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Journal of Cleaner Production 170 (2018) 42e60

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/locate/ jc lepro

Durability performance of structural concrete containing silica fumeand marble industry waste powder

Ali Khodabakhshian a, Mansour Ghalehnovi a, Jorge de Brito b, *, Elyas Asadi Shamsabadi a

a Department of Civil Engineering, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iranb CERIS-ICIST, Department of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Georresources, Instituto Superior T�ecnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 22 April 2017Received in revised form10 September 2017Accepted 12 September 2017Available online 12 September 2017

Keywords:Structural concreteSilica fumeMarble waste powderStrengthDurability

Abbreviations: CH, calcium hydroxide; CSH, calcmarble waste powder; SF, silica fume; OPC, Ordinarycled aggregate concrete; SSD, saturated surface dry.* Corresponding author.

E-mail addresses: [email protected]@ferdowsi.um.ac.ir (M. Ghalehnovi), jb@[email protected] (E. Asadi Shamsabadi).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.09.1160959-6526/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

a b s t r a c t

This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation of durability properties carried out on 16concrete mixes containing marble waste powder and silica fume as partial replacement of ordinaryPortland cement. The latter was partially replaced at different ratios of silica fume (0%, 2.5%, 5%, 10%) andmarble waste powder (0%, 5%, 10%, 20%). In all concrete mixes, constant water/binder ratio of 0.45 andtarget initial slump of S2 class (50e90 mm) were used. Workability and bulk density tests were carriedout on fresh concrete, while compressive strength, electrical resistivity, water absorption, durability tosodium sulphate, magnesium sulphate and sulphuric acid attack tests were performed to evaluate somerelevant properties of concrete in the hardened state.

It was found that the strength and durability of concrete containing marble waste powder tend todecline for replacement ratios over 10% but satisfactory results were obtained below that level ofreplacement. Regarding the use of silica fume, it was observed that it improves the strength and dura-bility of concrete with marble waste powder by offsetting the decline of its properties relative to con-ventional concrete. In addition to obtaining approximately the same results as the original concrete mix,using 20% marble waste powder and 10% silica fume as partial replacement of cement resulted in a 30%cement reduction which decreases the harmful effects of cement industry on the environment.

© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Concrete is by far the most frequently used Man-made materialon Earth (Rana et al., 2015). The present increase in concrete con-sumption increases cement demand. Cement manufacturing ishighly energy- and emissions-intensive as a result of the hightemperatures required to produce it.

For global sustainable development it is imperative that greenersupplementary cementing materials are used to replace cement inthe concrete industry. Iran is one of the largest producers of marblestone in the world. According to the statistics provided by the in-dustrial department of the Mineral, Mine and Trade Ministry of the

ium silicate hydrate; WMP,Portland cement; RAC, recy-

.ac.ir (A. Khodabakhshian),civil.ist.utl.pt (J. de Brito), E.

Islamic Republic of Iran in 2012 (2012e2013), 4 857 594 tonnes ofsemi-processed and raw stone from a total of 473 active marblestone quarries have been manufactured in Iran (Zanganeh andRoosta, 2015). Actual figures about the quantity of MWP pro-duced in Iran from the marble industry are inaccessible since it isnot calculated or monitored by the government or any other party.Depending on the type of processing involved, the generatedsludge is about 20%e30% of the weight of the stone worked(Aliabdo et al., 2014). Based on the lowest estimates of MWP per-centage, it can be estimated that Iran produces around one milliontons of MWP per year. For this reason, the search for ways of re-using this kind of waste is a priority. Nowadays in the construc-tion industry, the methods used to recycle and re-use waste ma-terials should be investigated in order to conserve valuable naturalresources and prevent the growth of dumping sites.

Mining by-products, which are generally non-biodegradableand have long-lasting effects on the natural environment, havebeen broadly targeted for concrete production. MWP is a by-product that the marble industry generates in large amounts dur-ing sawing and shaping of the marble elements. MWP is mostly not

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A. Khodabakhshian et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 170 (2018) 42e60 43

being recycled nor used in the industry. This dumped waste affectsthe morphology, hydrology and fertility of soil in the nearby area byreducing its porosity and permeability. Fine airborne particles fromthis waste's processing can even cause visual, respiratory, and skindisorders (Rana et al., 2015). To counteract these effects, MWP canbe used in concrete production, which may be an important steptowards sustainable development.

From the physical point of view, the presence of MWP in thehardened cement paste has a filler effect and reduces the paste'sporosity. MWP is an inert or quasi-inert material, being non-cementitious from a hydraulic points of view. The MWP's chemi-cal interactions take place between CaCO3 and the Ordinary Port-land cement (OPC) paste leading to calcium carboaluminates,formed by a reaction between hydrated calcium aluminate andcarbonate ions. The calcium carboaluminate hydrates in the inter-facial transition zone and changes the surface of the aggregate; itbecomes rougher and the bond paste-aggregate is strengthened. Inthe presence of CaCO3 C3S hydration is accelerated; the inductionperiod shortens and the heat evolved in the area of the second peakincreases. Calcareous fillers also play an important role in thecementitious property developed by the hydration of C3A andcalcite (Ergun, 2011; Kurdowski, 2014).

The presence of silica fume (SF) in concrete reduces the influ-ence of the weak interfacial zone by strengthening the cementpaste-aggregate bond resulting in a less porous and more homog-enous microstructure in the interfacial region (Siddique, 2011).

The comparison between a control mix (without marble pow-der) and mixes with marble powder-blended cement indicate thatthere is no significant difference between the studied specimens,especially regarding calcium hydroxide (CH) contents (Aliabdoet al., 2014). The silica (SiO2) of SF can react with CH and producecalcium silicate hydrates (CSH), which are responsible for thedevelopment of strength (Ergun, 2011).

Several studies have been made concerning the separate effectof MWP and SF on concrete properties. In similar studies, only themechanical properties of concrete containing MWP and SF wereinvestigated and with different replacement ratios in comparisonto this research. Although the study made on this topic is not veryvast, some works are reviewed in this section.

Corinaldesi et al. (2010) characterized the use of marble powderin mortar and concrete. In terms of mechanical properties, theauthors replaced different percentages of cement and sand withmarble powder in mortar mixes. Maximum compressive strengthwas reached for a replacement of sand with 10% marble powder inthe presence of a superplasticizer. These authors argued that thefiller ability of marble powder can provide a positive effect at earlyages in concrete. Also, low thixotropy values were obtained usingmarble powder which indicates that this incorporation would notbe accompanied by an evident energy loss during concrete placing,as is usual in other ultra-fine mineral additions (such as SF) that areable to confer high cohesiveness to the concrete mix.

Alyamaç and Aydin (2015) replaced sand with marble powder at10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% and 90% by volume. The authors concludedthat the workability of concrete negatively correlates with themarble powder content, i.e. increasing the replacement ratio ofsand with marble powder tends to decrease the slump due to anincrease in the fine aggregate fraction. For instance, the concretemix without marble powder and the mix with 40% marble powderas sand replacement showed a significant 15 cm slump difference.The compressive strength increased up to 20% marble powderincorporation and began decreasing at 30%. Furthermore, the au-thors reported that replacing sand with marble powder up to 50%has no significant effect on the concrete sorptivity coefficient, but at90% that coefficient significantly decreases.

Alyamac et al. (2017) studied the optimal eco-efficient self-

compacting mix design with the maximum possible amount ofmarble powder using a multi-objective optimization technique.The relationships between the water to cement andmarble powderto cement ratios and several properties, such as slump flow, T-50,V-funnel and compressive strength, were determined. They re-ported that an eco-efficient self-compacting concrete can be ob-tained with water to cement ratios below 0.55 and marble powderto cement ratios up to 0.6.

Several research works have shown that replacing OPC withMWP in structural concrete is a viable choice. Concerning the use ofMWP as a pozzolan, Ergun [4] studied the effect of the replacementof OPC with diatomite and MWP in the presence of superplasticizeradmixture on the mechanical properties of concrete. The authorconcluded that diatomite and MWP can be used up to 10% and 5%,respectively, separately or together, as a replacement of OPC in theproduction of concrete. Also, the author argued that the strengthdevelopment rate of the concrete mixes depended on the clinkerhydration and pozzolanic activity of the diatomite, the filler effectof the MWP and the water-reducing effect of the superplasticizeradmixture.

Rana et al. (2015) studied the technical feasibility of incorpo-rating marble slurry as cement replacement in concrete and re-ported that the required strength and improved durability ofconcrete can be obtained by using a 10% replacement ratio. It wasargued that, since marble slurry particles are finer than OPC's,concrete resistance to chloride migration, permeation and corro-sion improves.

Aliabdo et al. (2014) investigated the effect of replacing cementand sand with marble waste dust in concrete production. Theseauthors used 0%, 5%, 7.5%, 10% and 15% replacement ratios sepa-rately for each material, concluding that the use of marble dust inconcrete as cement or sand replacement can produce less porousconcrete because of the filler effect of marble dust. Concerning thesteel-concrete bond strength, they observed the highest bondstrength at 10% replacement ratio of both materials. They also re-ported that using marble dust has an insignificant effect on theultrasonic pulse velocity test values.

Mashaly et al. (2016) studied the possibility of using marblesludge as a cement substitute up to 40% in concrete production.They reported that incorporating up to 20% marble sludgeimproved the physical and mechanical properties of concrete. Thetest results showed that the apparent porosity and water absorp-tion of concrete mixes containing marble sludge increased with anincrease in the marble sludge content due to its high surface area.

Rodrigues et al. (2015) found that the mechanical properties ofconcrete with marble sludge as cement replacement tend todecline. However, satisfactory results were achieved up to 10%replacement, as in the present research. The results of ultrasonicpulse velocity and abrasion resistance tests showed that thedurability properties decreased with the increase in marble sludgecontent.

Regarding concrete's sulphate resistance, Binici et al. (2008)studied the effect of incorporating marble and granite as coarseaggregates on the durability performance of concrete. They re-ported that concrete containing marble aggregates exhibited thehighest Na2SO4 resistance in comparison with other mixes. Also,the results showed that the incorporation of marble and granite toconcrete reduced the chloride penetration depths by about 70%.

Sardinha et al. (2016) assessed the influence of incorporatingincreasing amounts of very fine aggregates from dried marblesludge and presence of different type of plasticizers on the dura-bility of structural concrete. They reported that the performance ofconcrete is significantly dependent on the superplasticizer's typeand content. The concrete mix containing 20% marble sludge withsuperplasticizer showed similar performance to that of the

A. Khodabakhshian et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 170 (2018) 42e6044

reference mix. As in the present research, increasing cementreplacement withmarble sludge affectedmost concrete's durabilityproperties. However, for a 5% replacement level, the decline indurability was marginal.

Gameiro et al. (2014) studied the durability of concrete pro-duced with fine marble waste aggregates from marble quarrying.The authors replaced 0%, 20%, 50% and 100% of fine aggregates withfine aggregates from marble quarrying waste, concluding that thedurability properties of concrete containing fine aggregates ofgranite, basalt and river sand tended to improve, remain constantand decrease, respectively, with the incorporation of fine aggre-gates from marble quarry waste.

Turker et al. (2002) stated that the compressive strength ofconcrete decreased when replacing cement with marble powder.The authors believed that this reduced strength can be attributed tothe dilution of C2S and C3S.

According to the studies of Arel (2016), the use of processedmarble waste in the production of concrete may yield significanteconomy related benefits as well as reduced environmentalpollution. The author reported that replacing cement with 5e10%marble dust improves the mechanical behaviour of concrete, whilereducing the CO2 emissions of cement production by 12%.

Another partial replacement material used in the presentresearch is SF, which is composed of ultrafine particles as by-products of silicon and ferrosilicon alloy. The most well-knowneffect of SF on concrete is the improvement of the aggregate-cement paste interfacial transition zone, which is considered asthe weakest area in a concrete matrix (K€oksal et al., 2008). Thebenefits obtained when utilizing SF include notable compressivestrength enhancement and improved durability when added inoptimum amounts (Sanjuan et al., 2015).

Dilbas et al. (2014) studied the effects of recycled aggregate andSF on the mechanical and physical properties of concrete. Theseauthors replaced 0%, 5% and 10% of SF with OPC. They demonstratedthat SF improves the performance of recycled aggregate concrete(RAC) in structural concrete. The water absorption of all naturalaggregate concrete and RAC specimens increased until 5% SF con-tent and, above this value, all water absorption values decreased.

Gupta et al. (2016) carried out a study on the mechanical anddurability performance of rubber waste fibre concrete with andwithout SF, concluding that the rubber fibres can be used as sandreplacement up to 10% with little influence on the strength anddurability properties, for a simultaneous replacement of 10%cement with SF. The depth of the water penetration for rubber fibreconcrete (25% rubber fibre) with 10% replacement of cement withsilica fume decreased by around 12%, due to good bond betweenthe fibres and the cement matrix.

The hardened properties of concrete mixes containing silicafume and pre-coated crumb rubber were investigated byOnuaguluchi and Panesar (2014). They concluded that the syner-gistic effect of coated crumb rubber and SF as cement replacementmaterial significantly enhanced the mechanical properties of themixes. Furthermore, the incorporation of SF considerably improvedthe electrical resistivity and resistance to chloride penetration.

In association with concrete's electrical resistivity, Bagheri et al.(2013) and Dotto et al. (2004) studied the influence of SF incor-poration on the electrical resistivity of concrete and reached asimilar conclusion in their studies. Bagheri et al.'s results indicatedthat the replacement of 2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10% cement with SFincreased the electrical resistivity of concrete by around 1.7%, 3%,4.4% and 5.3 times. Dotto et al.'s results showed that the incorpo-ration of 6% SF increases the electrical resistivity of concrete by 2.5times and 12% SF increases it by 5 times.

Shelke et al. (2012) studied the influence of the partial

replacement of cement with marble powder (0%, 8%, 12%, and 16%)and SF (0%, 8%) on the compressive strength of ordinary concrete at7 and 28 days. The authors observed that the compressive strengthdecreases in all mixes when the cement content decreases byincorporatingmarble powder. So, mixes containing 8%,12% and 16%marble powder showed a decrease of about 1%, 25% and 29% forcube specimens and 14%, 32% and 40% for cylindrical specimensrespectively, relative to the respective control mixes at 28 days.They reported that the optimal results of compressive strength isfound at 8% marble powder and 8% SF: improvements of 1.64% and3.92% at 7 and 28 days for cube specimens and 2.79% and 1.78% at 7and 28 days for cylindrical specimens. They also reported that thecompressive strength of concrete with 16% marble powder and 8%SF at 7 and 28 days decreased, respectively, by 12.18% and 14.79%(cube specimens) and 20.83% and 31.95% (cylindrical specimens).

Amin et al. (2014) replaced cement with 30% marble dust and0%, 5% and 10% SF and studied the compressive and flexuralstrengths of concrete. The results showed that replacing cementwith 30% marble powder and 5% and 10% SF decreased the 90-daycompressive strength up to 60% and 47% respectively. The flexuralstrength trend was the same as that of the compressive strength.

The results of past investigation show that the use of MWP aspartial replacement of OPC can lead to reduced performance ofconcrete at high replacement levels. SF is used for two purposes: toeliminate the disadvantages relative to conventional concrete thatcome from using MWP and to further reduce cement content whileretaining an acceptable concrete performance.

Up to now, many researchers have used MWP and SF in mortarsand concrete as inert filler and pozzolanic materials, but to the bestof the authors’ knowledge no detailed investigation has been doneto determine the optimal combined content of MWP and SF aspartial replacement of OPC in the production of concrete, in termsof durability performance.

In this research, the effects of the use of MWP and SF as partialreplacement of OPC on the durability related properties of concretemixes were examined extensively. Part of the innovation of thisresearch lies in the wider incorporation ratio range analysed todetermine the optimal content of MWP and/or SF as partialreplacement of cement regarding durability performance of con-crete. Also the difference in grain size distribution of MWP, SF, andOPC can lead to filling the voids in concrete and improve itsdurability.

2. Experimental programme

2.1. Materials used

The materials used to produce the 16 concrete mixes were:

� Crushed gravel, supplied by Maat Beton Paya;� River sand, supplied by Maat Beton Paya;� Marble waste powder, supplied by Behsang;� Silica fume, supplied by Iran Ferroalloy Industries Co;� Type II cement, supplied by Mashhad Cement Co;� Polycarboxylate -ether superplasticizer, supplied by ShimiSakhteman Co;

� Tap water.

2.2. Concrete mixes

The concrete mix proportion was designed by the volumetricmethod of ACI 211.1 (1991). In order to assess the effects of MWPand SF as partial replacement of cement on the behaviour of con-crete, a constant water/binder (cement þ fines) ratio of 0.45 was

Table 2Designation of the mixes and definition of their meaning.

Designations Definition

OC Control mixMy Concrete with y% MWP replacement by weight of cementSFx Concrete with x% SF replacement by weight of cementSFxMy Concrete with y% MWP and x% SF replacement by weight of

cement


used for all the test specimens. The variables in this research werethe MWP and SF contents. 16 concrete mixes were produced andgrouped in four families: the first one with no SF; the second oneincorporating 2.5% SF; the third incorporating 5% SF, and the fourthone incorporating 10% SF. The incorporation ratios of MWP were0%, 5%, 10%, and 20% by weight of total cementitious materials in allfamilies. The designations, proportions, and some properties of theconcrete mixes for the 16 mixes are given in Table 1. For the sake ofthe readers, the designations of the concrete mixes are explained inTable 2.

All stages of tests and concrete production were performed atthe laboratories of the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. Mixing wasdone in a standard drum-type mixer. Coarse and fine aggregateswere first mixed in a dry state for 1 min. OPC and MWP were thenadded and dry blended for a furtherminute. Two thirds of thewaterwere added and then mixing continued for another minute. Theremaining water, SF and the superplasticizer were mixed in amortar cement mixer for a minute and then added, and the totalmixing time was 5 min. The slump test was carried out using astandard Abrams cone directly after mixing process according toASTM C143 (2010). The specimens were cast in moulds, and com-pacted using a vibrating table. After 24 h the concrete specimensproduced were removed from the moulds and cured in a water-curing tank until testing. These curing conditions follow thoseexpressed in ASTM C192 (2007).

2.3. Natural aggregates tests

The natural aggregates were characterized using the followingtests and standards:

� Particle size analysis: ASTM C136 (2014);� Particles dry density: ASTM C29 (2009);� Saturated surface dry density: ASTM C127 (2012) and ASTMC128 (2015);

� Fineness modulus: ASTM C33 (2003).

2.4. Portland cement and silica fume tests

The OPC and SF were characterized using the following tests:

� Particle size analysis: ASTM E2651-13 (2013);

Table 1Concrete mix proportions.

Family Mixes Substitutionratio (%)

OPC(kg/m3)

Water(kg/m3)

SF(kg/m3)

1 OC 0 400 180 0M5 5 380 180 0M10 10 360 180 0M20 20 320 180 0

2 SF2.5 2.5 390 180 10SF2.5M5 7.5 370 180 10SF2.5M10 12.5 350 180 10SF2.5M20 22.5 310 180 10

3 SF5 5 380 180 20SF5M5 10 360 180 20SF5M10 15 340 180 20SF5M20 25 300 180 20

4 SF10 10 360 180 40SF10M5 15 340 180 40SF10M10 20 320 180 40SF10M20 30 280 180 40

� Chemical composition; ASTM C114-15 (2015), ASTM C1240-15(2015), ASTM C150/C150M-15 (2015);

� Specific gravity: ASTM C188-09 (2009).

2.5. Marble waste powder's tests

The MWP was tested in the laboratories of the Ferdowsi Uni-versity of Mashhad for:

� Particle size analysis: ASTM E2651-13 (2013);� Chemical composition: ASTM C25-11e2 (2011);� Mineralogical composition: ASTM C1365-06 (2011);� Specific gravity: ASTM C188-09 (2009).

2.6. Fresh concrete tests

The tests conducted on fresh concrete were the following:

� Slump test: ASTM C143(2010);� Density: ASTM C138 (2016).

To evaluate the effect of MWP on the workability (consistency)of concrete, an average of three slump tests were conducted oneach batch of concrete. The slump test was performed within 5 minof completing the mixing process.

The fresh density test was carried out in a cylinder of 150 mmdiameter and 300 mm length.

2.7. Hardened concrete tests

The tests conducted to characterize hardened concrete were thefollowing:

MWP(kg/m3)

Coarseaggregate(kg/m3)

Fineaggregate(kg/m3)

SP(kg/m3)

w/b Slump(mm)

0 1000 793 1.3 0.45 8520 1000 788.4 1.3 0.45 8540 1000 783.8 1.35 0.45 9080 1000 774.5 1.35 0.45 750 1000 790.7 1.45 0.45 8020 1000 782.7 1.45 0.45 9040 1000 778.1 1.425 0.45 9080 1000 768.8 1.425 0.45 850 1000 788.4 1.45 0.45 9020 1000 777.1 1.45 0.45 8040 1000 772.5 1.475 0.45 9080 1000 763.2 1.475 0.45 900 1000 783.8 1.6 0.45 8520 1000 765.8 1.7 0.45 9040 1000 761.2 1.7 0.45 8580 1000 751.9 1.825 0.45 80


� Compressive strength: BS EN 12390-3 (2009);� Electrical resistivity (Zongjin, 2011);� Sodium sulphate attack resistance: ASTM C1012 (2012);� Magnesium sulphate attack resistance: ASTM C1012 (2012);� Sulphuric acid attack: ASTM C267 (2012);� Water absorption: BS 1881-122 (2011).

The compressive strength test was carried out on100 � 100 � 100 mm water-cured specimens, at 7, 28, 56, 90, and180 days.

The electrical resistivity of an electrolyte is directly proportionalto the length and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional areaand is expressed by Equations (1) and (2) (Zongjin, 2011):

P ¼ RðA=LÞ (1)

R ¼ V=I (2)

where R is the resistance in U; P is the resistivity in kU.cm; V is thevoltage in V; I is current in mA; L is the length in cm; and A is thecross-sectional area in cm2.

To obtain the electrical resistivity of each concrete mix, directcurrent was used in the circuit shown in Fig. 1. Three cylindricalspecimens were tested for each mix after 56, 90 and 180 days. Twosteel plates were stuck to both sides of the cylindrical specimenswith low slump cement paste. Afterwards the specimens werepositioned in the circuit. Current and voltage values for eachspecimen were recorded in seven voltages ranging from 2 V to14 V at 2 V intervals. Then the electrical resistivity for each spec-imen was calculated at regular intervals according to Eq. (1).Thereupon the average of all seven electrical resistivity measure-ments was calculated for each specimen. Eventually, the averageelectrical resistivity of three specimens was calculated and re-ported for each mix.

Immersing concrete specimens after the specified initial curingin a water tank containing 10% sodium and magnesium sulphatesolutions separately (ASTM C1012, 2012). Some control concretecubes were kept in the water-curing tank for the compressivestrength reduction determinations. The sulphate solution wasreplaced as the pH value exceeded 9.5. The compressive strengthmeasurements were conducted at the end of the sulphate exposureperiod of 180 days using a compression machine. The compressivestrength reduction (CSR) was calculated as follows Eq. (3):

CSRð%Þ ¼ ððsc � ssÞ=scÞ � 100 (3)

where sc is the average compressive strength (in MPa) of threeconcrete cubes water-cured for 180 days in a water tank and ss is

Fig. 1. Schematic view of the circuit of electrical resistivity test.

the average compressive strength (in MPa) of three concrete cubesimmersed in 10% sulphate solution for 180 days. Concrete speci-mens were removed from the water tank and air-dried 4 h prior totesting.

The relative acid attack was determined according to ASTMC267 (2012). Six concrete cubes of each mix after 28 days watercuring were immersed in 5% sulphuric acid (H2SO4) solution (w/w)for 28 and 63 days. The acid solution's volume was taken as twotimes that of the immersed specimens in order to guarantee that allsurfaces were in contact with the acidic solution. It was refreshedevery week. Specimens were removed from the solution, rinsedthree times to remove potentially loose reaction products, cleanedwith a paper towel and then were left to dry for 30 min beforeweighing. The cumulative mass loss for each specimen, at eachperiod, was calculated using Eq. (5):

Weight Lossð%Þ ¼ ððW1�W2Þ=W1Þ � 100 (5)

where W1 and W2 are the weight of the specimen before immer-sion and cleaned after immersion respectively. The compressivestrength reduction (CSR) was calculated as in Eq. (6):

CSRð%Þ ¼ ððsc � saÞ=scÞ � 100 (6)

where sc is the average compressive strength (in MPa) of six con-crete cubes water-cured for 56 and 91 days in awater tank and sa isthe average compressive strength (in MPa) of six concrete cubesimmersed in 5% sulphuric acid solution for 28 and 63 days after 28days curing. Concrete specimens were removed from the watertank and air-dried 4 h before testing.

The water absorption test is based on BS 1881-122 (2011) fortesting water absorption in hardened concrete. The100 � 100 � 100 mm specimens were oven-dried at 45 �C for aweek until the specimens reached constant weight. The specimenswere immersed in water and weighed after 0.5 h and 24 h to checkthe weight variations and to calculate the water absorption value.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Natural aggregates

The results of the tests performed on the coarse and fine ag-gregates are given in Table 3. The size distribution of coarse and fineaggregates is shown in Fig. 2.

3.2. Marble waste powder, silica fume and portland cementproperties

The MWP used was a by-product of marble sawing and shapingof the marble processing industry in the northeast region of Iran.For better physical characterization of the MWP, SF and OPC, itsgrain size distribution was performed using laser diffraction andthe results are shown in Figs. 3e5. The results of the grain sizedistribution test on the MWP, SF and OPC are given in Table 4. Thechemical and physical properties of MWP, SF and OPC are presentedin Table 5.

Table 3Physical properties of fine and coarse aggregates.

Aggregates Relative density(SSD)

Dry density(kg/m3)

Finenessmodulus

Coarse aggregates 2.675 1620 e

Fine aggregates 2.645 1650 2.86

Fig. 3. Grain size distribution of OPC by laser diffraction.

Fig. 4. Grain size distribution of SF by laser diffraction.

Fig. 5. Grain size distribution of MWP by laser diffraction.

Table 4Grain size distribution of MWP, SF and OPC.

Passing percentage Particle size (mm)

MWP SF OPC

10% 0.991 0.305 1.58350% 4.747 0.687 8.66887% 12.866 10.262 19.850Median 4.747 0.687 8.668

Fig. 2. Size distribution of coarse and fine aggregates.

Table 5Chemical and physical properties of OPC, SF and MWP.

Chemical and physical composition OPC SF MWP

SiO2 (%) 21.63 90e95 0.12Al2O3 (%) 4.27 0.6e1.2 0.09Fe2O3(%) 3.45 0.3e1.3 0.21TiO2 (%) e e N.DCaO (%) 63.25 0.5e1.5 55.64MgO (%) 2.77 0.5e2 0.08Na2O (%) e 0.3e0.5 0.01MnO (%) e 0.02e0.07 e

K2O (%) e 0.2e0.5 N.D.C (%) e 0.2e0.4 e

C3A (%) 5.48 e e

SO3 (%) 2.02 e e

P2O5 (%) e 0.04 e

Loss of ignition (%) 1.5 0.4e3 43.76Moisture (%) e 0.01e0.4 e

pH e 6.8e8 e

Specific gravity (gr/cm3) 3.2 1.9 2.5Specific surface (m2/gr) e 20e25 e

Bulk density (kg/m3) e 300e500 e

Water absorption (%) e e 0.19Compressive strength (kgf/cm2) e e 450e600Melting point (�C) e 1230 e

Shape e Spherical e

Structure e Amorphous e


As seen in Table 4, the difference in grain size distribution ofMWP, SF and OPC is obvious and it allows filling the voids in con-crete and improving its durability.

Themineralogical composition of SF andMWPwere determinedby X-Ray Diffraction and are presented in Fig. 6. XRD patternsshowed that SF is an amorphous (non-crystalline) material andcalcite (CaCO3) is the main crystalline mineral of the MWP. Toperform this test the explorer model of XRD machineManufacturing Co. GNR was used.

3.3. Fresh concrete tests

3.3.1. SlumpThe slump test is a convenient means of measuring the work-

ability of a concretemix. As it seen in Figs. 7 and 8, with the increasein substitution ratio, the superplasticizer content increases to reachthe target slump range. On the other hand, the negative effect ofMWP and SF on the workability decreased as the superplasticizercontent increased. This behaviour may be attributed to the greaterfineness of MWP and SF compared to the OPC.

The workability of all mixes based on the slump test were keptin the range 80 ± 10mm (slump class S2) by calibrating the amountof a polycarboxylic ether-based superplasticizer. Figs. 7 and 8 showthe slump test results and the effect of the SF and MWP incorpo-ration contents on the SP values needed to keep the concrete slumpin the target range. The standard deviation of slump results is4.78 mm.

The use of a superplasticizer admixture decreased water de-mand in the production of concrete. The mixes with SF and MWPdemanded more water than the OPC-only mixes. The increase inwater demand was mainly attributed to the high fineness, amountand low density of SF and MWP in this study.

As for the SF effect on workability, Khayat and Aitcin (1993) andMazloom et al. (2004) reached similar conclusions in their studies.Geso�glu et al. (2012) concluded that as the MWP substitution ratioincreased the amount of superplasticizer had to be increased tokeep the slump at similar levels.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 6. XRD patterns of SF (a) and MWP (b).


60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95Sl

ump

(mm

)

Concrete mixes

Slump Target slump

Fig. 7. Slump results.


3.3.2. Density of fresh concreteFig. 9 shows the density of all concrete mixes. The density is not

significantly changed by the incorporation of MWP and SF, sincemaximum changes of 1.5% only were obtained. According to thediagram, at 5% MWP content, the density of the mix is greater,because of better particle size distribution by MWP. At more than5% substitution ratio, the density of concrete decreases due to lessspecific gravity of MWP relative to cement. Rodrigues et al. (2015)reached similar conclusions in their study. On the whole, theaddition of silica fume improved the pore structure of concrete. Itacts as a filler, which does not have a considerable effect on thedensity of concrete. The standard deviation of density results is14.65 kg/m3.

3.4. Hardened concrete tests

3.4.1. Compressive strengthFig. 10 shows the compressive strength test results at 7, 28, 56,

91 and 180 days. Each presented value is the average of test resultsof three specimens. The results indicate that the compressivestrength decreases with the increasing replacement of OPC withMWP. 5% replacement of OPC with MWP leads to an increase incompressive strength of around 4%. This increase can be explainedby a pore-filling effect of the MWP, providing suitable nucleus forhydration and catalysing the hydration as a result. The compressivestrength of M10 and M20 is reduced by around 3% and 13%,respectively, in comparisonwith that of the control concrete due tothe reduction in cementitious material (C3S and C2S) which is themain contributor to concrete strength. Similar results were foundby Arel (2016) and Ergun (2011).

The compressive strength development of concrete containingSF is related to the cement replacement level and curing age. Thecompressive strength of SF2.5 and SF5 and SF10 are increased byaround 15%, 18% and 24% in comparison to the strength of controlconcrete due to the pozzolanic effect and filler effect of SF. Similarincreases were found by Mazloom et al. (2004), Dilbas et al. (2014),Gupta et al. (2016) and Onuaguluchi and Panesar (2014).

As seen in Figs. 10 and 11, using SF in MWP concrete generallyimproves its strength. The mix SF10M5 had the highest increase incompressive strength at all ages of the concretemixes containing SFand MWP and the concrete mixes with the combination of 10% SFand 5e20%MWP showed a higher increase in compressive strengththan the control concrete at all ages. Also, the concrete mixes withthe combination of 2.5e5% SF and 10e20% MWP showed anacceptable increase in compressive strength at older ages. Thedevelopment rate of strength depended on the clinker hydration

and pozzolanic activity of SF and the filler effect of MWP. Thestandard deviation of compressive strength results at 7, 28, 56, 91and 180 days is 4.17, 5.36, 5.93, 6.10 and 6.66 MPa respectively.

3.4.2. Electrical resistivityThe durability of concrete can be evaluated by measuring its

electrical resistivity. This was done for all mixes after 28, 91 and 180days of curing and the values are shown in Fig. 12. In general, theelectrical resistivity of concrete is directly dependent on its poresstructure. As can be seen, the performance of the concrete mixescontaining SF in the electrical resistivity test is considerably betterthan in the compressive strength test. This is probably due to thefact that the total pore volume of concrete is not reduced by thepozzolanic reactions, but the pore structure becomes less contin-uous. The influence of pore connectivity variation is much higheron durability than on the strength of concrete. In addition to thepore structure, the electrical resistivity of concrete is reliant on thechemistry of the pore solution and chemical binding of various ionswith the reaction products, whereas these parameters do not affectthe strength properties (Bagheri et al., 2013).

In order to present the relative electrical resistivity in Fig. 13, theelectrical resistivity of each mix was normalized by the electricalresistivity of the OPC-only mix. As seen in Figs. 12 and 13, theelectrical resistivity of the MWPmixes is slightly lower than that ofthe control mix at all ages and the resistivity of all mixes steadilyincreases as the SF content goes from 0% to 10%.

SF additionally improves the porosity, which is also reflected inthe enhanced strength and transport properties. SF positivelymodifies the interfacial transition zone's microstructure that, inturn, contributes positively to reduce the electrical conductivity ofthe system (Dotto et al., 2004).

The relative electrical resistivity of the concretes ranged from0.93 to 4.09 at 28 days, 0.92 to 3.16 at 91 days, and 0.92 to 4.09 at180 days (Fig. 12). Dotto et al. (2004) and Bagheri et al. (2013)reached similar conclusions in their studies. The standard devia-tion of electrical resistivity results at 28, 91 and 180 days is 6.49,8.07 and 12.97 kU cm respectively.

Fig. 14 shows the relationship between the electrical resistivityand compressive strength of all mixes at 91 days. From Fig. 15, thecorrelation coefficient for all specimens is found to be 0.63. It can berealized from Fig. 15 that there is a high correlation between theresults of My, SF2.5My, SF10My and SFx (R2 higher than 0.75).However, a low correlation coefficient, 0.50, is obtained from theregression analysis for SF5My specimens. The analysis points outthat the correlation between the electrical resistivity andcompressive strength of all mixes is acceptable.

1.21.31.41.51.61.71.81.9MWP 0%

MWP 5%

MWP 10%

MWP 20%

Effect of SF% replacement on SP values (kg/m3)

SF 0% SF 2.5% SF 5% SF 10%

(a)

1.21.31.41.51.61.71.81.9

SF 0%

SF 2.5%

SF 5%

SF 10%

Effect of MWP% replacement on SP values (kg/m3)

MWP 0% MWP 5% MWP 10% MWP 20%

(b)

Fig. 8. Effect of SF (a) and MWP (b) contents on SP values.


2380.03

2387.6

2359

2347.2

2367.4

2382.5

2355.6

2350.8

2382.5

2390.12

2345.5

2359.8

2377.5

2367

2359 2358.4

2330

2340

2350

2360

2370

2380

2390

2400

Fres

hco

ncre

tede

nsity

(kg/

m3)

Concrete mixes

Fig. 9. Fresh density of all mixes.

OC M5 M10 M20 SF2.5 SF2.5M5 SF2.5M10 SF2.5M20 SF5 SF5M5 SF5M10 SF5M20 SF10 SF10M5 SF10M10 SF10M207 days 46 49 45 40 48 47 45 40 48 50 44 39 53 50 44 4028 days 52 54 51 47 59 57 54 49 60 61 55 50 66 63 60 5656 days 55 57 53 49 65 64 59 54 66 65 60 56 68 69 65 5991 days 60 63 59 54 68 69 64 58 71 71 65 59 74 74 70 63180 days 62 64 60 54 71 71 65 59 73 72 66 60 77 76 71 64

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

)M

Pa(

Com

pres

sive

stre

ngth

Concrete mixes

Fig. 10. Compressive strength at 7, 28, 56, 91 and 180 days.

OC M5 M10 M20 SF2.5 SF2.5M5 SF2.5M10 SF2.5M20 SF5 SF5M5 SF5M10 SF5M20 SF10 SF10M5 SF10M10 SF10M207 days 1.00 1.07 0.98 0.87 1.04 1.02 0.98 0.87 1.04 1.09 0.96 0.85 1.15 1.09 0.96 0.8728 days 1.00 1.04 0.98 0.90 1.13 1.10 1.04 0.94 1.15 1.17 1.06 0.96 1.27 1.21 1.15 1.0856 days 1.00 1.04 0.96 0.89 1.18 1.16 1.07 0.98 1.20 1.18 1.09 1.02 1.24 1.25 1.18 1.0791 days 1.00 1.05 0.98 0.90 1.13 1.15 1.07 0.97 1.18 1.18 1.08 0.98 1.23 1.23 1.17 1.05180 days 1.00 1.03 0.97 0.87 1.15 1.15 1.05 0.95 1.18 1.16 1.06 0.97 1.24 1.23 1.15 1.03

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

1.10

1.20

1.30

Rela

tive

com

pres

sive

stren

gth

Concrete mixes

Fig. 11. Relative compressive strength at 7, 28, 56, 91 and 180 days.


3.4.3. Durability of concrete to sodium sulphate and magnesiumsulphate attack

It is generally accepted that sodium and magnesium sulphateattacks of hydrated cement matrix take place due to the reaction of

sulphate ions with calcium hydroxide and alumina-bearing phases,forming gypsum and secondary ettringite. The formation of gyp-sum leads to softening of the concrete surface causing mass andstrength loss, while secondary ettringite occupies a higher volume

OC M5 M10 M20 SF2.5 SF2.5M5 SF2.5M10 SF2.5M20 SF5 SF5M5 SF5M10 SF5M20 SF10 SF10M5 SF10M10 SF10M2028 days 7.3 7.02 6.91 6.76 9.16 12.65 12 11.74 14.93 12.97 14.38 14.03 29.88 23.66 20.95 16.6391 days 11.01 11.42 10.6 10.15 19.2 24.5 21.42 15.48 26.83 22.94 24.16 20.21 34.84 30.89 31.05 30.19180 days 12.93 12.84 12.76 11.96 21.34 26.1 24.16 25.06 30.4 26.74 34 24.86 52.82 42.8 46.12 45.02

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Elec

trica

lres

istiv

ity(k

.cm

)

Concrete mixes

Fig. 12. Electrical resistivity of all concrete mixes at 28, 91 and 180 days.

OC M5 M10 M20 SF2.5 SF2.5M5 SF2.5M10 SF2.5M20 SF5 SF5M5 SF5M10 SF5M20 SF10 SF10M5 SF10M10 SF10M20Average 1 1.00 0.97 0.92 1.55 1.99 1.82 1.66 2.28 1.98 2.26 1.89 3.78 3.12 3.09 2.8328 days 1 0.96 0.95 0.93 1.25 1.73 1.64 1.61 2.05 1.78 1.97 1.92 4.09 3.24 2.87 2.2891 days 1 1.04 0.96 0.92 1.74 2.23 1.95 1.44 2.44 2.08 2.19 1.84 3.16 2.81 2.82 2.74180 days 1 0.99 0.99 0.92 1.65 2.02 1.87 1.94 2.35 2.07 2.63 1.92 4.09 3.31 3.57 3.48

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

Rel

ativ

eel

ectri

calr

esis

tivity

Concrete mixes

Fig. 13. Relative electrical resistivity at the ages of 28, 91 and 180 days.

y == 99EEE-E--06066x6x3.5086yyRRRR²

E9ERRR²RR =

0666x000EEE==== 0.6301

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

50 55 60 65 70 75

Elec

trica

lres

istiv

ity(k

.cm

)

Compressive strength (MPa)

91 days Power

Fig. 14. Relationship between compressive strength and electrical resistivity of all specimens at 91 days.


than the initial reactants, resulting in expansion and followed bycracking of concrete (Sadek et al., 2016). Furthermore, in the case ofmagnesium sulphate attack, brucite, Mg(OH)2, which has low

solubility, forms and may envelop the remainder of the cement geland protect it against further deterioration. Another reaction thatcan take place due to magnesium sulphate is the degradation of

y = 0.5076x0.7492

R² = 0.9448

y = 0.0005x2.543

R² = 0.9801

y = 1.1915x0.703

R² = 0.5025

y = 15.69x0.1587

R² = 0.7527

y = 2E-12x7.0518

R² = 0.9966

3

8

13

18

23

28

33

38

50 55 60 65 70 75

Elec

trica

lres

istiv

ity(k

.cm

)

Compressive strength (MPa)

My SF2.5My SF5My SF10My SFx


Fig. 15. Relationship between compressive strength and electrical resistivity of the mix families.

OC M5 M10 M20 SF2.5 SF2.5M5 SF2.5M10 SF2.5M20 SF5 SF5M5 SF5M10 SF5M20 SF10 SF10M5 SF10M10 SF10M20Sodium sulphate strength (180 days) 58 59 53 51 62 60 58 55 62 63 59 58 67 64 61 59Magnesium sulphate strength (180 days) 58 61 55 51 64 60 58 54 63 64 60 57 66 63 61 60Tap water (180 days) 62 64 60 54 71 71 65 59 73 72 66 60 77 76 71 64

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

Com

pres

sive

strn

gth

(MPa

)

Concrete mixes

Fig. 16. Compressive strength at 180 days (tap water, 10% sodium sulphate and 10% magnesium sulphate attacks).

OC M5 M10 M20 SF2.5 SF2.5M5 SF2.5M10 SF2.5M20 SF5 SF5M5 SF5M10 SF5M20 SF10 SF10M5 SF10M10 SF10M20Sodium sulphate 6.45 7.81 11.67 5.56 12.68 15.49 10.77 6.78 15.07 12.50 10.61 3.33 12.99 15.79 14.08 7.81Magnesium sulphate 6.45 4.69 8.33 5.56 9.86 15.49 10.77 8.47 13.70 11.11 9.09 5.00 14.29 17.11 14.08 6.25

2.00

4.00

6.00

8.00

10.00

12.00

14.00

16.00

18.00

Com

pres

sive

strn

gth

redu

ctio

n(%

)

Concrete mixes

Fig. 17. Compressive strength reduction percentage at 180 days (10% sodium sulphate and 10% magnesium sulphate).


CeSeH gel into MeSeH gel, which is a non-cementitious productand may lead to the cement matrix's softening. From the above-mentioned, it can be concluded that the amount of calcium hy-droxide should be limited to a minimum, to make concrete durableand also prevent CeSeH gel from softening and being attacked byingress ions. The concrete mixes containing SF behave betterbecause the pore structures are finer and the amount of calciumhydroxide is less than in the ordinary mixes (Ganjian and Pouya,2005).

Pozzolans react with Ca(OH)2 and the result is additional

CeSeH gel. This transformation normally results in increasingresistance to sodium sulphate attack, but not to magnesium sul-phate attack. The CeSeH produced by the pozzolanic reaction ismore susceptible to magnesium sulphate attack (Biricik et al.,2000).

Fig. 16 shows the compressive strength of specimens immersedin tap water, 10% of sodium sulphate and 10% of magnesium sul-phate solutions. As seen in Fig. 16, the reduction in compressivestrength of the specimens from the sodium and magnesium sul-phate tests is the same. Fig. 17 shows the compressive strength


reduction percentage of the specimens after 152 days immersion in10% sodium sulphate and 10% magnesium sulphate solutionsstarting at 28 days. The relative strength was the ratio of the sul-phate strength of the concrete with SF and/or MWP to that of thecontrol specimen at the same age. As seen in Fig. 17, the compres-sive strength reduction percentage of specimens decreased withincreasing MWP incorporation. Fig. 18 shows the relativecompressive strength of sodium and magnesium sulphate testspecimens at 180 days. In both sulphate attack tests, the use of SF ascement replacement enhances the compressive strength of con-crete relative to the control mix. Despite the 30% reduction incement content, the resistance of the SF10M20 mix to sulphateattack is at the same level as that of the control mix. Wee et al.(2000) reported similar conclusions, showing that SF, at replace-ment levels of 5% and 10% by mass of OPC, plays a key role inresisting sodium sulphate attack, where there were no indicationsof spalling after 1 year of exposure to a 5% sodium sulphate solu-tion. The standard deviation of the results of the compressivestrength of sodium andmagnesium sulphate is the same and equals4.04 MPa.

The evolution of the compressive strength of the specimensimmersed in water and sulphates was analysed. Figs. 19e21 showthe relationship between the compressive strength of specimensimmersed in water (fc), 10% sodium sulphate (fs) and 10% magne-sium sulphate (fm) solutions at 180 days, separately. It is found that

OC M5 M10 M20 SF2.5 SF2.5M5 SF2.5M10Sodium sulphate 1.00 1.02 0.91 0.88 1.07 1.03 1.00Magnesium sulphate 1.00 1.05 0.95 0.88 1.10 1.03 1.00

0.80

0.85

0.90

0.95

1.00

1.05

1.10

1.15

1.20

Rel

ativ

eco

mpr

essi

vest

reng

th

C

Fig. 18. Relative compressive strength after 10% sodium sulp

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

1.10

1.20

1.30OC

M5

M10

M20

SF2.5

SF2.5M5

SF2.5M10

SF2.5M20SF5

SF5M5

SF5M10

SF5M20

SF10

SF10M5

SF10M10

SF10M20

Relative compressive strength (sodium sulfate)Relative compressive strength (tap water)

45

50

55

60

65

70

50

Sodi

umsu

lfate

( fs)

)a(Fig. 19. Relationship between compressive strength of specimens immerse

there are high correlations between the results of specimensimmersed in tap water, 10% of sodium sulphate and 10% of mag-nesium sulphate solutions (more than 0.87).

3.4.4. Durability of concrete to sulphuric acid attackSF in concrete has been found to improve its resistance to sul-

phuric acid attack, as a result of the lower calcium hydroxidecontent, which is very vulnerable to acid attack (Chang et al., 2005).Using SF as a partial replacement of OPCwas found to be effective toreduce acid attack (Durning and Hicks (1991), Torii and Kawamura(1994) and Thomas et al. (2016)). Many studies have shown that themain effects of MWP filler are of a physical nature. It results in alarge dispersion of cement grains and in a denser microstructure.Sulphuric acid attack is more potent than sulphate attack sincethere would be a greater dissolution effect prompted by thehydrogen ions apart from the attack by sulphate ions. Deteriorationof concrete due to the action of sulphuric acid can be characterizedby the following reactions (Equations (7)e(9)) (Thomas et al.,2016):

Ca(OH)2þH2SO4/CaSO4.2H2O (7)

CaSiO2.2H2O þ H2SO4/CaSO4þSi(OH)4þH2O (8)

SF2.5M20 SF5 SF5M5 SF5M10 SF5M20 SF10 SF10M5 SF10M10 SF10M200.95 1.07 1.09 1.02 1.00 1.16 1.10 1.05 1.020.93 1.09 1.10 1.03 0.98 1.14 1.09 1.05 1.03

oncrete mixes

hate and 10% magnesium sulphate attacks at 180 days.

0.64310.6x0x3.99023y =yRRR²

.3.RR² =

x0022909== 0.8884

55 60 65 70 75 80

Tap water (fc)

180 days Power

)b(d in tap water (a) and 10% sodium sulphate solution (b) at 180 days.

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

1.10

1.20

1.30OC

M5

M10

M20

SF2.5

SF2.5M5

SF2.5M10

SF2.5M20SF5

SF5M5

SF5M10

SF5M20

SF10

SF10M5

SF10M10

SF10M20

Relative compressive strength (magnesium sulfate)Relative compressive strength (tap water)

y == 4.12299 xx0.6368yR

4.RR²

12.4.RR² =

299 x2212== 0.8704

45

50

55

60

65

70

50 55 60 65 70 75 80

Mag

nesi

umsu

lfate

(fm

)

Tap water (fc)

180 days Power

)b()a(Fig. 20. Relationship between compressive strength of specimens immersed in tap water (a) and 10% magnesium sulphate solution (b) at 180 days.

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

1.10

1.20OC

M5

M10

M20

SF2.5

SF2.5M5

SF2.5M10

SF2.5M20SF5

SF5M5

SF5M10

SF5M20

SF10

SF10M5

SF10M10

SF10M20

Relative compressive strength (sodium sulfate)Relative compressive strength (magnesium sulfate)

y = 1.1592x0.9653

R² = 0.9311

45

50

55

60

65

70

50 55 60 65 70

Mag

nesi

umsu

l fate

(fm

)

Sodium sulfate (fs)

180 days Power

)b()a(Fig. 21. Relationship between compressive strength of specimens immersed in 10% sodium sulphate (a) and 10% magnesium sulphate (b) solutions at 180 days.


3CaO.Al2O3.12H2Oþ3(CaSO4.2H2O)þ14H2O/3CaO.Al2O3.3CaSO4.32H2O (9)

The pH value of the 5% sulphuric acid solution was examinedwith a pH meter, and was maintained in the range of 1 ± 0.1 byadding 98% sulphuric acid in a weekly basis. The solution wasstirred three times a week to remove variations in sulphuric acidconcentrations in the solution tank.

The weight change of a specimen in percentage of the initialweight is an indicator used for assessing the deterioration of con-crete exposed to sulphuric acid attack. After 28 days, the initialweight of each specimen was determined at SSD condition. At 28days, six concrete cubes of each mix were placed in a 5% sulphuricacid solution. The measurements of weight changes of the speci-mens at SSD conditions were taken after exposure to 5% sulphuricacid solution for 28 and 63 days.

The weight change of the concrete cubes of each mix relative tothe immersion time in a 5% sulphuric acid solution is plotted in

Fig. 22. As shown there, the comparison between the control mixand other mixes shows that the latter all have had a lower weightloss after 28 and 63 days immersion in 5% sulphuric acid solution.The weight loss percentage of all mixes decreased steadily as theMWP and SF contents increased. Only the SF5M20 and SF10M20specimens had a slight weight gain over the immersion periods in5% sulphuric acid solution. This weight gain can be attributed to anumber of factors, which include continued hydration of cement,incorporation of MWP and increase in absorbed water in thespecimens. The weight loss decrease due to the addition of SF canbe attributed to the pozzolanic activity and chemical properties ofSF. Fig. 22 shows that mixes with 5%, 10% and 20% MWP that areimmersed in sulphuric acid are more resistant toweight loss. Mixeswith 20% MWP replacement had the lowest weight loss. Thestandard deviation of weight loss results at 28 and 63 days is 1.08and 1.71% respectively.

The better resistance of concrete mixes with MWP to sulphuricacid attacks can be attributed to two important factors: MWP was

OC M5 M10 M20 SF2.5 SF2.5M5 SF2.5M10 SF2.5M20 SF5 SF5M5 SF5M10 SF5M20 SF10 SF10M5 SF10M10 SF10M20Sulphuric acid (28 days) 3.08 2.11 2.45 2.01 2.11 2.33 2.17 1.12 1.71 1.53 0.34 -0.12 0.54 0.16 0.02 -0.41Sulphuric acid (63 days) 4.61 4.34 3.02 2.65 4.45 4.25 3.8 1.4 2.55 2.48 0.86 0.07 1.55 0.35 0.11 -0.19

-1-0.5

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

44.5

5

Wei

ghtl

oss(

%)

Concrete mixes

Fig. 22. Weight loss of the specimens of each mix after 28 and 63 days immersion in 5% sulphuric acid solution.


much finer than OPC. It filled the micropores in concrete and theability of concrete to resist sulphuric acid attack was improved bythe reduced permeability and porosity and the decreased propor-tion of OPC reduced the portlandite (CeH) content.

Chang et al. (2005) concluded that limestone aggregates may actas a sacrificial medium that can reduce the concentration of acidnear the concrete's surface and decrease the rate of deterioration.They reported that concrete with limestone aggregates and aternary cement containing fly ash and silica fume had the bestresistance to sulphuric acid attack.

The relationship between the reduction in compressive strength

OC M5 M10 M20 SF2.5 SF2.5M5 SF2.5M1Sulphuric acid (28 days) 37 42 38 35 43 40 39Tap water (56 days) 55 57 53 49 65 64 59Sulphuric acid (63 days) 33 38 35 33 37 36 36Tap water (91 days) 60 63 59 54 68 69 64

25

35

45

55

65

75

85

Com

pres

sive

stre

ngth

(MPa

)

Fig. 23. Comparison of the compressive strength of un-deteriorated specimens with th

OC M5 M10 M20 SF2.5 SF2.5M5 SF2.5M10Sulphuric acid (28 days) 1.00 1.14 1.03 0.95 1.16 1.08 1.05Sulphuric acid (63 days) 1.00 1.15 1.06 1.00 1.12 1.09 1.09

0.85

0.95

1.05

1.15

1.25

1.35

1.45

1.55

1.65

Rel

ativ

eco

mpr

essi

vest

reng

th

Fig. 24. Relative compressive strength in cubes after 28 a

of three concrete specimens from each concrete mix after exposureto 5% sulphuric acid solution for 28 and 63 days and their weightloss was also determined.

Fig. 23 shows the compressive strength of concrete cubesimmersed in tap water and that of similar specimens after 28 and63 days immersion in 5% sulphuric acid solution. Fig. 24 shows therelative strength of the same specimens, i.e. the ratio of thestrength of themixeswith SF and/orMWP to that of the control mixat the same age. As seen in Fig. 24, this relative strength rangedfrom 0.95 to 1.49 after 28 days immersion and from 1.00 to 1.61after 63 days immersion.

0 SF2.5M20 SF5 SF5M5 SF5M10 SF5M20 SF10 SF10M5 SF10M10 SF10M2039 44 44 47 48 51 52 54 5554 66 65 60 56 68 69 65 5939 42 41 42 44 50 51 52 5358 71 71 65 59 74 74 70 63

Concrete mixes

at of concrete cubes after 28 and 63 days immersion in 5% sulphuric acid solution.


Concrete mixes

nd 63 days immersion in 5% sulphuric acid solution.

-0.20

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20OC

M5

M10

M20

SF2.5

SF2.5M5 SF5M20

SF10

SF10M5

SF10M10

SF10M20

Relative CSR% (28 days) Relative CSR% (63 days)Relative weight loss% (28 days) Relative weight loss (63 days)


Fig. 25 shows the compressive strength reduction percentage ofconcrete cubes after 28 and 63 days immersion in 5% sulphuric acidsolution. It shows that there is a clear decrease in the reduction asthe MWP and SF contents increase. The standard deviation of thecompressive strength results of specimens after 28 and 63 daysimmersion in 5% sulphuric acid solution is 6.30 and 6.82 MParespectively.

Fig. 26 shows the relationship between the relative compressivestrength reduction (CSR%) and the relative weight loss percentageof sulphuric acid test after 28 and 63 days immersion. Experiencealso shows that the compressive strength reduction is closelyrelated to the weight loss. Therefore, the relationship between thecompressive strength reduction after 28 and 63 days immersionand the weight loss is given in Fig. 27. The high values of the linearcorrelation coefficients confirm that the properties are related. Inother words, the specimens that had less weight loss, lesscompressive strength reduction as well.

SF2.5M10

SF2.5M20

SF5

SF5M5

SF5M10

Fig. 26. Relationship between relative compressive strength reduction (%) and weightloss after 28 and 63 days immersion in 5% sulphuric acid solution.

3.5. Water absorption

The effects of MWP and SF contents on concrete's water ab-sorption are evaluated at 28 and 180 days, as shown in Fig. 28. Ingeneral, the results show an increase in water absorption when theOPC replacement with MWP increases. The results show that thereis a slight decrease in the water absorption as the SF content in-creases. As seen in Fig. 28, the concrete water absorption at 180days is lower than that at 28 days, as expected. The standard de-viation of water absorption results after 0.5 h and 24 h at 28 days is0.14 and 0.29% and at 63 days it is 0.24 and 0.20% respectively.

The relationship between the electrical resistivity and waterabsorption at 28 and 180 days is given in Figs. 29 and 30. The highlinear correlation coefficients confirm that the properties arerelated, i.e. decreasing water absorption results in increasing elec-trical resistivity, again as expected.

4. Conclusions

The use of SF and MWP as partial replacement of OPC in theproduction of concrete has been investigated in this study. Themarble extraction industry in Iran and elsewhere produces severalby-products that are normally dumped in or near the quarry siteand create unacceptable environmental impacts. The followingconclusions can be drawn from this investigation:

1. There was no need to change the w/c ratio of the various mixessignificantly to maintain the level of workability. The negative

OC M5 M10 M20 SF2.5 SF2.5M5 SF2.5M10Sulphuric acid (28 days) 32.7 26.3 28.3 28.6 33.8 37.5 33.9Sulphuric acid (63 days) 45 39.7 40.7 38.9 45.6 47.8 43.8

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0

45.0

50.0

Com

pres

sive

stre

ngth

redu

ctio

n(%

)

Co

Fig. 25. Compressive strength reduction in cubes after 28

effect of MWP and SF on workability decreased as the super-plasticizer content increased.

2. Bulk density was not significantly changed by the incorporationof MWP and SF. Maximum changes of 1.5% were obtained. At 5%MWP content, the density of the mix was higher, because of thebetter particle size distribution provided by the incorporation ofthe marble powder. At more than 5% replacement ratio, thedensity of concrete decreased due to the lower specific gravity ofMWP relative to cement.

3. The replacement of 10% OPC with SF significantly increased thecompressive strength. 5% replacement of cement with MWP ledto an increase of about 4% in the compressive strength. It wasobserved that the M10 and M20 mixes had lower strength thanthe control mix. The mixes with the combination of 10% SF and5e20% MWP showed a higher increase in compressive strengththan the control concretes at all ages up to a maximum of 25%.Also, the concrete mixes with the combination of 2.5e5% SF and10e20% MWP showed an acceptable increase in compressivestrength at older ages.


ncrete mixes

and 63 days immersion in 5% sulphuric acid solution.

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0

Wei

ghtl

oss(

%)

Compressive strength reduction (%)

Sulphuric acid 28 days Sulphuric acid 63 daysLinear (Sulphuric acid 28 days) Linear (Sulphuric acid 63 days)

Fig. 27. Relationship between compressive strength reduction (%) and weight loss (%) of all specimens after 28 and 63 days immersion in 5% sulphuric acid solution.

OC M5 M10 M20 SF2.5 SF2.5M5 SF2.5M10 SF2.5M20 SF5 SF5M5 SF5M10 SF5M20 SF10 SF10M5 SF10M10 SF10M2030 min 28 days 1.4 1.42 1.43 1.5 1.34 1.35 1.58 1.43 1.28 1.2 1.35 1.32 1.04 1.05 1.38 1.424 h 28 days 1.88 1.92 1.95 2.35 1.85 1.76 2.11 2.4 1.6 1.96 2.25 2.29 1.54 1.55 2.12 2.430 min 180 days 1.03 1.05 1.08 1.1 1.1 1 1.04 0.63 0.98 0.55 0.83 0.48 0.6 0.5 0.58 0.5924 h 180 days 1.84 1.85 1.9 2.2 1.78 1.76 2.04 1.95 1.59 1.75 2.08 1.94 1.53 1.42 1.84 1.86

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

Wat

erab

sorp

tion

(%)

Concrete mixes

Fig. 28. Water absorption at 28 and 180 days (after 30 min and 24 h).

R² = 0.8676

R² = 0.9649 R² = 0.8846

R² = 0.8975

R² = 0.69

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

Elec

trica

lres

istiv

ity(k

.cm

)-(2

8da

ys)

Water absorption (%) - (28days)



Fig. 29. Relationship between the electrical resistivity and water absorption at 28 days.


4. The electrical resistivity of MWP mixes was slightly lower thanthat of the control mix at all ages. The replacement of 2.5%, 5%and 10% SF increased the electrical resistivity of the concretemixes containing SF and/or MWP by approximately 2.2, 2.5, and4.1 times, respectively. The correlation between the electricalresistivity and compressive strength of all specimens wasacceptable.

5. The reduction in compressive strength of the specimens sub-jected to either sodium and magnesium sulphate tests was thesame. In both sulphate tests, the compressive strength reductionpercentage decreased with the increase in MWP incorporation.The use of SF as cement replacement enhanced the compressivestrength of concrete relative to the control mix up to amaximum of 10%. Despite the 30% reduction in cement content,

R² = 0.9975

R² = 0.9741

R² = 0.4785

R² = 0.8682

R² = 0.7427

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3

Elec

trica

lres

i stiv

ity(k

.cm

)-(1

80da

ys)

Water absorption (%) - (180 days)



Fig. 30. Relationship between the electrical resistivity and water absorption at 180 days.


the resistance of the SF10M20 mix to sulphate attack was at thesame level as that of the control mix.

6. In specimens subjected to the sulphuric acid test, their weightloss decreased steadily when the MWP and SF contentsincreased. The comparison of loss inweight between the controlmix and the others showed that the latter all had a lower weightloss at 56 and 91 days. The mixes with 20% MWP replacementhad the lowest weight loss.

7. The compressive strength reduction of specimens subjected tothe sulphuric acid test decreased with the increase of the MWPand SF contents. The mix with 10%SF and 20% MWP (SF10M20)showed the best resistance to sulphuric acid attack by around1.6 times. The high linear correlation coefficients confirm thatthe compressive strength reduction and the weight loss ofspecimens subjected to the sulphuric acid test are related.

8. The water absorption increased with the increase of the MWPcontent. SF incorporation decreased the water absorption butthe decrease was not significant. A high correlation coefficientbetween the water absorption and electrical resistivity wasobtained.

As a general conclusion, it can be said that the strength anddurability of concrete with MWP tended to decline for replacementratios of more than 10%. Satisfactory results were obtained forreplacement ratios of MWP up to 10%. Regarding the use of SF, itwas observed that it improves the strength and durability perfor-mance of concrete with MWP by offsetting the decline of itsproperties relative to conventional concrete. When 30% of cementis replaced with MWP and SF (SF10M20(, without loss of strengthand durability of concrete, the fact that MWP products from themarble stone industry are reused potentially allows greenhousegases emissions to be significantly reduced and more natural re-sources to be saved.

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