange ideas and knowledge or

to practice their language.

The purpose of this study is to observe the effects of providing students with opportunities for social networking as a

means to using language learnt in the classroom. To address this goal, a Facebook activity was employed as an

adjunct to the classroom so that students and teacher could communicate out of class time.

Facebook is a kind of online social networking activities that has been currently used by a number of students to

meet up and socialize with friends. Facebook is similar to hi5 in many ways, but one significant difference between

the two is that while personal information of hi5 members can be viewed by others who share the same friend if they

forget to set up “privacy”, personal information of Facebook members cannot be viewed by other participants who

are not friends though sharing the same friends. This means that Facebook allows the participants to keep their

“privacy” and if designed properly, the activity can be beneficial for students to exercise language learnt in the

classroom. However, observations of its application are still at an early stage. This study investigates the effects of

employing the Facebook activity as part of the language classroom taking two perspectives: by examining students‟

opinions toward learning this way and through the teacher‟s observation of how language is used by students in this

new way of communication. Based on the findings, some implications in terms of language learning and the

application of Facebook activity in the language classroom will be discussed.

3. THE STUDY

The study was conducted at a university in Thailand during June-September 2009. The participants were 134 first-

year students, aged between 18 and 24 years old, who were undertaking the English 1 compulsory course. The

course was provided to all undergraduates in the university during their first year. It aimed to equip students with the

overall proficiency in the four skills of language: listening, speaking, reading and writing. The course ran for 16

weeks and students met once a week for the period of 3 hours. In this study, I employed the Facebook activity as

part of an English curriculum to provide students with an alternative choice to use the language learnt from the

classroom and to assist them to better learn the language. The topics for discussion were advised by the teacher and

students were asked to make comments or discuss their opinions on the teacher‟s wall. Prior to the beginning of the

activity, the purposes of the activity were negotiated and Facebook program was introduced to students. The activity

lasted for a period of one semester and a questionnaire was distributed at the end of the semester to investigate

students‟ opinions toward the activity. This paper discusses students‟ opinions toward the use of the Facebook

activity as part of the English course and examines how language is used in students‟ interaction when participating

in the activity. Table 1 below presents the research timeline of the Facebook activity.



Dates Content Facebook Activity

25-29/5/09

Course Introduction &

Facebook Introduction

Facebook activity was introduced to students and the learning

goals were negotiated.

1-5/6/09 Unit 1: Greeting and

Introduction

Self Introduction: Students wrote a short introduction about

themselves and took turn to make comments.

8-12/6/09

15-19/6/09 Unit 2: Using Dictionaries and

Word Tackle Skills

Students wrote about their favorite kind of new inventions and

took turn to make comments.

22-26/6/09

29/6 –

3/7/09

Unit 3: Reading Newspaper

Students wrote about their impressive news and took turn to

make comments.

6-10/7/09

13-17/7/09

20-24/7/09 Midterm Exam

27-31/7/09 Unit 4: Present Tense Students wrote about their daily routines and took turn to make

comments. 3-7/8/09

10-14/8/09 Unit 5: Past Tense Students wrote about their impressive experiences and took

turn to make comments. 17-21/8/09

24-28/8/09

31/8 –

4/9/09

Unit 6: Future Tense

Students wrote about their future plans and took turn to make

comments.

7-11/9/09

14-18/9/09

18

21-25/9/09 Final Exam

TABLE 1 - Research timeline of the Facebook activity

4. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The study aims to answer the following questions:

1. What are students‟ attitudes toward the application of the Facebook activity in the language classroom?

2. How is language used by the students to participate in the Facebook activity?

To obtain the answers to the above research questions, the questionnaire was divided into different sections

which will be discussed as follows.

4.1 The Questionnaire

The questionnaire was divided into three main parts, namely: demographic, five-point Likert-scale, and open-ended

questions. The initial part focused on students‟ personal information, the second on students‟ opinions toward the

benefits of the program and the last included open-ended questions, asking students to reflect their opinions on

different issues. In this study, 134 students participated in the Facebook activity, but 95 of them responded to the

questionnaire. A sample of the questionnaire can be found in Appendix.

4.1.1 Five-point Likert-scale questions

The five-point Likert-scale questionnaire investigated students‟ attitudes toward the benefits of the Facebook

activity. The potential benefits that students might gain from participating in the activity were measured. Students

were asked to decide at which level they agreed that they have gained the benefits (1 = the least and 5 = the most).



4.1.2 Open-ended questions

The open ended questions aimed to examine students‟ attitudes and further comments on the Facebook activity. The

questions focused on the problems that students faced when participating in the activity and how they solved the

problems. Students were also asked to reflect on the strengths and weaknesses of the activity. Finally, they were

asked whether or not they planned to continue participating in the activity again in the future.

5. THE FINDINGS

5.1 Demographic Data

Gender: Male (n = 63)

Female (n = 32)

Age: 19 (n = 51)

20 (n = 9)

23 (n = 1)

24 (n = 1)

Unspecified (n = 3)

5.2 Answers to Research Questions

Research Question 1: What are students‟ attitudes toward the application of the Facebook activity in the

language classroom?

The answers to the above research question were obtained from students‟ responses to the five-point Likert

questionnaire reflecting their attitudes toward the benefits of the Facebook activity (see 5.2.1 below) and from their

responses to the open ended questions asking them to comment on the activity (see 5.2.2 below).

5.2.1 The findings from a five-point Likert questionnaire

After the Facebook activity, a questionnaire was distributed to investigate at which level students think they benefit

from the activity. The results are presented in Table 2 below:

Question: At which level do you think the Facebook activity is beneficial for you?

(1= the least – 5 = the most)

Benefits X

a. Improving computer and Internet skills 4.13

b. Learning more vocabulary 3.89

c. Improving writing skills 3.87

d. Improving reading skills 3.89

e. Increasing the knowledge of grammar 3.68

f. To make new friends 4.15

g. To create good relationship with peers 4.04

h. To exchange knowledge or attitudes with peers 3.88

i. To increase motivation in learning English 3.92

TABLE 2 - Students‟ attitudes toward the benefits of the Facebook activity



Table 2 shows that all of the benefits gained from the Facebook activity were rated by students at high level. This

means this activity was viewed by students as being useful for them. While the primary focus of this study was on

language learning, the development of language skills was also rated at high level by the students. Interestingly

though, they rated other benefits (i.e. making new friends, creating relationship with friends, and improving their

computer and Internet skills) as the most beneficial for them in participating in this Facebook activity. The findings

highlight the nature of the Facebook activity as a useful medium to create social network among the participants (cf.

Horizon, 2007). This unique nature of the activity is important for the language teacher to be aware of in order to

create appropriate activities to support students‟ learning.

5.2.2 Students‟ comments toward the application of the Facebook activity

To examine students‟ feedback or comments, the third part of the questionnaire was organized as open-ended

questions asking them to make comments on different matters (see Appendix for sample of the questionnaire).

The data from students‟ comments showed consistent findings with those from the five-point Likert questionnaire.

That is, a significant number of students viewed the Facebook activity as having two important strengths. The first

involved the practice of the learnt language out of class (62.10%) and the second included the creation of social

network and socializing among friends (57.85%).

While a number of students stated that the Facebook activity allowed them an opportunity to practice the learnt

language, many however mentioned the use of language as one of the difficulties that obstructed them from

participating successfully (66.31%). When being asked how they solved the problem of language as mentioned

above, many students said that they revised the learnt knowledge from the classroom (31.32%), some opened a

dictionary (14.73%) or asked for help from peers (11.57%). Further comments were also made by some students that

useful expressions to communicate in the Facebook activity should be taught in the classroom. The findings reflect

that while the primary goal of practicing the learnt language was acknowledged by many students, the language per

se was the main obstacle for some students to communicate successfully. This means that it is important for the

language teacher to ensure that students have sufficient knowledge of useful language to express their opinions in

the activity. To do so effectively, useful language or expressions may be trained in the classroom as requested by

some students prior to exposing them to the Facebook activity.

Another obstacle that students faced when participating in the Facebook activity was problems with IT (50.52%).

This included students‟ limited knowledge of the Facebook activity (since they were new users) and the slow

connection of the Internet system on campus. To solve the IT problem, some students went to the Internet café

(14.73%) while some said that more training was necessary. As Facebook was still new to many students, they

needed longer time to practice and get familiar with the program.

With regard to students‟ suggestion of how to employ the Facebook activity more successfully, some said that the

teacher should provide a greater variety of activities for them to participate. For example, games, quizzes or

questions may be posted asking the students to answer or discuss their opinions. Alternatively, some movies may be

posted on the teacher‟s wall to attract students‟ visits or discussion.

Finally, almost all of students (94.73%) said that they will continue using the Facebook account and the main

purpose was to maintain the social network and to keep in touch with their friends (62.10%) while some said that

future participation in the Facebook activity may help them improve their language skills (15.78%).

The findings showed that the Facebook activity is viewed as being useful by the students and its benefits in building

social network with friends are clearly seen. This finding is consistent with the claims of a previous study (e.g.

Horizon, 2007). Another benefit which is also viewed as important by this group of students is the development of

their language skills. To do so effectively, however; training of useful language and IT knowledge is needed prior to

exposing students to the activity.

Research Question 2: How is language used by the students to participate in the Facebook activity?

The answer to this research question was found through the teacher‟s observation of students‟ interaction in the

activity. The discussion of this follows.



5.2.3 The findings from the teacher‟s observation

5.2.3.1 Teacher – student interaction

It is clear from the data that the Facebook activity helped to create interaction

between teacher and students and this interaction was made in a less formal way than that organized in the

classroom. Table 3 below exemplifies this (students‟ names are pseudonyms).

Name Text

Yupaporn Piriyasilpa Hi everyone, How did you go with the final exam?

Hope you found it easy :))

Puwadol likes this.

Tossapon I can't do the exam.

Puwadol

Ohhh h h.. !!

I can do it teacher .

I think it's east . =^^=Thanks you so much Aj

Yupaporn . :)))

Surapol I' think it's easy. ^^

Alitsara I can do it.......:))

because it's easy.....hu..hu..!!!

Yupaporn Piriyasilpa Glad to hear that most of you found it easy :))

and I know Tossapon will reply with this answer

(nothing new :)

TABLE 3 - Sample of teacher-student interaction, demonstrating the construction of a less formal relationship

than in the classroom

Table 3 shows that both teacher and students use emoticons (e.g. :), ^^, =^^=, !!) and informal language in

their conversation (e.g. „Ohhh h h.. !!‟ „hu..hu.‟) to express feelings. Moreover, teasing is also made by the

teacher to one student (i.e. „I know Tossapon will reply with this answer (nothing new :)

). The teasing from the teacher serves to create relationship and closeness between teacher and students (solidarity-

Stenglin, 2004) and the language features in this conversation reflect the informal way of interaction between

teacher and students which does not appear in the formal classroom teaching. Tables 4 and 5 below illustrate further

examples of teacher-student interaction organized in a less formal way than in the classroom.

Name Text

Puwadol HBD to teacher ^^.

I hope you will happy happy and very pretty

forever. : )))

Puwadol likes this.

Nipa don't beleave

Yupaporn Piriyasilpa Thanks alot Puwadol :)) Hope you enjoy the long

break!

TABLE 4 - Further example of teacher-student interaction, demonstrating the construction of a less formal

relationship than in the classroom

http://www.facebook.com/profile.php?id=1402170663&ref=mf

http://www.facebook.com/profile.php?id=1526663761

http://www.facebook.com/tossaporn.kongwandee



http://www.facebook.com/alitsa.kamnongphai








Name Text

Puwadol Hi teacher !! =^^=.

I'm Puwadol . EEP (student’s number)...

My Homework.

two years ago.In winter, I had plan to go to play

basketball with my friends.

At that time I have math Basketball in school. I

need to the winner.

While I was playing basketball when I won in this

math.

I was champian in this math !! . I have very

happy so much.

^_________________^"

Yuttana So good my friend. 555+

Somsak

Ohh!! Really?

Good job. 5555551

Apisak

I play basketball too. : )))

Nipa I don't belive.

555+ Puwadol

Ohhh ! My friends. 555

Tossapon Hello old Saw Yupaporn Piriyasilpa

That s good, Puwadol! Please check your

sentences. In the last 2 lines, we may say 'while

I was playing basketball, I told myself that I

must win the game'. Try again and tell me more

about your experiences.

Puwadol Ahhh. Thanks you teacher : )))

TABLE 5 - Further example of teacher-student interaction, demonstrating the construction of a less formal

relationship than in the classroom

Tables 4 and 5 show that there is a frequent use of lower case instead of capital letter, misspelling (e.g. „beleave‟,

„thanks you‟), informal way of greeting or leave taking (e.g. „Hi teacher !! =^^=’, ‘Hellow old

Saw’), and abbreviations (e.g. „HBD‟) in students‟ language. These features share similar characteristics with

spoken language (see Burns, Joyce, and Gollin, 1996; Eggins, 2004) and cannot be found in students‟ compositions

submitted to the teacher in a traditional classroom assignment. This means that the teacher-student interaction

created in the Facebook activity contains less-formal features of language than that constructed in the traditional

classroom activity. This less formal way of interaction helps to create good relationship between the teacher and

students which will in turn create students‟ motivation in learning the target language.

5.2.3.2 The practice of learnt language from the classroom

Consistently with students‟ comments, the findings showed that the Facebook activity provided students with an

opportunity to practice the learnt language. One possible reason that enabled students to use the language from the

classroom was the topic assigned by the teacher asking them to discuss something which required them to use the

learnt language structure. Table 6 below is the example of students‟ posting after learning Unit 4 (Present Tense:

Daily Routines) from the classroom.





http://www.facebook.com/tossaporn.kongwandee




Name Text

Neeranut I gets up at 06:00 pm

I bathe at 06.30 pm

I dress to 07.00 pm

I eat breakfast at 07.30 am.

07:50 I go to school.

I re-enter, at 8:30.

I eat food at 12:00 pm.

I start school again at 13:00 am

I quit school I return home 16:00 pm 16:30 pm

I read 17:00 pm.

I play online computer game music at 21:00 pm and I

bathe brush teeth 21:30

I go to bed 22:00 pm

I take a bath and to sleep at 22:30 pm

Yupaporn Piriyasilpa Very good, neeranut! In the first sentence, we say

'I get up' not 'I gets up'. :)

TABLE 6 - Example of student‟s posting containing the features of language learnt from the classroom

(Unit 4: Present Tense)

In Unit 5, students learnt about Present Simple Tense and were practicing writing daily activities. A week later, the

teacher asked students to post or discuss their daily routines in Facebook. Table 6 shows that Neeranut uses the

knowledge of language learnt from the classroom to describe her daily routines and her contribution is made in this

way due to the teacher‟s assignment. The findings imply that the Facebook activity can be an alternative choice for

students to exercise the language structure taught from the classroom, and this can be enabled through the teacher‟s

tasks or assignments. Further examples of this are given in Tables 7 and 8 below.

Name Text

Nipa Good evening teacher.

I'am <student’s class> <student’s ID>

My homework.

5 years ago. At that time I was coming back to

home. Wilhe I was

sitting mortercycle, an accident happened.

Motorcycle collided with an automobile. It caused

me to be injured.

I stayed at hospital 7 days.

From that event I'am not drive suddenly because I

fear will be accident.

Yupaporn Piriyasilpa Oh! it was a bad experience with motorcycle,

Nipa. How old were you at that time?

Nipa I was 14 years old.

Yupaporn Piriyasilpa So, this happened last 4 years??

TABLE 7 - Further example of student‟s posting containing the features of language learnt from the classroom

(Unit 5: Past Tense)

http://www.facebook.com/maneerat.janlankorn?ref=mf








Name Text

Sompong

Good morning teacher, I'm Sompong <student’s

number>.. <student’s class>

In the future

I'm going to read a book for final test.

I'm going home next week.

Last, I'll intend to study for mother

Bye bye teacher....

see you agian to next time.............

Yupaporn Piriyasilpa Good boy :))

Sompong

thank teacher.

I'll make best........

see you again to next time............

bye sweet dream......

TABLE 8 - Further example of student‟s posting containing the features of language learnt from the classroom

(Unit 6: Future Tense)

The extracts from Tables 7 and 8 above demonstrate the use of students‟ language in sharing their personal

information under the topic assigned by the teacher. Though some grammatical mistakes can still be found, the data

clearly show that the learnt language structure from the classroom (Unit 5: Past Tense and Unit 6: Future Tense)

appear in their contributions. This shows that if task is designed properly by the teacher, the Facebook activity can

allow students a chance to exercise the learnt knowledge of language out of class (cf. Piriyasilpa, 2008).

5.2.3.3 The reflection of students‟ understanding of the learnt language

Even though previous studies claim that less formal language or the use of grammatical mistakes are common

features found in the language used in online communication (e.g. Hewings and Coffin, 2004; Piriyasilpa, 2007), the

use of students‟ language in this new way of communication can still help to reflect how well students understand

the learnt language from the classroom. The teacher‟s feedback on students‟ use of language in Table 5 (see 5.2.3.1)

and Table 6 (see 5.2.3.2) above exemplify this. Further illustrations of students‟ use of language which helps to raise

the teacher‟s awareness of how well they understand the lesson are given in Table 9 below.

Name Text

Sirinapa I get up about 7:00 o'clock every morning. I shower,

clean my face and brush my teeth. Next time. I have

breakfast. Igo to university about 7:50 am. I study

callculusI form 8.00 o'clock to 11.00 o'clock. I

have lunch . I study English form 13.00 o'clock to

15.00 o'clock. I go to home at 16.00 o'clock . I

have dinner at 21.00 o'clock. I sleep at 23.00

o'clock

Yupaporn Piriyasilpa

Well done, Sirinapa. How about the weekend?? What do

you like to do??

TABLE 9 - Example of students‟ posting which reflect their understanding of the learnt language

5.2.3 Problems found in the application of the Facebook activity

The use of L1

Though rules were set in the beginning asking students not to use L1 to communicate, it was found that the use of

L1 or Karaoke language still appeared sometimes throughout the activity. This reflects students‟ limited knowledge


http://www.facebook.com/sirintra.sriyamat?ref=mf




of the target language and supports the students‟ comments made in the open-ended part of the questionnaire that the

training of useful language and expressions are needed prior to exposing them to the Facebook activity.

Plagiarism

Since the postings of all students were visible to other participants, it was found that some students made

contribution by copying their peers‟ work. This reflects that while the activity was viewed as highly beneficial by

many students, its benefits may not be realized by some students who only participated because they were asked to.

This means that some students were not aware of the learning goals. To create the desire to participate and enable

them to learn more successfully, it is important for the teacher to negotiate the goals of the activity explicitly from

the beginning. Furthermore, the comments from students asking the teacher to add more interesting activities (see

students‟ comments in 5.2.2) means that various kinds of activity or topics are needed to motivate them to visit the

program.

IT problem

IT problems included the low connection of the Internet system and students‟ familiarity with the Facebook activity.

This reflects that while the application of technology is currently being promoted in many educational contexts,

technology itself can be the problem if the system is not well equipped to serve students. Furthermore, Facebook is

still new to many students in this study as they are more familiar with other programs, for example hi5, Facebook

training is therefore necessary and longer time may be provided for students to practice and get familiar with the

program (see students‟ comments in 5.2.2).

Timing

In this study, teacher‟s timing was also the problem. Due to a high teaching load, the teacher could not participate in

the activity on a daily basis and this resulted in late responses to students. Moreover, some students who posted their

comments early also missed responses from the teacher. The students said that many times the teacher missed out

their comments because those early comments were hidden behind the later ones. This may discourage students to

participate in the activity and reflects the problem of including too many groups of students into one Facebook

activity. To solve the problem, the teacher may split the members into minor Facebook groups and include only one

or two classes into each Facebook community.

6. IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDY

The findings showed that Facebook is a useful activity and can be beneficial to students if designed properly by the

teacher. This part discusses some implications of how the Facebook activity can be effectively employed in the

language classroom.

To begin, it is important to ensure that the learning goals are realized by students to create successful learning and to

motivate students‟ participation. To do so effectively, goals need to be negotiated with students from the beginning

of the activity. Secondly, training is also important. As Facebook activity is still a new kind of invention for

students, students are more familiar with hi 5. So it would be useful to provide at least 2 weeks for them to become

familiar with the program before being exposed to the activity. In addition, useful language needed for the

participation in the activity should be taught to provide students with sufficient input of language to help them

successfully communicate. In the meantime, tasks need to be designed carefully by the teacher based on the learning

goals set from the beginning to enable them to use the target language learnt from the classroom. Finally, the teacher

may apply for more than one Facebook account and include only one or two classes of students as members to

reduce the problem of late responses to some students‟ messages.

7. CONCLUSION

This paper discusses the effects of the application of the Facebook activity in the language classroom. The findings

from students‟ responses and from the teacher‟s observation are consistent in that the Facebook activity is a useful

medium for students to create their social network and keep connected with friends. Moreover, the activity can also

be used for language teaching if designed properly by the teacher and importantly training in both IT and useful

language expressions are needed prior to exposing students to this activity.

Notes

1. 555 signifies laughter in Thai.



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http://www.it/



APPENDIX

Section 1: Personal Details

Name ………………………………………………………………….

Gender Male Female

Age …..……………

Section 2: Please answer the questions below.

1. At which level do you think the Facebook activity is beneficial for you?

(1= the least – 5 = the most)

Benefits 1 2 3 4 5

a. Improving computer and Internet skills

b. Learning more vocabulary

c. Improving writing skills

d. Improving reading skills

e. Increasing the knowledge of grammar

f. To make new friends

g. To create good relationship with peers

h. To exchange knowledge or attitudes with peers

i. To increase motivation in learning English

j. Others, please specify

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

2. What are the problems you have encountered in participating in the Facebook activity?

Computer Usage

Internet Connection

Timing

The use of language in expressing your opinions

Others, please specify……………….……………………………………………

3. How did you solve the problems above? Please explain.

………………………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………



4. What do you think are the strengths of the Facebook activity?

………………………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

5. What do you think are the weaknesses of the Facebook activity?

………………………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

6. Please make some suggestions of how the Facebook activity can be employed more effectively in the language

classroom.

…………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

7. Will you continue participating in the Facebook social network in the future? Why?

Yes, because .……………………………………….………………………………

…………………………………………………….…………………………………..

…………………………………………….……………………………………………

No, because….………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

8. Further comments about this activity.

.………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

Biography

Yupaporn Piriyasilpa teaches English at Rajamangala University of Technology Isan, Khon

Kaen Campus, Thailand. In 2009, she completed her PhD in Linguistics at Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.

Her main research interest is genre and discourse in online communication.

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