University of IowaIowa Research Online

Theses and Dissertations

1920

Johnson's theory of poetry as expressed in his Livesof the English poetsHazel M. RothState University of Iowa

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Recommended CitationRoth, Hazel M.. "Johnson's theory of poetry as expressed in his Lives of the English poets." MA (Master of Arts) thesis, StateUniversity of Iowa, 1920.https://doi.org/10.17077/etd.sghx24km

J o h n s o n 's T heory o f P o e t r y a s E x p r e s s e d i n h i s

" L iv e s o f t h e E n g l i s h P o e t s "

by

H a z e l M. R o th

A T h e s i s

S u b m it te d to t h e f a c u l t y o f t h e G ra d u a te C o l le g e o f

th e S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f Iowa i n p a r t i a l f u l ­

f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e

d e g re e o f M a s te r o f A r t s

Iowa C i ty

1920

CONTENTSPage

INTRODUCTION - Jo h n so n * s D e f i n i t i o n o f P o e t r y . . . . 1

BODY . . . . - J o h n s o n ’ s C r i t i c a l T heory o f P o e t r y . . 2

A. J o h n s o n 's O p in io n R e g a rd in g C o n te n t o f P o e t r y 2

I . As R e s p e c t s ^ r u t h ............................ . . . . . 2

1 . Types o f V e rse E x c lu d e d ....................... 8

a , F i c t i o n .............................................. 8b . M y t h ..................................................... 9c* P a s t o r a l ....................................11d . E n c o m ia s t i c V e r s e . . . . . 15e . O c c a s io n a l V e rse ..................... 18f . E p i t a p h .............................22g . B u r l e s q u e ................................ 24h . Poems W r i t t e n i n

I m i t a t i o n o f O t h e r s . . • 26i . C o n te m p la t iv e S a c re d

V e r s e ........................ ........................26

2 , Types o f V e rse A pproved . . . . 31

a . E p ic . ...................................... . 3 1b . D i d a c t i c P o e t r y . . . . . . 33c . C r i t i c i s m ........................................ 36d . S a t i r e 37 —e* C o n t r o v e r s y . . . . . . . . 39f . T r a n s l a t i o n ................................... 41g . N a r r a t i v e P o e t r y . . . . . .4 3h . D e s c r i p t i v e P o e t r y .....................44i . E l e g y .................................................... 45

Drams.................................................... 46

I I As R e s p e c t s P l e a s u r e .............................................52

1 . P l e a s u r e s o f t h e M i n d . .....................54

a . N o v e l ty ............................................... 55b . V a r i e t y ............................................... 58

Page

2* P l e a s u r e s o f th e H e a r t ..........................58

a . I n t h e Drama......................................59b* I n t h e L y r i c ................................. . 6 1

B. J o h n s o n s O p in io n R e g a rd in g Form o f P o e t r y . • 64

I . As R e s p e c t s S t y l e ...................................... 64

1 . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f S t y l e . . . . 65

a . C o n c is e . . . . . . . . . . 66b . D i f f u s e ............................................... 67c . L o f ty . .............................................71d* Humble . . . . . . . . . . .7 2

2* S o u rc e s o f S t y l i s t i c E f f e c t . • .7 3

a . D i c t i o n - P o e t i c ..........................73

(1) Hot to o F a m i l i a r . . .75(2) Hot to o Remote . . . .75

b . F i g u r e s o f S p e e c h ......................... 76

(1 ) S i m i l e ................................... 77(2 ) M e t a p h o r .............................. 78(3) A l l i t e r a t i o n .....................79(4) O nom atopoeia . . . . .8 0

I I . As R e s p e c t s P ro s o d y . ........................... 81

1 . M e te r ........................................... . . . . . 8 1

a . R e g u la r . .............................. 81o -

2 , Rhyme. . .................................................... 84

a . O r d e r l y . .............................................88b . C o n so n a n t .............................................88

c o n c l u s i o n _ summary..............................................90

BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................................................................... 92

JOHNSON 'S THEORY OF POETRY AS EXPRESSED

IN HIS "LIVES OF THE ENGLISH POETS"

I NTRODUCTION

JOHNSON'S DEFINITION OF POETRY

" P o e t r y i s t h e a r t o f u n i t i n g p l e a s u r e w i t h i f

t r u t h , by c a l l i n g i m a g i n a t i o n t o t h e h e l p o f r e a s o n . " 170

I n t h e a b o v e -q u o te d l i n e s , D r. Samuel Jo h n so n

b r i e f l y s t a t e s h i s t h e o r y o f p o e t r y . Good p o e t r y m ust

s e rv e a tw o f o ld p u r p o s e : i t m u s t convey t r u t h t o t h e

r e a d e r ; and i t m ust g iv e him p l e a s u r e . T h e r e fo r e i t s

c o n t e n t m ust b e tw o f o ld : a n i n t e l l e c t u a l e le m e n t , an d an

e m o t io n a l a p p e a l . I t i s J o h n s o n 's o p i n i o n t h a t t h e

r e g u l a r v e r s e form i s b e s t a d a p te d t o comply w i t h t h e s e

demands; f o r " t h e g r e a t p l e a s u r e o f v e r s e a r i s e s from I ,

t h e known m easu re o f t h e l i n e s an d u n i fo rm s t r u c t u r e o f 47

t h e s t a n z a s . " T h e r e f o r e , a c c o r d in g t o J o h n s o n 's

t h e o r y , t h e k e y n o te o f p o e t i c c o n t e n t i s t r u t h ; o f

p o e t i c s t r u c t u r e , i s r e g u l a r i t y .

* The e d i t i o n r e f e r r e d t o i n ' t h e s e a n d f o l l o w i n g p a g e s i s t h a t by George B i r k b e c k H i l l , C la re n d o n P r e s s , O xfo rd , 1905

BODY

JOHNSON'S CRITICAL THEORY OF POETRY

A. JOHNSON'S OPINION REGARDING

CONTENT OF POETRY

I

AS RESPECTS TRUTH

The k e y n o te o f t h e c o n te n t i s t r u t h . "The I I I ,

h e a r t n a t u r a l l y l o v e s t r u t h . " The s u b j e c t - m a t t e r 235

m ust be t r u t h ; - n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f a c t , b u t u n i v e r s a l

t r u t h . "On g r e a t o c c a s i o n s and on s m a l l t h e m ind I I ,

i s r e p e l l e d by u s e l e s s and a p p a r e n t f a l s e h o o d . " 284

"Where t r u t h i s s u f f i c i e n t t o f i l l t h e m in d , f i c t i o n I I I ,

i s w orse t h a n u s e l e s s ; t h e c o u n t e r f e i t d e b a s e s t h e 437-8

g e n u in e . " " S u b t i l t y and harmony u n i t e d a r e s t i l l I ,

f e e b l e , when oppo sed t o t r u t h . " 380

T h e r e f o r e , b e f o r e w r i t i n g upon any s u b j e c t ,

i t i s th e p o e t ' s f i r s t d u ty t o make a s e r i o u s s e a r c h

f o r t r u t h i n e a c h o f t h e f o l lo w in g t h r e e w ays: f i r s t ,

by a s tu d y o f t h e m o ra l law ; s e c o n d ly , by a s tu d y o f

hum an ity ; an d f i n a l l y , b y a s tu d y o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r

s u b j e c t u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . "B ut t h e t r u t h i s t h a t I ,

t h e knowledge o f e x t e r n a l n a t u r e , a n d th e s c i e n c e s 99-

w h ich t h a t knowledge r e q u i r e s o r i n c l u d e s , a r e n o t

t h e g r e a t o r th e f r e q u e n t b u s i n e s s o f t h e human m ind .

3

W hether we p r o v id e f o r a c t i o n o r c o n v e r s a t i o n , w h e th e r

we w is h t o be u s e f u l o r p l e a s i n g , t h e f i r s t r e q u i s i t e

i s th e r e l i g i o u s and m o ra l know ledge o f r i g h t and wrong;

th e n e x t i s an a c q u a in t a n c e w i t h t h e h i s t o r y o f m ank ind ,

and w i t h t h o s e e x am p les w h ic h may b e s a i d t o embody

t r u t h and p ro v e by e v e n t s t h e r e a s o n a b l e n e s s o f o p i n i o n s .

P ru d e n ce and J u s t i c e a r e v i r t u e s an d e x c e l l e n c e s o f a l l

t im e s and o f a l l p l a c e s ; we a r e p e r p e t u a l l y m o r a l i s t s ,

b u t we a r e g e o m e t r i c i a n s o n ly b y c h a n c e . . . . L e t me

n o t be c e n s u r e d f o r t h i s d i g r e s s i o n a s p e d a n t i c k or

p a r a d o x i c a l , f o r i f I have M i l t o n a g a i n s t me I have

S o c r a t e s on my s i d e . I t was h i s l a b o u r t o t u r n p h i lo s o p h y

from t h e s tu d y o f n a t u r e t o s p e c u l a t i o n s u pon l i f e , b u t

t h e i n n o v a t o r s whom I oppose a r e t u r n i n g o f f a t t e n t i o n

from l i f e t o n a t u r e . They seem t o t h i n k t h a t we a r e

p l a c e d h e r e t o w a tc h t h e g ro w th o f p l a n t s , o r th e m o t io n s

o f t h e s t a r s . S o c r a t e s was r a t h e r o f o p i n io n t h a t

w hat we h a d t o l e a r n w a s , how t o do good and a v o id e v i l . "

Thus Jo h n s o n d e c l a r e s t h a t , i n h i s q u e s t f o r

u n i v e r s a l t r u t h , t h e p o e t ' s f i r s t d u ty i s t o o b t a i n a

r e l i g i o u s a n d m o ra l know ledge o f r i g h t and w ro n g . He

p r a i s e s h i g h l y A d d i s o n 's w r i t i n g s , b o t h p r o s e and p o e t r y ;

f o r " a l l t h e e n ch a n tm e n t o f f a n c y and a l l t h e cogency o f

4

a rgum en t a r e em ployed t o recommend t o t h e r e a d e r h i s I I ,

r e a l i n t e r e s t , t h e c a r e o f p l e a s i n g t h e A u thor o f h i s 149

■be in g . T ru th i s shewn som etim es a s t h e phantom o f a

v i s i o n , som etim es a p p e a r s h a l f - v e i l e d i n a n a l l e g o r y ,

som etim es a t t r a c t s r e g a r d i n t h e r o b e s o f f a n c y , and

som etim es s t e p s f o r t h i n t h e c o n f id e n c e o f r e a s o n . She

w e a rs a th o u s a n d d r e s s e s , an d i n a l l i s p l e a s i n g . "

T h e r e f o r e t h e h i g h e s t p r a i s e i s due t o A d d iso n ,

b e c a u s e "he h a s d i s s i p a t e d th e p r e j u d i c e t h a t h a d lo n g I I ,

c o n n e c te d g a i e t y w i t h v i c e , and e a s i n e s s o f m anners 125

w i th l a x i t y o f p r i n c i p l e s . He h a s r e s t o r e d v i r t u e t o

i t s d i g n i t y and t a u g h t in n o c e n c e n o t t o be asham ed.

T h is i s an e l e v a t i o n o f l i t e r a r y c h a r a c t e r ’ above a l l

G reek , above a l l Homan f a m e . ’ "

Among th o s e who have s t r i v e n a f t e r t r u t h by

a t t e m p t i n g to g iv e a m o ra l know ledge o f r i g h t and w rong ,

Jo h n so n r e c o g n i z e s e s p e c i a l l y B lac k m o re , Savage , and

Jam es Thomson. "B lackm ore . . . was made a p o e t n o t I**—

by n e c e s s i t y b u t i n c l i n a t i o n , and w ro te n o t f o r a

l i v e l i h o o d t u t . . . f o r a n o b l e r p u r p o s e , t o engage

'p o e t r y i n t h e c a u se o f v i r t u e . ’ " S a v a g e 's poem,

"The W a n d e re r ," h a s one c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w h ich "o u g h t t o I I ,

be th o u g h t e q u i v a l e n t t o many o t h e r e x c e l l e n c e s , t h a t 336

t h i s poem c a n p rom ote no o t h e r p u r p o s e s t h a n t h o s e o f

5

v i r t u e , a n d t h a t i t i s w r i t t e n w i t h a v e r y s t r o n g s e n se

o f t h e e f f i c a c y o f r e l i g i o n . " The h i g h e s t p r a i s e w h ich I I I ,

Jam es Thomson h a s r e c e i v e d , "o u g h t n o t t o he s u p p r e s t ; 301

i t i s s a i d by L o rd L y t t e l t o n i n t h e P ro lo g u e t o h i s p o s t ­

humous p l a y t h a t h i s w o rk s c o n ta i n e d

'No l i n e w h ich d y in g , he c o u ld w ish t o b l o t . 111f

B e s i d e s h a v in g a m o ra l knowledge o f r i g h t and

w rong , a p o e t m ust a l s o have a s y m p a th e t ic u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f h u m a n i ty . Jo h n so n a t t r i b u t e s much o f A d d i s o n 's

s u c c e s s t o h i s k e e n i n s i g h t i n t o human n a t u r e , f o r "he I I ,

r e a d w i t h c r i t i c a l e y e s t h e im p o r ta n t volume o f human 121

l i f e , and knew t h e h e a r t o f man from t h e d e p th s o f

s t r a t a g e m t o t h e s u r f a c e o f a f f e c t a t i o n . " S av ag e , t o o ,

was an o b s e r v a n t s t u d e n t o f l i f e , and h e n ce he was a b le

t o p o r t r a y i t t r u l y , a t l e a s t when he chose t o do s o .

"As he n e v e r s u f f e r e d any sc en e t o p a s s b e f o r e h i s e y e s I I ,

w i th o u t n o t i c e , he h a d t r e a s u r e d i n h i s m ind a l l t h e 358

d i f f e r e n t c o m b in a t io n s o f p a s s i o n s an d t h e in n u m e ra b le

m ix t u r e s o f v i c e and v i r t u e , w h ic h d i s t i n g u i s h one

c h a r a c t e r from a n o t h e r . " "The knowledge o f l i f e was I I ,

in d e e d h i s c h i e f a t t a i n m e n t . " 430

However, a p o e t m ust n o t f a i l t o s tu d y h i m s e l f ,

a s w e l l ; o th e r w i s e he w i l l n o t be a b l e t o convey t r u t h

6

w i t h o u t b i a s . A lth o u g h Jo h n so n som etim es c e n s u r e s

P o p e , y e t he g i v e s him c r e d i t f o r h i s e a r n e s t s e l f - I I I ,

c r i t i c i s m . "He i s s a i d t o have s e n t n o t h in g t o t h e 220

p r e s s t i l l i t h a d l a i n two y e a r s u n d e r h i s i n s p e c t i o n .

. . . He s u f f e r e d t h e tu m u l t o f i m a g i n a t i o n t o s u b s i d e ,

and th e n o v e l t i e s o f i n v e n t i o n t o grow f a m i l i a r . He

knew t h a t t h e m ind i s a lw ay s enam oured o f i t s own p r o ­

d u c t i o n s , and d i d n o t t r u s t h i s f i r s t f o n d n e s s . He

c o n s u l t e d h i s f r i e n d s ; . . . and , w ha t was o f more

im p o r ta n c e , he c o n s u l t e d h i m s e l f , a n d l e t n o t h in g p a s s

a g a i n s t h i s own ju d g e m e n t ."

A lth o u g h Jo h n s o n s a y s t h a t " t h e know ledge o f I ,

e x t e r n a l n a t u r e , and th e s c i e n c e s w h ic h t h a t know ledge 99

r e q u i r e s o r i n c l u d e s , a r e n o t th e g r e a t o r t h e f r e q u e n t

b u s i n e s s o f th e human m in d " ; n e v e r t h e l e s s , i f o c c a s i o n a l l y

t h e p o e t c h o o s e s t o w r i t e upon su c h a s u b j e c t , Jo h n so n

i n s i s t s t h a t he have a t h o r o u g h know ledge o f t h a t s u b j e c t -

m a t t e r . "Knowledge o f t h e s u b j e c t IS t o t h e p o e t w hat I ,

d u r a b le m a t e r i a l s a r e t o t h e a r c h i t e c t . " J o h n s o n 442

a d m i ts t h a t P r i o r e x c e l l e d B u t l e r i n v e r s i f i c a t i o n ; y e t

he c a l l s P r i o r an " i n v e n t o r e m in o r , " b e c a u s e "he h ad I I ,

n o t B u t l e r ' s e x u b e ra n c e o f m a t t e r and v a r i e t y o f 205

i l l u s t r a t i o n . The s p a n g l e s o f w i t w h ich he c o u ld

a f f o r d he knew how t o p o l i s h ; b u t he w a n te d t h e b u l l i o n

7

o f h i s m a s t e r . " He c r e d i t s S o ra e rv i le w i t h w r i t i n g i n

"The C h a se ," " # i t h g r e a t i n t e l l i g e n c e o f h i s s u b j e c t , I I ,

w h ich i s th e f i r s t r e q u i s i t e o f e x c e l l e n c e . " 319

He c r i t i c i s e s s e v e r e l y , h o w e v e r , any p o e t who

p resu m es t o w r i t e u p o n a s u b j e c t o f w h ich he i s n o t

m a s t e r . " I m a g i n a t i o n i s u s e l e s s w i t h o u t know ledge; I ,

n a t u r e g i v e s i n v a i n t h e power o f c o m b in a t io n , u n l e s s 212

s tu d y and o b s e r v a t i o n su p p ly m a t e r i a l s t o be co m b in e d ."

A l th o u g h he r e c o g n i z e s D r y d e n 's g e n iu s a s s u p e r i o r e v e n t o

P o p e ' s , y e t he f i n d s f a u l t w i t h D ryden f o r d e l i g h t i n g

" t o t r e a d upon t h e b r i n k o f m ea n in g , where l i g h t and d a rk - I ,

n e s s b e g i n t o m in g le ; t o a p p ro a c h t h e p r e c i p i c e o f a b - 460

s u r d i t y , and h o v e r ove r t h e a b y s s o f u n i d e a l v a c a n c y .

T h is i n c l i n a t i o n som etim es p ro d u c e d n o n s e n s e , . . . and

som etim es i t i s s u e d i n a b s u r d i t i e s , o f w h ich p e rh a p s he

was n o t c o n s c i o u s . " E ven P o p e , d e s p i t e h i s c a r e f u l p r e ­

p a r a t i o n , does n o t e n t i r e l y e s c a p e ; f o r when he s t u d i e d

m e ta p h y s i c a l m o r a l i t y , "he was p ro u d o f h i s a c q u i s i t i o n s , I I I ,

and s u p p o s in g h i m s e l f m a s te r o f g r e a t s e c r e t s , was i n 242-

h a s t e t o t e a c h w hat he h a d n o t l e a r n e d . " "The E ssa y 243

on Man was a w ork o f g r e a t l a b o u r and lo n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n , I I I ,

b u t c e r t a i n l y n o t t h e h a p p i e s t o f P o p e ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s . 242

The s u b j e c t i s p e rh a p s n o t v e r y p r o p e r f o r p o e t r y , and

8

t h e p o e t was n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y m a s te r o f h i s s u b j e c t . "

Thus t h e p o e t , whose d u ty i t i s t o convey t r u t h

t o t h e m ind o f t h e r e a d e r , m ust be p r e p a r e d t o t e l l

t h i s same t r u t h : f i r s t , r e g a r d i n g t h e m o ra l law ; s e c o n d ly ,

r e g a r d i n g h u m an ity ; and f i n a l l y , r e g a r d i n g any p a r t i c u l a r

s u b j e c t u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

a .F i c t i o n

1 . TYPES OF TERSE EXCLUDED

B ecau se o f t h e i r i n h e r e n t l a c k o f t r u t h , Jo h n so n c e r t a i n

e x c l u d e s * s u b j e c t s from t h e r e a lm o f p o e t r y * F i c t i o n ,

when i t s p o s s i b i l i t y i s no l o n g e r c r e d i b l e , i s n o t

t o be t r e a t e d i n p o e t r y . Jo h n so n c e n s u r e s G ray f o r

i n t r o d u c i n g i n c r e d i b l e f i c t i o n i n t o "The B a r d . " "The I I I ,

f i c t i o n o f H orace was t o t h e Romans c r e d i b l e ; b u t i t s 438

r e v i v a l d i s g u s t s u s w i t h a p p a r e n t and u n c o n q u e ra b le f a l s e ­

hood . . . . To s e l e c t a s i n g u l a r e v e n t , a n d s w e l l i t t o

a g i a n t ' s b u l k by f a b u l o u s a p p e n d a g e s o f s p e c t r e s a n d

p r e d i c t i o n s , h a s l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y , f o r he t h a t f o r s a k e s

t h e p ro b a b le may a lw a y s f i n d t h e m a r v e l l o u s . And i t h a s

l i t t l e u s e ; we a r e a f f e c t e d o n ly a s we b e l i e v e ; we a r e

im proved o n ly a s we f i n d so m e th in g t o be i m i t a t e d o r d e ­

c l i n e d . I do n o t s e e t h a t The B a rd p ro m o te s any t r u t h ,

m o ra l o r p o l i t i c a l . "

Jo h n so n a d m i t s , h o w e v er , t h a t f i c t i o n may be u s e d

9

a s a means o f e x p r e s s i n g u n i v e r s a l t r u t h s : " P o e t s , i n - I ,

d eed , p r o f e s s f i c t i o n , b u t t h e l e g i t i m a t e end o f f i c t i o n 271

i s t h e conveyance o f t r u t h ; an d he t h a t h a s f l a t t e r y

r e a d y f o r a l l whom t h e v i c i s s i t u d e s o f t h e w o r ld h a p p en

t o e x a l t m ust b e s c o r n e d a s a p r o s t i t u t e d m ind t h a t may

r e t a i n t h e g l i t t e r o f w i t , b u t h a s l o s t th e d i g n i t y o f

v i r t u e . "

b .Myth T h ere i s a n o th e r e x t e n s i v e f i e l d o f s u b j e c t -

m a t t e r w h ich Jo h n so n b a r s from t h e r e a lm s o f p o e t r y ; name­

l y , m y th o lo g y . He s p a r e s no p o e t who i s g u i l t y o f t h e

c h o ic e o f such a s u b j e e t ; i t m a t t e r n o t w h e th e r i t i s

Gray whom he s u b j e c t s t o r a t h e r h a r s h c r i t i c i s m , o r Pope

whom he a d m ire s g r e a t l y . I n f a c t , he p r e f e r s D ry den 1 s

"Ode on S t . C e c i l i a ' s B ay ," t o P o p e ' s "O d e ," b e c a u s e t h e

c o n te n t o f th e fo rm er i s b a s e d upon h i s t o r y , v /h i le t h a t

o f t h e l a t t e r i s i n i t s n a t u r e m y t h o l o g i c a l . "D ryden*s I I I ,

p l a n i s b e t t e r c h o se n ; h i s t o r y w i l l a lw ay s t a k e s t r o n g e r 227

h o ld o f th e a t t e n t i o n t h a n f a b l e ; t h e p a s s i o n s e x c i t e d

by B fyden a r e t h e p l e a s u r e s and p a i n s o f r e a l l i f e , t h e

scen e o f Pope i s l a i d i n im a g in a ry e x i s t e n c e . Pope i s

r e a d w i t h calm a c q u i e s c e n c e , D ryden w i t h t u r b u l e n t de ­

l i g h t ; Pope h a n g s upon th e e a r , and D ryden f i n d s th e

p a s s e s o f t h e m in d ."

I n c r i t i c i s i n g P o p e ' s "O d e ," Jo h n s o n f u r t h e r

10

la m e n ts t h e c h o ic e o f a m y th o l o g i c a l s u b j e c t - m a t t e r , ev en

th o u g h p r e s e n t e d i n a p l e a s i n g form : "The n e x t s t a n z a s I I I ,

p l a c e and d e t a i n u s i n t h e d a rk an d d is m a l r e g i o n s o f 228

m y th o lo g y , w here n e i t h e r hope n o r f e a r , n e i t h e r jo y n o r

so rrow c a n be fo u n d : th e p o e t however f a i t h f u l l y a t t e n d s

u s ; we have a l l t h a t c a n be p e r fo rm e d by e l e g a n c e o f d i c ­

t i o n o r s w e e tn e s s o f v e r s i f i c a t i o n ; b u t w ha t c a n form

a v a i l w i t h o u t b e t t e r m a t t e r ? "

On a n o th e r o c c a s i o n , J o h n s o n d o es n o t f a i l t o

c e n s u re D r y d e n 's " I h r e n o d i a , " b e c a u s e t h e a u th o r was n o t I ,

s e r i o u s enough t o keep h e a t h e n f a b l e s o u t o f h i s r e l i g i o n . "439

I n a s i m i l a r m anner he c e n s u r e s ^ a l l e r , b e c a u s e "he I ,

b o r ro w s t o o many o f h i s s e n t i m e n t s and i l l u s t r a t i o n s 295

from t h e o ld m y th o lo g y , f o r w h ich i t i s v a i n t o p l e a d

th e example o f a n c i e n t p o e t s : t h e d e i t i e s w h ich t h e y i n t r o ­

duced so f r e q u e n t l y w ere c o n s i d e r e d a s r e a l i t i e s , so f a r

a s t o be r e c e i v e d by t h e i m a g i n a t i o n , w h a te v e r so b e r

r e a s o n m ig h t e v e n t h e n d e t e r m i n e . B ut o f t h e s e im ages

t im e h a s t a r n i s h e d t h e s p l e n d o r . " He a l s o c o n s i d e r s "The

Fan" by Gay a m in o r poem, b e c a u s e " i t i s one o f t h o s e I I ,

m y th o lo g ic a l f i c t i o n s w h ich a n t i q u i t y d e l i v e r s r e a d y t o 283

th e hand; b u t w h ic h , l i k e o t h e r t h i n g s t h a t l i e open

t o e v e ry o n e ' s u s e , a r e o f l i t t l e v a l u e . "

H ence, a c c o r d in g t o J o h n s o n , m y th o l o g i c a l poems

11

c a n n o t c la im more t h a n a p a s s i n g i n t e r e s t , e v e n th o u g h

th e y may be s u p p o r t e d by t h e p r a i s e o f men o f g e n i u s .

C r a n v i l l e ' s " H e ro ic k Love" i s a " m y th o lo g ic a l t r a g e d y , I I ,

upon th e lo v e o f Agamemnon and C h r y s e i s , and t h e r e - 290

f o r e sunk e a s i l y i n t o n e g l e c t , th o u g h p r a i s e d i n v e r s e

by L ry d en , and i n p r o s e by P o p e ." Jam es T hom son 's

"Agamemnon" a l s o h a d t h e f a t e w h ich "m ost commonly I I I ,

a t t e n d s m y th o l o g i c a l s t o r i e s , a n d was o n ly e n d u re d , 291

b u t n o t f a v o u r e d . "

Jo h n so n a c c u s e s T i c k e l l o f u n s k i l f u l l y com­

p o u n d in g h i s " K e n s in g to n G a rd e n s” o f G r e c i a n d e i t i e s I I ,

and G o th ic f a i r i e s . " H e i t h e r s p e c i e s o f t h o s e e x - 311

p lo d e d b e i n g s c o u ld have done much; and when t h e y

a r e b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r t h e y o n ly make e a c h o t h e r con ­

t e m p t i b l e . " F i n a l l y he c r i t i c i s e s t h e t h i r d s t a n z a

o f G r a y 's poem "The B a r d , " b e c a u s e o f t h e " p u e r i l i t i e s I I I ,

o f o b s o l e t e m y th o lo g y . When we a r e t o l d t h a t C adw allo 439

'h u s h 'd th e s to rm y m ain ,* and t h a t Modred* made huge

P l in l im m o n bow h i s c l o u d - t o p 'd h e a d , ' a t t e n t i o n r e c o i l s

from th e r e p e t i t i o n o f a t a l e t h a t , even when i t was

f i r s t h e a r d , was h e a r d w i t h s c o r n . "

o •P a s t o r a l s B ecau se t h e r e a d e r r e c e i v e s a wrong i m p r e s s io n

o f t h e p a s t t h r o u g h m y th i c a l n a r r a t i v e s , Jo h n s o n does

12

n o t c o n s i d e r m y th o lo g y a s a p r o p e r s u b j e c t f o r p o e t r y .*

S i m i l a r l y , b e c a u s e i n p a s t o r a l s th e r e a d e r i s m is in fo rm e d

a b o u t r u r a l l i f e , Jo h n so n condemns t h i s form o f

p o e t r y . "T here i s so m e th in g i n th e p o e t i c a l A r c a d ia I I ,

so rem o te from known r e a l i t y and s p e c u l a t i v e p o s s i b i l i t y , 284

t h a t we c a n n e v e r s u p p o r t i t s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n th r o u g h

a lo n g w o rk . A P a s t o r a l o f a n h u n d re d l i n e s may be

e n d u re d ; b u t who w i l l h e a r o f sh e ep an d g o a t s a n d m y r t l e

t o w e r s and p u r l i n g r i v u l e t s , t h r o u g h f i v e a c t s ? Such

s c e n e s p l e a s e b a r b a r i a n s i n t h e dawn o f l i t e r a t u r e , and

c h i l d r e n i n t h e dawn o f l i f e ; b u t w i l l be f o r th e m ost

p a r t th ro w n away a s men grow w i s e , an d n a t i o n s grow

l e a r n e d . ”

S in ce p a s t o r a l s " p l e a s e b a r b a r i a n s i n t h e dawn

o f l i t e r a t u r e , and c h i l d r e n i n t h e dawn o f l i f e , "

Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s t h e w r i t i n g o f p a s t o r a l s a s a n i n i ­

t i a t o r y s t e p f o r young a u t h o r s . " I t seems n a t u r a l f o r I I I ,

a young p o e t t o i n i t i a t e h i m s e l f by P a s t o r a l s , w h ic h , 224

n o t p r o f e s s i n g t o i m i t a t e r e a l l i f e , r e q u i r e no e x ­

p e r i e n c e , and e x h i b i t i n g o n ly t h e s im p le o p e r a t i o n o f

u n m in g led p a s s i o n s , a d m it no s u b t l e r e a s o n i n g o r deep

e n q u i r y . " "At t h e r e v i v a l o f l e a r n i n g i n I t a l y i t I I I ,

was so o n d i s c o v e r e d t h a t a d i a l o g u e o f im a g in a ry 316

sw a in s m ig h t be composed w i t h l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y , b e -

13

ca u se th e c o n v e r s a t i o n o f s h e p h e rd s e x c lu d e s p r o fo u n d

or r e f i n e d s e n t im e n t ; a n d , f o r im ages and d e s c r i p t i o n s ,

S a t y r s and F a u n s , and N a ia d s and D ry ad s , were a lw a y s

w i t h i n c a l l , and woods and meadows, and h i l l s and

r i v e r s , s u p p l i e d v a r i e t y o f m a t t e r , w h ic h , h a v in g a

n a t u r a l power t o s o o th e th e m in d , d i d n o t q u i c k l y c lo y

i t . "

Jo h n so n s e v e r e l y c r i t i c i s e s M i l t o n ' s " L y c id a s "

b e c a u se o f l a c k o f t r u t h . " I n t h i s poem t h e r e i s no I ,

n a t u r e , f o r t h e r e i s no t r u t h ; t h e r e i s no a r t , f o r 163

t h e r e i s n o th in g new. I t s form i s t h a t o f a p a s t o r a l ,

e a s y , v u l g a r , and t h e r e f o r e d i s g u s t i n g ; w h a te v e r im ages

i t c a n su p p ly a r e l o n g ago e x h a u s te d ; and i t s i n h e r e n t

i m p r o b a b i l i t y a lw a y s f o r c e s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n on th e m in d ."

"N o th in g c a n l e s s d i s p l a y know ledge or l e s s e x e r c i s e I ,

i n v e n t i o n t h a n t o t e l l how a s h e p h e rd h a s l o s t h i s com- 164

p a n io n an d m u st now f e e d h i s f l o c k s a l o n e , w i t h o u t any

ju d g e o f h i s s k i l l i n p i p i n g . . . . He who t h u s g r i e v e s

w i l l e x c i t e no sym pathy; and he who t h u s p r a i s e s w i l l con ­

f e r no h o n o u r . "

S t i l l " L y c id a s " h a s s to o d t h e t e s t o f t im e ; a n d

Jo h n so n h i m s e l f d e c l a r e s t h a t " a b o u t t h i n g s on w hich t h e I I ,

p u b l i c t h i n k s so lo n g i t commonly a t t a i n s t o t h i n k r i g h t . "132

Y e t , s t r a n g e t o s a y , J o h n s o n do es n o t a t t r i b u t e t h e co n -

14

t i n n e d p o p u l a r i t y o f " L y c id a s " t o i t s own i n t r i n s i c

w o r th , b u t r a t h e r t o th e r e p u t a t i o n o f i t s a u t h o r . "Such I ,

i s t h e power o f r e p u t a t i o n j u s t l y a c q u i r e d t h a t i t s

b l a z e d r i v e s away t h e eye from n i c e e x a m in a t io n . S u r e ly

no man c o u ld have f a n c i e d t h a t he r e a d L y c id a s w i t h

p l e a s u r e h a d he n o t known i t s a i t h o r . "

Jo h n so n a l s o i m p a r t i a l l y c r i t i c i s e s s e v e r a l m inor

p o e t s f o r t h e i r f o l l y i n w r i t i n g p a s t o r a l s . Queen

Mary h a d e n c o u ra g e d C o n g r e v e 's d r a m a t i c e f f o r t s by a t t e n d ­

in g two o f h i s p l a y s . "When she d i e d soon a f t e r Congreve I I ,

t e s t i f i e d h i s g r a t i t u d e by a d e s p i c a b l e e f f u s i o n o f 2 1 7 -

e l e g i a c k p a s t o r a l ; a c o m p o s i t io n i n w h ich a l l i s u n n a t u r - 218

a l , and y e t n o t h in g i s new ." I n s p e a k in g o f F e n t o n ' s

" F l o r e l l o , " Jo h n so n c u r t l y s a y s t h a t " i t i s s u f f i c i e n t to S I ,

say t h a t i t i s a n o c c a s i o n a l p a s t o r a l , w h ich i m p l i e s 263

som e th in g n e i t h e r n a t u r a l n o r a r t i f i c i a l , n e i t h e r com iek

n o r s e r i o u s . " I n com m enting up on S h e n s t o n e 's " P a s t o r a l

B a l l a d , " he c a n d i d l y a d m i t s : " I c a n n o t b u t r e g r e t t h a t I I I ,

i t i s p a s t o r a l ; a n i n t e l l i g e n t r e a d e r a c q u a i n t e d w i t h 356

th e s c e n e s o f r e a l l i f e s i c k e n s a t t h e m e n t io n o f th e

c r o o k , t h e n i n e , t h e s h e e p , and t h e k i d s . " H is c r i t i ­

c ism o f L y t t e l t o n ' s p a s t o r a l i s d e c i d e d l y to t h e p o i n t :

"Of h i s P r o g r e s s o f Love i t i s s u f f i c i e n t b lam e t o say I I I ,

t h a t i t i s p a s t o r a l . " 456

T here i s one s e t o f p a s t o r a l s , how ev er , w h ic h

15

Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s t r u e t o l i f e ; and t h a t i s "The S h e p h e r d 's

W eek," w r i t t e n by Gay p re s u m a b ly a t t h e i n s t i g a t i o n o f

P o p e . The l a t t e r was a n x io u s t o e x c e l Ambrose P h i l i p s ,

whom S t e e l e h a d p r a i s e d a s th e p a s t o r a l w r i t e r t h a t y i e l d ­

ed o n ly t o T h e o c r i t u s , V i r g i l , and S p e n c e r . T h e r e f o r e ,

P ope , b e s i d e s d raw ing up a c o m p a r is o n o f h i s own p a s t o r a l s

w i th t h o s e o f P h i l i p s , i s su p p o se d to have i n c i t e d Gay

t o w r i t e t h e " S h e p h e r d ' s Week" t o shew, t h a t i f i t be

n e c e s s a r y t o copy n a t u r e w i t h m in u t e n e s s , " r u r a l l i f e m ust I I ,

be e x h i b i t e d such a s g r o s s n e s s and ig n o r a n c e have made i t . 269

. . . B u t t h e e f f e c t o f r e a l i t y an d t r u t h became c o n s p ic u o u s ,

ev en when t h e i n t e n t i o n was t o shew them g r o v e l i n g and

d e g ra d e d . These P a s t o r a l s became p o p u l a r , a n d w ere r e a d

w i t h d e l i g h t , a s j u s t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f r u r a l m an ne rs

an d o c c u p a t i o n s , by t h o s e who h a d no i n t e r e s t i n th e r i v a l r y

o f t h e p o e t s , n o r knowledge o f t h e c r i t i c a l d i s p u t e . "

d.E n c o m ia s t ic

VerseThere i s a n o th e r g ro u p o f v e r s e w h ich J o h n s o n ex ­

c lu d e s from good p o e t r y , b e c a u s e i t d o es n o t s t a n d th e

s e a r c h i n g t e s t o f t r u t h ; and t h a t i s e n c o m ia s t i c v e r s e .

" P r a i s e m u s t n o t be to o r i g o r o u s l y e x a m in e d ," f o r " p o e t s I I ,8 5 ’

a r e som etim es i n to o much h a s t e t o p r a i s e . " I I ,289

R ic h a r d Savage i s an exam ple o f a p o e t , h a s t y

16

and im p e tu o u s i n l a v i s h i n g p r a i s e upon h i s f r i e n d s and

b e n e f a c t o r s , and so o n j u s t a s e a g e r i n a t t e m p t i n g t o

r e t r a c t h i s f o o l i s h f l a t t e r y , "The P r e f a c e of S i r I I ,

Thomas O verbu ry c o n t a i n s a v e ry l i b e r a l encomium on 341

th e b lo o m in g e x c e l l e n c e s o f M r, T h e q p h i lu s C ib b e r , w hich

Mr. Savage c o u ld n o t , i n t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f h i s l i f e ,

see h i s f r i e n d s a b o u t t o r e a d w i th o u t s n a t c h i n g th e p l a y

o u t o f t h e i r h a n d s , " "The W anderer" was d e d i c a t e d t o

L o rd T y rc o n n e l i n t e r m s o f h i g h e s t p r a i s e w i t h w arm est

p r o f e s s i o n s o f g r a t i t u d e . "T hese p r a i s e s i n a s h o r t t i m e I I ,

hej^Savagej fo u n d h i m s e l f i n c l i n e d t o r e t r a c t , b e in g d i s - 368

c a rd e d by t h e man on whom he h a d b e s to w e d them , and

whom he t h e n im m e d ia te ly d i s c o v e r e d n o t t o have d e s e r v e d

th em ." I n h i s " M i s c e l l a n y , " ’" t h e d e d i c a t i o n i s a d d r e s s e d I I

t o t h e Lady Mary W o rt le y M ontague, whom he f l a t t e r s w i t h - 343

o u t r e s e r v e , a n d , t o c o n f e s s t h e t r u t h , w i t h v e r y l i t t l e

a r t . The same o b s e r v a t i o n may be e x te n d e d t o a l l h i s

D e d i c a t i o n s ; h i s c o m p lim en ts a r e c o n s t r a i n e d an d v i o l e n t ,

heap e d t o g e t h e r w i t h o u t t h e g r a c e o f o r d e r , o r t h e d ecen cy

o f i n t r o d u c t i o n . "

Jo h n so n c r i t i c i s e s B ryden s e v e r e l y f o r h i s e x t r a v a ­

gance i n p r a i s e and f l a t t e r y , w h ich i n t im e became c h e a p ,

b e c a u se i t was l a v i s h e d i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y . "The S t a t e o f

In n o c e n c e and F a l l o f Man" i s a d d r e s s e d to th e p r i n c e s s o f

17

Modena" i n a s t r a i n o f f l a t t e r y w h ich d i s g r a c e s g e n i u s , I ,

and w h ich i t was w o n d e r fu l t h a t agy man t h a t knew t h e 359

m ean ing o f h i s own w ords c o u ld u s e w i th o u t s e l f - d e t e s t a ­

t i o n . " "A lm ost e v e r y p i e c e h a d a d e d i c a t i o n , w r i t t e n

w i t h such e le g a n c e and l u x u r i a n c e o f p r a i s e a s n e i t h e r I ,

h a u g h t i n e s s n o r a v a r i c e c o u ld be im a g in ed a b l e to r e s i s t . 366

B u t he seems t o have made f l a t t e r y to o cheap : T hat

p r a i s e i s w o r th n o t h i n g o f w h ic h th e p r i c e i s know n."

Jo h n so n condemns e v e n P r i o r f o r w r i t i n g i n t h e

e n c o m ia s t i c s t r a i n ; f o r th o u g h he no d o u b t m ean t t o be

t r u t h f u l , y e t h i s a d m i r a t i o n n e c e s s a r i l y l e d him a s t r a y *

" T h is y e a r (1700) p ro d u c e d one o f h i s l o n g e s t and m o s t I I ,

s p l e n d i d c o m p o s i t i o n s , t h e Carmen S e c u l a r e . . i n w h ich he 184

e x h a u s t s a l l h i s p ow ers o f c e l e b r a t i o n . I mean n o t t o

a c c u s e him o f f l a t t e r y ; he p r o b a b ly t h o u g h t a l l t h a t

he w r i t , and r e t a i n e d a s much v e r a c i t y a s c a n be p r o p e r l y

e x a c te d from a p o e t p r o f e s s e d l y e n c o m i a s t i c k . K ing

W il l ia m s u p p l i e d c o p iu u s m a t e r i a l s f o r e i t h e r v e r s e or

p r o s e . . . . To P r i o r g r a t i t u d e w ou ld d i c t a t e p r a i s e ; w h ich

r e a s o n w ould n o t r e f u s e . "

The a u th o r o f f i c t i o n or m y th o lo g y a lw a y s r e a l i z e s

t h a t he i s m i s r e p r e s e n t i n g th e c o n d i t i o n s and f a c t s o f

fo rm er d a y s . The w r i t e r o f p a s t o r a l s p u r p o s e l y p i c t u r e s

r u r a l l i f e i n f l a t t e r i n g c o l o r s , t h u s c r e a t i n g a n A rc a d ia

18

w hich does n o t e x i s t . B u t t h e g r e a t d a n g e r i n w r i t i n g

e n c o m ia s t i c v e r s e l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t ev en th e m ost

e a r n e s t a u th o r i s b e t r a y e d i n t o e x p r e s s i n g i n g lo w in g

t e r m s , s e n t im e n t s w h ich c a n n o t e n d u r e . "To c h a rg e a l l I I ,

u n m e r i t e d p r a i s e w i t h t h e g u i l t o f f l a t t e r ^ and t o 47

suppose t h a t t h e e n c o m ia s t a lw ay s knows and f e e l s t h e

f a l s e h o o d o f h i s a s s e r t i o n s i s s u r e l y t o d i s c o v e r g r e a t

i g n o ra n c e o f human n a t u r e and human l i f e . I n d e te r m in a ­

t i o n s d e p en d in g n o t on r u l e s , b u t on e x p e r i e n c e an d com­

p a r i s o n , judgem en t i s a lw a y s i n some d e g re e s u b j e c t t o

a f f e c t i o n . V ery n e a r t o a d m i r a t i o n i s t h e w is h t o a d ­

m i r e . . . . We ad m ire i n a f r i e n d t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t

s e l e c t e d u s f o r c o n f id e n c e ; we a d m ire more i n a p a t r o n

t h a t judgem en t w h ic h , i n s t e a d o f s c a t t e r i n g b o u n ty i n ­

d i s c r i m i n a t e l y , d i r e c t e d i t t o u s ; a n d , i f t h e p a t r o n be

a n a u t h o r , t h o s e p e r fo r m a n c e s w h ic h g r a t i t u d e f o r b i d s

u s t o b la m e , a f f e c t i o n w i l l e a s i l y d i s p o s e u s t o e x a l t .

To t h e s e p r e j u d i c e s , h a r d l y c u l p a b l e , i n t e r e s t a d d s a

power a lw a y s o p e r a t i n g , th o u g h n o t a lw a y s , b e c a u s e n o t

w i l l i n g l y , p e r c e i v e d . The m o d es ty o f p r a i s e w e a rs g r a d ­

u a l l y away; and p e r h a p s t h e p r i d e o f p a t r o n a g e may be i n

t im e so i n c r e a s e d t h a t m odes t p r a i s e w i l l ho l o n g e r p l e a s e . "

e .O ccas ion ­

a lV erse

Very c l o s e l y a l l i e d t o e n c o m ia s t i c v e r s e i s o c c a s i o n a l

19

p o e t r y , w r i t t e n i n c e l e b r a t i o n o f a b i r t h , o r m a r r i a g e ,

i n comm emoration o f a d e a t h , i n c o n g r a t u l a t i o n upon a

v i c t o r y , o r i n r e j o i c i n g upon a c o r o n a t i o n . These a n d

s i m i l a r e v e n t s s u p p ly f a c t s f o r t h e p o e t ; b u t t h e a u th o r

o f o c c a s i o n a l v e r s e t r e a t s them , n o t a s u n i v e r s a l t r u t h s ,

b u t m e re ly a s i n c i d e n t s o f l o c a l and te m p o ra ry i n t e r e s t .

He i s h a n d ic a p p e d i n s e v e r a l w a y s . He h a s no c h o ic e o f

s u b j e c t - m a t t e r ; t h e o c c a s io n p r e s e n t s t o him a s u b j e c t ,

w h ich he m u s t t r e a t i n a f a v o r a b l e way, i r r e s p e c t i v e o f

w h e th e r he r e j o i c e s and a p p r o v e s , o r n o t . I t i s n o t a

q u e s t i o n o f p r e s e n t i n g t h e t r u t h , t h e w hole t r u t h , and

n o th in g b u t t h e t r u t h ; b u t r a t h e r a q u e s t i o n o f p r e s e n t ­

i n g a n o f t - o c c u r r i n g i n c i d e n t i n a new and s t r i k i n g way.

"The o c c a s i o n a l p o e t i s c i r c u m s c r i b e d by t h e n a r ro w n e s s I ,

o f h i s s u b j e c t ; w h a te v e r c a n h a p p e n t o man h a s h a p p e n e d 424^.

so o f t e n t h a t l i t t l e r e m a in s f o r f a n c y or i n v e n t i o n . We 425

have a l l b e e n b o r n ; we h ave m ost o f u s b e e n m a r r i e d ; and

so many have d i e d b e f o r e u s t h a t ou r d e a t h s c a n s u p p ly

b u t few m a t e r i a l s f o r a p o e t . . . . E ven war and c o n q u e s t ,

however s p l e n d i d , s u g g e s t no new im ag es ; th e t r i u m p h a l%

c h a r i o t o f a v i c t o r i o u s m onarch c a n be d ecked o n ly w i t h

t h o s e o rn am e n ts t h a t have g r a c e d h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s . "

"Not o n ly m a t t e r b u t t im e i s w a n t in g . The poem I ,

m ust n o t be d e la y e d t i l l t h e o c c a s io n i s f o r g o t t e n . . . . 425

20

The c o m p o s i t io n m ust b e d i s p a t c h e d w h i l e c o n v e r s a t i o n i s

y e t b u s y and a d m i r a t i o n f r e s h ; and h a s t e i s t o be made

l e s t some o t h e r e v e n t s h o u ld l a y h o ld u p o n m a n k in d ."

B ecau se o c c a s i o n a l v e r s e i n t e r e s t s o n ly c e r t a i n

p e o p le a t c e r t a i n t i m e s , i t c a n n e v e r hope t o be a d d e d

t o th e w o r l d 1s t r e a s u r y o f p o e t r y . I t t h e r e f o r e s in k s

i n t o o b l i v i o n when t h e e v e n t w h ich h a s o c c a s io n e d i t , h a s

b e e n f o r g o t t e n . P r i o r ' s o c c a s i o n a l poems " n e c e s s a r i l y I I ,

l o s t p a r t o f t h e i r v a l u e , a s t h e i r o c c a s i o n s , b e i n g l e s s 203

rem em bered , r a i s e d l e s s e m o t io n ."

Jo h n so n c i t e s S a v a g e 's y e a r l y p a n e g y r i c t o th e

q ueen a s an exam ple o f o c c a s i o n a l p o e t r y whose w o r t h l e s s ­

n e s s was r e c o g n i z e d l a t e r on e v e n by t h e a u th o r h i m s e l f .

"O f some o f them he h a d h i m s e l f so low an o p i n io n t h a t he I I ,

i n t e n d e d t o om it them i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f poem s, f o r 384

w hich he p r i n t e d p r o p o s a l s an d s o l i c i t e d s u b s c r i p t i o n s . "

P o l i t i c a l e v e n t s a l s o s e r v e a s o c c a s io n s f o r

l i t e r a r y c o n t e s t . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d th e e n t i r e

t r u t h i n poems o c c a s io n e d by su c h e v e n t s , f o r two f a c t o r s

s e rv e t o b i a s t h e a u t h o r ' s m ind: p a r t y p r e j u d i c e , and

p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t . Jo h n so n s e v e r e l y b la m e s M i l t o n f o r

h i s a t t i t u d e d u r in g t h e P u r i t a n r e v o l u t i o n ; f o r a man

a s k e e n a s M i l t o n s h o u ld have s e e n t h e i n j u s t i c e o f Cromwell's

c la im s ; b u t " M i l to n , h a v in g now t a s t e d t h e honey o f p u b l i c k

21

em ploym ent, w ou ld n o t r e t u r n t o h u n g e r and p h i l o s o p h y . " 1 -116

I t i s n o t s t r a n g e , t h e r e f o r e , i f many men o f l e s s m o ra l

co u ra g e t h a n M i l t o n , t r y t o a t t r a c t p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n and

t o w in p o l i t i c a l f a v o r .

W ith a change o f g o v e rn m e n t, comes a change o f

s u b j e c t - m a t t e r f o r o c c a s i o n a l v e r s e . "When t h e k in g was I ,

r e s t o r e d D ryden , l i k e t h e o t h e r p a n e g y r i s t s o f u s u r p a t i o n , 334

changed h i s o p i n io n , o r h i s p r o f e s s i o n , an d p u b l i s h e d

A u t r e a R edux. a poem on t h e happy r e s t o r a t i o n and r e t u r n

o f h i s m ost s a c r e d M a je s ty King C h a r l e s t h e S e c o n d ."

Jo h n so n s c o r n s a u t h o r s who a r e s e r v i l e enough to

t r y t h u s t o i n g r a t i a t e th e m s e lv e s w i t h p o t e n t a t e s , i n s t e a d

o f b e in g g u id e d by th e maxims o f t r u t h . " I t i s n o t

p o s s i b l e t o r e a d , w i t h o u t some c on tem p t and i n d i g n a t i o n , I ,

poems o f t h e same a u t h o r , a s c r i b i n g t h e h i g h e s t d e g re e 270-

o f 'pow er and p i e t y ' t o C h a r le s th e F i r s t , t h e n t r a n s f e r - 271

r i n g th e same 'p o w er an d p i e t y ' t o O l i v e r Crom well; now

i n v i t i n g O l iv e r t o t a k e t h e Crown, and t h e n c o n g r a t u l a t i n g

C h a r le s th e Second on h i s r e c o v e r e d r i g h t . N e i th e r

Cromwell n o r C h a r l e s c o u ld v a lu e h i s t e s t i m o n y a s t h e

e f f e c t o f c o n v i c t i o n , o r r e c e i v e h i s p r a i s e s a s e f f u s i o n s*

o f r e v e r e n c e ; t h e y c o u ld c o n s i d e r them b u t a s t h e l a b o u r

o f i n v e n t i o n and t h e t r i b u t e o f d e p e n d e n c e ."

Jo h n so n p a y s h i g h t r i b u t e to P ope , f o r r e f u s i n g t o

2 2

s to o p t o th e w r i t i n g o f o c c a s i o n a l v e r s e . "H is e f f u - I I I ,

s i o n s w ere a lw a y s v o l u n t a r y , a n d h i s s u b j e c t s c h o se n 219

by h i m s e l f . H is in d e p e n d e n c e s e c u r e d him from d ru d g in g

a t a t a s k , and l a b o u r i n g upon a b a r r e n t o p i c k : he n e v e r

e x changed p r a i s e f o r money, n o r o pen ed a shop o f

co n d o le n ce or c o n g r a t u l a t i o n . H is poem s, t h e r e f o r e ,

were p o a rc e e v e r y t e m p o r a r y . He s u f f e r e d c o r o n a t i o n s

an d r o y a l m a r r i a g e s t o p a s s w i t h o u t a so n g , and d e r i v e d

no o p p o r t u n i t i e s from r e c e n t e v e n t s , n o r any p o p u l a r i t y

from t h e a c c i d e n t a l d i s p o s i t i o n o f h i s r e a d e r s . "

f .E p i t a p h A lm ost a k i n t o t h e com posing o f e n c o m i a s t i c and

o c c a s i o n a l v e r s e s , i s t h e w r i t i n g o f e p i t a p h s . Jo h n so n

s a y s i t i s u s e l e s s t o d e f i n e a n e p i t a p h ; f o r " e v e r y one I I I ,

knows t h a t i t i s an i n s c r i p t i o n o f a tom b. . . . I t i s 254

in d e e d commonly p a n e g y r i c a l , b e c a u s e we a r e se ldom d i s ­

t i n g u i s h e d w i t h a s to n e b u t by our f r i e n d s . " The f i r s t

r e q u i s i t e t h a t Jo h n so n i n s i s t s u p o n , i s t h a t an e p i t a p h

sh o u ld c o n t a i n t h e name o f t h e d e c e a s e d . He c r i t i c i s e s

P o p e ' s e p i t a p h s on S i r W il l ia m Trum bal and on M rs . C o rb e t ,

b e c a u s e i n e a c h c a s e t h e name i s o m i t t e d . "The end o f I I I ,

a n e p i t a p h i s t o convey some a c c o u n t o f t h e dead; a n d 257

t o w hat p u rp o s e i s a n y th in g t o l d o f him whose name i s

c o n c e a le d ? " He p r a i s e s th e f o l l o w i n g l i n e from P o p e 's

e p i t a p h on t h e Hon. Simon H a r c o u r t , b e c a u s e o f t h e " a r t -

23

f i l l i n t r o d u c t i o n o f th e name, w h ic h i s i n s e r t e d w i t h a I I I ,

p e c u l i a r f e l i c i t y . " 259

" I f Pope m ust t e l l w h a t H a r c o u r t c a n n o t s p e a k ."

B e s i d e s i n s i s t i n g t h a t th e name o f t h e d e c e a s e d

m ust h e c o n ta i n e d i n t h e e p i t a p h , Jo h n so n s t r e n u o u s l y

o b j e c t s t o any s u p e r f l u o u s m a t t e r , i n t r o d u c e d f o r t h e sake

o f s u p p ly in g a rhyme o r o f f i l l i n g i n a l i n e . He c r i t i ­

c i s e s P o p e 's e p i t a p h on C h a r le s E a r l o f D o r s e t , b e c a u s e

" th e f i r s t d i s t i c h c o n t a i n s a k i n d o f i n f o r m a t i o n w h ich I I I ,

few w ould w a n t , t h a t t h e man f o r whom t h e tomb was 255

e r e c t e d ' d i e d ' . " I n t h e e p i t a p h on S i r W il l ia m Trum bal,

he o b j e c t s t o th e l i n e ;

"An h o n e s t c o u r t i e r , y e t a p a t r i o t t o o " ;

b e c a u s e " t h e r e i s no o p p o s i t i o n b e tw e e n an h o n e s t c o u r t i e r

an d a - p a t r i o t : f o r an h o n e s t c o u r t i e r c a n n o t b u t be I I I ,

• p a t r i o t . " £58

S i m i l a r l y he f i n d s f a u l t w i t h th e e p i t a p h on I I I ,

Jam es C c ra g g s , E s q . , b e c a u s e " t h e r e i s a r e d u n d a n c y o f 260

w ard s i n th e f i r s t c o u p l e t : i t i s s u p e r f l u o u s t o t e l l

o f him who was s i n c e r e , t r u e , a n d f a i t h f u l , t h a t he was

i n honour c l e a r . "

He a l s o c r i t i c i s e s t h e above e p i t a p h f o r j o i n i n g

i n t h e same i n s c r i p t i o n L a t i n an d E n g l i s h . " I f e i t h e r

la n g u a g e be p r e f e r a b l e t o t h e o t h e r , l e t t h a t o n ly be u s e d ,

24

f o r no r e a s o n c a n be g iv e n why p a r t o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n H I ,

s h o u ld be g iv e n i n one to n g u e and p a r t i n a n o t h e r . . . . 260

Such a n e p i t a p h r e s e m b l e s th e c o n v e r s a t i o n o f a f o r e i g n e r ,

who t e l l s p a r t o f h i s m ean ing b y w o rd s , and c o n v ey s p a r t

by s i g n s . "

F i n a l l y , Jo h n so n b a r s m y th o l o g i c a l a l l u s i o n s from

e p i t a p h s . P o p e ' s i n s c r i p t i o n f o r t h e tomb o f Mr. Rowe

c o n t a i n s t h e w o rd s : "P eace t o t h y sh a d e " ; w h ic h Jo h n s o n I I I ,

c o n s i d e r s " to o m y th o l o g i c a l t o be a d m i t t e d i n t o a 261

C h r i s t i a n t e m p le . . . . L e t f i c t i o n , a t l e a s t , c e a s e w i t h

l i f e , and l e t u s be s e r i o u s over t h e g r a v e . "

Jo h n so n s a y s t h a t an e p i t a p h "o u g h t n o t t o be H I ,b e -

l o n g e r t h a n com m on^holders may be e x p e c te d t o h ave 264

l e i s u r e and p a t i e n c e t o p e r u s e . " I n th e above few s h o r t

e p i t a p h s w r i t t e n b y P o p e , he f i n d s so many f a u l t s , c h i e f l y

b e c a u s e th e a u th o r was l a b o r i n g upon b a r r e n t o p i c s .

Jo h n so n c a n d id ly a d m i t s t h a t e p i t a p h s a r e , h ow ev er , "n o t

th e p r o p e r s u b j e c t s o f p o e t r y , and w henever f r i e n d s h i p I I I ,

o r any o th e r m o tiv e o b l i g e s a p o e t t o w r i t e on such 264

s u b j e c t s , he m ust be f o r g i v e n i f he som etim es w a n d ers

i n g e n e r a l i t i e s and u t t e r s t h e same p r a i s e s o v e r d i f f e r e n t

to m b s ."

g .Bur­le s q u e

I n th e w r i t i n g o f e n c o m i a s t i c and o c c a s i o n a l v e r s e s ,

a s w e l l a s i n t h e com posing o f e p i t a p h s , t h e a u th o r e i t h e r

25

c o n s c i o u s ly or u n c o n s c i o u s ly w a n d e rs from t h e t r u t h

i n a n e n d ea v o r to p l e a s e . The s i t u a t i o n i s q u i t e th e

o p p o s i t e i n t h e w r i t i n g o f b u r l e s q u e , i n w h ic h t h e a u th o r

p u r p o s e l y v i o l a t e s t r u t h , b y e x a g g e r a t i n g c e r t a i n c h a r a c ­

t e r i s t i c s , i n o r d e r t o b r i n g them i n t o p ro m in e n t n o t i c e .

"Burles-que c o n s i s t s i n a d i s p r o p o r t i o n b e tw e e n t h e s t y l e I ,

and t h e s e n t i m e n t s , o r b e tw e e n t h e a d v e n t i t i o u s s e n t i - 218

m en ts and th e fu n d a m e n ta l s u b j e c t . I t t h e r e f o r e , l i k e

a l l b o d i e s compounded o f h e te r o g e n e o u s p a r t s , c o n t a i n s

i n i t a p r i n c i p l e o f c o r r u p t i o n . A l l d i s p r o p o r t i o n i s

u n n a t u r a l ; an d from w hat i s u n n a t u r a l we c a n d e r i v e

o n ly th e p l e a s u r e w h ich n o v e l t y p r o d u c e s . We a d m ire i t

a w h i le a s a s t r a n g e t h i n g ; b u t when i t i s no l o n g e r s t r a n g e ,

we p e r c e i v e i t s d e f o r m i t y . "

B ecau se o f i t s v e r y n a t u r e , b u r l e s q u e g e n e r a l l y

d e a l s w i t h s u b j e c t s o f l o c a l and te m p o ra ry i n t e r e s t .

T h e r e f o r e , i t c a n n o t hope t o be p e r p e t u a t e d t o p o s t e r i t y

th e same a s a r e poems d e a l i n g w i t h u n i v e r s a l t r u t h s . Be­

cau se o f t h i s f a c t , Jo h n so n r e c o g n i z e s t h e p e r i s h a b l e n e s s

o f B u t l e r ' s " H u d ib r a s , " i n w h ich " t h e m a n n e rs , b e in g I ,

fo u n d ed on o p i n i o n s , a r e t e m p o r a r y and l o c a l , an d t h e r e - 2 1 3 -

f o r e become e v e r y day l e s s i n t e l l i g i b l e and l e s s s t r i k i n g , 214

. . . Such m anne rs a s depend upon s t a n d i n g r e l a t i o n s and

g e n e r a l p a s s i o n s a r e c o - e x te n d e d w i t h t h e r a c e o f man; t u t

t h o s e m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f l i f e a n d p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f p r a c t i c e

w h ich a r e t h e p ro g e n y o f e r r o r and p e r v e r s e n e s s , o r a t

b e s t o f some a c c i d e n t a l i n f l u e n c e or t r a n s i e n t p e r s u a s i o n ,

m ust p e r i s h w i t h t h e i r p a r e n t s . "

h.Poems W r i t ­

t e n i n I m i t a t i o n

S i m i l a r l y p a r o d i e s , o r v e r s e s w r i t t e n i n i m i t a t i o n

o f o t h e r poems, c a n n o t e n d u r e . Jo h n so n s a y s t h a t com posi ­te

t i o n s l i k e W e s t ' s I m i t a t i o n s o f S p e n se r a r e n o t t o be I I I ,

r e c k o n e d among t h e g r e a t a c h ie v e m e n ts o f i n t e l l e c t , b e - 332

c a u se t h e i r e f f e c t i s l o c a l a n d te m p o ra ry ; t h e y a p p e a l

n o t t o r e a s o n or p a s s i o n , b u t t o memory, a n d p r e s u p p o s e

a n a c c i d e n t a l o r a r t i f i c i a l s t a t e o f m in d ."

Contem­p l a t i v eS a c re d

V erse

Jo h n so n e x c l u d e s from t h e r e a l m s o f t r u e p o e t r y

t h e a b o v e -m e n t io n e d t y p e s o f v e r s e , b e c a u s e t h e i r c o n te n t

i s a d e v i a t i o n from t h e t r u t h . T here i s a n o th e r o l a s s

o f l i t e r a t u r e , how ever , w h ich he t h i n k s u n s u i t e d t o p o e t r y ,

n o t b e c a u s e i t s s u b j e c t - m a t t e r i s f a l s e h o o d , b u t b e c a u s e

t h e t r u t h c o n t a i n e d t h e r e i n i s so g r a n d and m a j e s t i c , t h a t

i t s u r p a s s e s a l l a t t e m p t s a t p o e t i c e x p r e s s i o n and i n t e r ­

p r e t a t i o n . T h is c l a s s i n c l u d e s a l l c o n te m p la t iv e s a c r e d

v e r s e . " S a c re d H i s t o r y h a s b e e n a lw a y s r e a d w i t h s u b - X,

m is s i v e r e v e r e n c e , and a n i m a g i n a t i o n o v e r-a w e d a n d con- 49-

t r o i l e d . . . . We go w i th t h e h i s t o r i a n a s he g o e s , and 5(5

27

s to p w i t h him when he s to p s * A l l a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s

f r i v o l o u s and v a i n : a l l a d d i t i o n t o t h a t w h ich i s a l ­

r e a d y s u f f i c i e n t f o r th e p u r p o s e s o f r e l i g i o n seem s n o t

o n ly u s e l e s s , b u t i n some d e g re e p ro f a n e # • • • The m i r a c l e

o f C re a t iQ n , how ever i t may teem w i t h im a g e s , i s b e s t

d e s c r i b e d w i th l i t t l e d i f f u s i o n o f l a n g u a g e : 'He spake

th e w o rd , and t h e y w ere m a d e .1"

"L e t no p i o u s e a r b e o f f e n d e d i f I a d v a n c e , i n I ,

o p p o s i t i o n t o many a u t h o r i t i e s , t h a t p o e t i c a l d e v o t i o n 291

c a n n o t o f t e n p l e a s e . . . . C o n te m p la t iv e p i e t y , o r t h e

i n t e r c o u r s e b e tw e e n God an d t h e human s o u l , c a n n o t bef

p o e t i c a l . Man a d m i t t e d t o im p lo re t h e m ercy o f h i s

C r e a to r an d p l e a d th e m e r i t s o f h i s Redeemer i s a l r e a d y

i n a h i g h e r s t a t e t h a n p o e t r y c a n c o n f e r . "

The t r u t h s convey ed by p o e t r y m ust p l e a s e t h e

r e a d e r by th e n o v e l way i n w h ic h th e y a r e p r e s e n t e d , a s

w e l l a s by th e p o e t i c s e l e c t i o n o f d e t a i l s . "The I ,

t o p i c k s o f d e v o t i o n a r e few , an d b e in g few a r e u n i v e r s a l l y 291

known; b u t few a s t h e y a r e , t h e y c a n be made no m ore;

t h e y c an r e c e i v e no g ra c e from n o v e l t y o f s e n t i m e n t , and

v e ry l i t t l e from n o v e l t y o f e x p r e s s i o n .

" P o e t r y p l e a s e s b y e x h i b i t i n g a n i d e a more

g r a t e f u l t o t h e m ind t h a n t h i n g s th e m s e lv e s a f f o r d . T h is

e f f e c t p r o c e e d s from t h e d i s p l a y o f t h o s e p a r t s o f

28

n a t u r e w h ich a t t r a c t , and t h e c o n c e a lm e n t o f t h o s e w hich

r e p e l , th e im a g in a t io n : b u t r e l i g i o n m ust be shewn a s i t

i s ; s u p p r e s s i o n an d a d d i t i o n e q u a l l y c o r r u p t i t , and su ch

a s i t i s , i t i s known a l r e a d y . . . . O m nipotence o a n n o t

be e x a l t e d ; I n f i n i t y c a n n o t be a m p l i f i e d ; P e r f e c t i o n can ­

n o t be im p ro v e d . . . . The i d e a s o f C h r i s t i a n T heology

a r e to o s im p le f o r e lo q u e n c e , to o s a c r e d f o r f i c t i o n , and to o

m a j e s t i c k f o r o rnam en t; t o recommend them b y t r o p e s a n d

f i g u r e s i s t o m a g n ify by a concave m i r r o r t h e s i d e r e a l

h e m is p h e r e ."

Jo h n so n r e c o g n i z e s t h e e a r n e s t e f f o r t s o f a u t h o r s

who have a t t e m p t e d t o w r i t e c o n te m p la t iv e w o rk s o f p i e t y

i n v e r s e ; and he r e g r e t s t h a t t h e i r z e a l h a s b e e n so m is ­

d i r e c t e d . Denham, "a man o f p i e t y , . . . c o n s e c r a t e d I ,

h i s p o e t i c a l pow ers t o r e l i g i o n , and made a m e t r i c a l 75

v e r s i o n o f t h e p s a lm s o f D av id . I n t h i s a t t e m p t he h a s

f a i l e d ; t u t i n s a c r e d p o e t r y who h a s s u c c e e d e d ? "

B lackm ore w ish e d to g r a t i f y t h e d e s i r e o f t h e l o v e r s o f

m u s ic a l , d e v o t io n , and so he p ro d u c e d "A new V e r s io n o f I I ,

t h e P sa lm s o f D av id , f i t t e d t o t h e Tunes u s e d i n C hurchesl ,S49

Jo h n so n r e m a rk s t h a t "B lac k m o re 1 s name m ust be a d d ed t o

th o s e o f many o t h e r s who, b y t h e same a t t e m p t , have

o b t a i n e d o n ly t h e p r a i s e o f m ean ing w e l l . " R e g a rd in g

F e n t o n ' s " P a r a p h r a s e on I s a i a h , " he s a y s t h a t " n o t h in g v e r y

29

f a v o u r a b l e c a n be s a id # Sublim e and so lem n p r o s e I I ,

g a in s l i t t l e by a change t o b l a n k v e r s e . " 264

As much a s Jo h n s o n a d m ire s D r. I s a a c W a t t s , y e t

he i n c l u d e s t h e l a t t e r 1s d e v o t i o n a l v e r s e i n t h e g roup

o f u n s a t i s f a c t o r y p o e t r y ; f o r th e " p a u c i t y o f i t s I I I ,

t o p i c k s e n f o r c e s p e r p e t u a l r e p e t i t i o n , and t h e s a n c t i t y 310

o f th e m a t t e r r e j e c t s th e o rn am e n ts o f f i g u r a t i v e d i c t i o n .

I t i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r W a t ts t o have done b e t t e r t h a n o t h e r s

w hat no man h a s done w e l l . "

Jo h n so n c r i t i c i s e s Jo h n P h i l i p s f o r p l a n n i n g a

poem on "The L a s t D ay ," - " a s u b j e c t on w h ich no m ind I ,

can hope to e q u a l e x p e c t a t i o n . " I n d i s c u s s i n g Y o u n g 's 314

f i r s t g r e a t p e r fo rm a n c e on t h e same th em e , "The L a s t

D ay ," Jo h n s o n a d m i t s t h a t many p a r a g r a p h s a r e n o b le and

t h a t few a r e mean; y e t , he s a y s , t h e r e a d e r i s d i s a p p o i n t ­

e d b e c a u s e " th e th o u g h t o f t h e L a s t Day makes e v e r y man I I I

more t h a n p o e t i c a l by s p r e a d i n g o v e r h i s m ind a g e n e r a l 393

o b s c u r i t y o f s a c r e d h o r r o r , t h a t o p p r e s s e s d i s t i n c t i o n

a n d d i s d a i n s e x p r e s s i o n . "

Jo h n so n h a s no p a t i e n c e , w h a te v e r , w i t h a u t h o r s

who t o u c h upon s a c r e d s u b j e c t s i n a * f a m i l i a r and t r i f l i n g

m an n e r . He c e n s u r e s b o t h Donne and Cowley f o r " t h a t I ,

f a m i l i a r i t y w i th r e l i g i o u s im a g e s , and t h a t l i g h t a l l u - 58

s i o n t o s a c r e d t h i n g s , b y w h ich r e a d e r s f a r s h o r t

30

o f s a n c t i t y a r e f r e q u e n t l y o f f e n d e d ; and w h ich w ould n o t

he b o rn e i n t h e p r e s e n t a g e , when d e v o t i o n , p e rh a p s n o t

more f e r v e n t i s more d e l i c a t e . " He s t o u t l y r e f u s e s t o

t o l e r a t e any m in g l in g o f m y th o lo g y and r e l i g i o n . He

b lam e s M i l t o n s e v e r e l y f o r b e i n g g u i l t y o f t h i s g r o s s f a u l t

i n h i s " L y c i d a s . " "W ith t h e s e t r i f l i n g f i c t i o n s a r e I ,

m in g le d th e m o s t a w fu l and s a c r e d t r u t h s , su c h a s o u g h t 165

n e v e r t o be p o l l u t e d w i th such i r r e v e r e n t c o m b in a t io n s .

The sh e p h e rd l i k e w i s e i s now a f e e d e r o f s h e e p , and a f t e r ­

w a rd s a n e c c l e s i a s t i c a l p a s t o r , a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f a

C h r i s t i a n f l o c k . Such e q u i v o c a t i o n s a r e a lw a y s u n s k i l f u l ;

b u t t h e y a r e i n d e c e n t , and a t l e a s t a p p ro a c h t o i m p i e ty ,

o f w h ic h , h o w ev er , I b e l i e v e t h e w r i t e r n o t t o have b e e n

c o n s c io u s . " B ryden , t o o , i s c e n s u re d b e c a u s e he "some- I ,

t im e s c o n n e c t s r e l i g i o n and f a b l e to o c l o s e l y w i t h o u t 462

d i s t i n c t i o n . " S i m i l a r l y , some o f Y a l d e n 's hymns a r e

c t i t i c i s e d b e c a u s e t h e y " a r e p a r t l y m y th o l o g i c a l and

p a r t l y r e l i g i o u s , an d t h e r e f o r e n o t s u i t a b l e to e a c h o t h e r . "

E ven Pope d o e s n o t e sc a p e th e s e v e r i t y o f J o h n s o n 's c e n s u r e . H

I n h i s w orks a r e fo u n d "many i d l e a n d in d e c e n t a p p l i c a t i o n s 3oi

o f s e n t e n c e s t a k e n from t h e S c r i p t u r e s ; a mode o f m e r r i - 11^

ment w h ich a good man d r e a d s f o r i t s p r o f a n e n e s s , and a 215

w i t t y man d i s d a i n s f o r i t s e a s i n e s s an d v u l g a r i t y . "

T h e r e f o r e , b e c a u s e t h e y do n o t convey t h e s im p le

31

and e n t i r e t r u t h t o t h e m ind o f t h e r e a d e r , Jo h n so n ex ­

c lu d e s from t r u e p o e t r y , a s we have s e e n , t h e f o l lo w in g>

t y p e s o f v e r s e ; f i c t i o n , m yth , p a s t o r a l s , e n c o m i a s t i c and

o c c a s i o n a l v e r s e s , e p i t a p h s , b u r l e s q u e s , poems w r i t t e n i n

i m i t a t i o n o f o t h e r a u t h o r s , and c o n te m p la t iv e s a c r e d v e r s e .

2 . TYPES OF Vr£SE APPROVED

8. •E p ic Hot a l l o f J o h n s o n 's c r i t i c i s m o f p o e t i c a l t y p e s ,

how ever, i s d i s p a r a g i n g and co n d em n a to ry . On t h e o t h e r

h a n d , Jo h n so n h i g h l y a p p ro v e s o f p o e t r y w h ich t e a c h e s

u n i v e r s a l t r u t h s d e r i v e d from a deep u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

m o r a l i t y , a s y m p a th e t ic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h u m a n i ty , and

a th o ro u g h know ledge o f e x t e r n a l n a t u r e . I t i s J o h n s o n 's

o p in io n t h a t t h e t y p e o f l i t e r a t u r e t h a t m o st n e a r l y

a p p ro a c h e s t h i s i d e a l o f p o e t i c p e r f e c t i o n , i s t h e e p i c .

"By t h e g e n e r a l c o n s e n t o f e r i t i c k s t h e f i r s t p r a i s e o f I ,

g e n iu s i s due t o t h e w r i t e r o f a n e p i c k poem, a s i t 170

r e q u i r e s a n a s se m b la g e o f a l l t h e pow ers w h ic h a r e s i n g l y

s u f f i c i e n t f o r o t h e r c o m p o s i t i o n s . . . . E p ic k p o e t r y

u n d e r t a k e s t o t e a c h t h e m ost i m p o r t a n t t r u t h s by t h e

m ost p l e a s i n g p r e c e p t s , a n d t h e r e f o r e r e l a t e s some g r e a t

e v e n t i n t h e m ost a f f e c t i n g m anner . H i s t o r y m ust

s t ipp ly t h e w r i t e r w i t h t h e r u d im e n t s o f n a r r a t i o n , w hich

he m ust im prove and e x a l t by a n o b l e r a r t , m ust

a n im a te by d r a m a t i c k e n e rg y , and d i v e r s i f y by

32

r e t r o s p e c t i o n an d a n t i c i p a t i o n ; m o r a l i t y m u st teach , him

th e e x a c t b ounds and d i f f e r e n t s h a d e s o f v i c e and v i r t u e ;

from p o l i c y an d t h e p r a c t i c e o f l i f e he h a s t o l e a r n t h e

d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s o f c h a r a c t e r an d t h e t e n d e n c y o f th e

p a s s i o n s , e i t h e r s i n g l e o r com bined . . . . To p u t t h e s e

m a t e r i a l s t o p o e t i c a l u se i s r e q u i r e d a n i m a g i n a t i o n

c a p a b le o f p a i n t i n g n a t u r e an d r e a l i z i n g f i c t i o n . "

The g r e a t e s t e p ic i n t h e E n g l i s h la n g u a g e i s M i l t o n ' s

" P a r a d i s e L o s t " ; a n d , a c c o r d in g t o J o h n s o n 's e s t i m a t e , i t

i s se co n d to H o m e r 's , o n ly b e c a u s e i t d o es n o t p r e c e d e

th e G reek e p i c . " P a r a d i s e L o s t . " . . . c o n s i d e r e d w i t h r e - I ,

s p e c t t o d e s ig n , may c la im t h e f i r s t p l a c e , and w i t h 170

r e s p e c t t o p e r fo rm a n c e t h e s e c o n d , among t h e p r o d u c t i o n s

o f th e human m in d ." " M i l to n c a n n o t be s a i d t o have con- I ,

t r i v e d th e s t r u c t u r e o f a n e p i c k poem. . . . B ut o f a l l 194

b o r r o w e r s from Homer H i l t o n i s p e r h a p s t h e l e a s t i n d e b t e d ;

. . . and h i s w ork i s n o t t h e g r e a t e s t o f h e r o i c k poems,

o n ly b e c a u s e i t i s n o t t h e f i r s t . "

M i l t o n ' s e p ic c o n v ey s t r u t h b a s e d upon m o r a l i t y ,

h u m a n ity , and s a c r e d h i s t o r y . As a n a u t h o r , he w as w e l l

q u a l i f i e d t o d i s c u s s e a c h ; f o r by c a r e f u l s tu d y he had

become m a s te r o f h i s s u b j e c t . "Of h i s m o ra l s e n t im e n t s I ,

i t i s h a r d l y p r a i s e t o a f f i r m t h a t t h e y e x c e l t h o s e o f 179

a l l o th e r p o e t s ; f o r t h i s s u p e r i o r i t y he was i n d e b t e d t o

h i s a c q u a in t a n c e w i t h t h e s a c r e d w r i t i n g s . The a n c i e n t

33

e p ic k p o e t s , w a n t in g th e l i g h t o f R e v e l a t i o n , w ere v e ry

u n s k i l f u l t e a c h e r s o f v i r t u e ; t h e i r p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r s

may be g r e a t , b u t t h e y a r e n o t a m i a b le . . . . I n M i l t o n

e v e ry l i n e b r e a t h e s s a n c t i t y o f t h o u g h t an d p u r i t y o f

m an n e rs , e x c e p t when t h e t r a i n o f n a r r a t i o n r e q u i r e s th e

i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e r e b e l l i o u s s p i r i t s ; and ev en t h e y a r e

c o m p e l le d t o acknow ledge t h e i r s u b j e c t i o n t o God."

H is c h a r a c t e r - s t u d y i s t r u t h f u l * " G r e a t e v e n t s I ,

c an be h a s t e n e d or r e t a r d e d o n ly by p e r s o n s o f e l e v a t e d 172

d i g n i t y . B e fo re th e g r e a t n e s s d i s p l a y e d i n M i l t o n ' s

poem a l l o t h e r g r e a t n e s s s h r i n k s away. The w e a k e s t o f

h i s a g e n t s a r e t h e h i g h e s t and n o b l e s t o f human b e i n g s , th e

o r i g i n a l p a r e n t s o f m a n k in d ."

The s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o f " P a r a d i s e L o s t " i s " t h e

h i s t o r y o f a m i r a c l e , o f C r e a t i o n and R ed em ption ; i t d i s - I ,

p l a y s th e power and t h e m ercy o f t h e Supreme B e in g : t h e 174

p r o b a b le t h e r e f o r e i s m a r v e l l o u s , and th e m a r v e l l o u s i s

p r o b a b l e . The s u b s ta n c e o f t h e n a r r a t i v e i s t r u t h ; and

a s t r u t h a l l o w s no c h o ic e , i t i s , l i k e n e c e s s i t y , s u p e r i o r

t o r u l e . To t h e a c c i d e n t a l o r a d v e n t i t i o u s p a r t s , a s t o

e v e ry t h i n g human, some s l i g h t e x c e p t i o n s may be m ade.

B u t th e m a in f a b r i c k i s immovably s u p p o r t e d . "

b .D id a c t i c

P o e t ry

A no the r ty p e o f p o e t r y w h ich J o h n s o n commends, i s

34

d i d a c t i c p o e t r y , " o f w h ich t h e g r e a t p u rp o s e i s i n - I I I ,

s t r u c t i o n . " Of c o u r s e , he c o n s i d e r s i t f a r i n f e r i o r 229

to t h e e p i c f o r t h e f i e l d o f e a c h i n d i v i d u a l poem i s

v e ry l i m i t e d ; how ever , w i t h i n t h a t l i m i t e d f i e l d , t h e

p o e t m ust be m a s te r o f h i s s u b j e c t . On t h e o t h e r

h an d , t h e r e i s s c a r c e l y any s u b j e c t c o n c e rn in g w h ic h lire

human m ind w is h e s i n f o r m a t i o n , w h ich Jo h n so n do es n o t

t h i n k a d a p te d t o d i d a c t i c p o e t r y . He p r a i s e s d i d a c t i c

poems d i s c u s s i n g th e a r t o f c r i t i c i s m , s c i e n c e , and

ev en r e l i g i o u s o r t h e o l o g i c a l p r e c e p t s ; b u t i n e a c h c a s e ,

he i n s i s t s t h a t t h e a u th o r m u s t g iv e t r u t h f u l i n f o r m a t i o n

on th e s u b j e c t . The poem w h ich he c o n s i d e r s a m odel

example o f d i d a c t i c p o e t r y , i s P o p e ' s " E ssa y on C r i t i c i s m " ;

f o r " i f he h a d w r i t t e n n o t h in g e l s e i t w ou ld have I I I

p l a c e d him among t h e f i r s t c r i t i c k s and t h e f i r s t p o e t s , 228

a s i t e x h i b i t s e v e ry mode o f e x c e l l e n c e t h a t c a n em­

b e l l i s h o r d i g n i f y d i d a c t i c k c o m p o s i t io n , s e l e c t i o n o f

m a t t e r , n o v e l t y o f a r r a n g e m e n t , j u s t n e s s o f p r e c e p t ,

s p le n d o u r o f i l l u s t r a t i o n , an d p r o p r i e t y o f d i g r e s s i o n ; "

Jo h n so n does n o t s p a r e P o p e ' s d i d a c t i c p o e t r y ,

how ever, when th e l a t t e r a t t e m p t s t o t e a c h so m e th ing w h ich

he h i m s e l f does n o t t h o r o u g h ly u n d e r s t a n d . He c r i t i c i s e ®

P o p e 's "E ssa y on M an," w h ic h " a f f o r d s a n e g r e g i o u s i n - I I I ,

s t a n c e o f th e p red o m in an ce o f g e n i u s , th e d a z z l i n g 243

s p le n d o u r o f im a g e ry , an d t h e s e d u c t i v e pow ers o f e lo q u e n c e .

35

Never was p e n u ry o f knowledge and v u l g a r i t y o f s e n t im e n t

so h a p p i l y d i s g u i s e d . " "Thus he t e l l s u s , i n t h e f i r s t I I I ,

E p i s t l e , t h a t from t h e n a t u r e o f t h e Supreme B e in g may 243

be deduced a n o r d e r o f b e i n g s su c h a s m an k in d . . . . He

f i n d s o u t t h a t t h e s e b e i n g s m u st be 'so m ew here ,* and t h a t

' a l l t h e q u e s t i o n i s w h e th e r man be i n a w rong p l a c e . ' . . .

But w hat i s m ean t by 'somewhere* and ' p l a c e ' and 'w ro n g

p l a c e ' i t h a d b e e n v a i n t o a s k P ope , who p r o b a b ly had

n e v e r a s k e d h i m s e l f . "

M odern c r i t i c s may be te m p te d t o e x c lu d e from p o e t i c

r e c o g n i t i o n such a w ork a s J . P h i l i p s ' s " C i d e r , " b e ­

ca u se o f th e c h o ic e o f su ch a m a t t e r - o f - f a c t s u b j e c t .

However, b e c a u s e i t s p u rp o s e i s t o g iv e t r u t h f u l i n s t r u c t i o n ,

Jo h n so n g i v e s i t " t h i s p e c u l i a r p r a i s e , t h a t i t i s g ro u n d - I ,

ed i n t r u t h ; t h a t t h e p r e c e p t s w h ic h i t c o n t a i n s a r e 319’

e x a c t and j u s t , and t h a t i t i s t h e r e f o r e a t once a b o o k

o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t and o f s c i e n c e . " He a l s o q u o te s M i l l e r ,

" th e g r e a t g a r d e n e r and b o t a n i s t whose e x p r e s s i o n w a s , I ,

t h a t t h e r e w ere many b o o k s w r i t t e n on th e same s u b j e c t 319

i n p r o s e , w h ic h do n o t c o n t a i n so much t r u t h a s t h a t poem ."

S i m i l a r l y he a p p ro v e s o f S o m e r v i l l e ' s d i d a c t i c poem,

The C h a se ," f o r s p o r ts m e n d e c l a r e t h a t t h e a u th o r w ro te

" w i th g r e a t i n t e l l i g e n c e on h i s s u b j e c t , w h ic h i s t h e I I ,

f i r s t r e q u i s i t e t o e x c e l l e n c e . " 319

36

A lth o u g h Jo h n so n s t r e n u o u s l y o p p o se s t h e w r i t i n g

o f c o n te m p la t iv e s a c r e d v e r s e , b e c a u s e t h e m a j e s t y and

a w fu l g r e a t n e s s o f s a c r e d t r u t h s a r e b e y o n d p o e t i c

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; n e v e r t h e l e s s , he a p p ro v e s o f d i d a c t i c poems

d e a l in g w i t h r e l i g i o u s t r u t h s . "The d o c t r i n e s o f r e - I ,

l i g i o n may in d e e d be d e fe n d e d i n a d i d a c t i c k poem. . . . 291

The s u b j e c t o f t h e d i s p u t a t i o n i s n o t p i e t y , b u t t h e

m o t iv e s to p i e t y . "

c .

C r i t i c i s m C lo s e ly a l l i e d t o t h e d i d a c t i c poem i s c r i t i c i s m .

The p u rp o s e o f e ac h i s t o i n s t r u c t . The s u b j e c t - m a t t e r

o f t h e fo rm e r may be a r t , s c i e n c e , o r t h e o lo g y ; t h a t

o f th e l a t t e r i s t h e s tu d y and a p p r e c i a t i o n o f l i t e r a r y

c o m p o s i t io n . C r i t i c i s m , a s a s tu d y o f c o m p o s i t io n ,

p r e s c r i b e s r u l e s and th e o re m s ; a s an a p p r e c i a t i o n

o f l i t e r a t u r e , i t r e c o g n i z e s b e a u t i e s a s w e l l a s d e t e c t s

f a u l t s # Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s Dry den a s t h e f a t h e r o f

E n g l i s h c r i t i c i s m , f o r he i s t h e w r i t e r "who f i r s t I ,

t a u g h t u s t o d e te rm in e upon p r i n c i p l e s t h e m e r i t o f 140

c o m p o s i t i o n ." "The c r i t i c i s m o f Dryden i s t h e c r i t i c i s m I ,

o f a p o e t ; n o t a d u l l c o l l e c t i o n o f th e o re m s , n o r a r u d e 412

d e t e c t i o n o f f a u l t s , w h ich p e r h a p s th e c e n s o r was n o t a b l e

to have com m itted ; b u t a gay an d v ig o r o u s d i s s e r t a t i o n ,

where d e l i g h t i s m in g le d w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n , and w here t h e a u ­

t h o r p r o v e s h i s r i g h t o f ju d gem en t by h i s power o f p e r f o r m a n c e ."

37

I n d e e d , h i s c r i t i c i s m s w ere so e f f e c t i v e , t h a t i n a

c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h S w i f t , D ryden s a i d " t h a t he r e - I ,

g r e t t e d t h e s u c c e s s o f h i s own i n s t r u c t i o n s , and fo und 366

h i s r e a d e r s made sxiddenly to o s k i l f u l t o be e a s i l y

s a t i s f i e d . "

A p o e t , i n o r d e r t o make a t r u t h f u l c r i t i c i s m ,

m ust have a th o ro u g h know ledge o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r w ork

u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n , a s w e l l a s a s y m p a th e t ic u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f t h e a u th o r and o f h i s t i m e s . Jo h n s o n c r i t i c i s e s

A d d i s o n 's "Musae A n g l i c a n a e , " b e c a u s e " i n t h i s poem

t h e r e i s a v e ry c o n f i d e n t and d i s c r i m i n a t i v e c h a r a c t e r I I ,

o f S p e n s e r , whose w ork he h a d t h e n n e v e r r e a d . So 84

l i t t l e som etim es i s c r i t i c i s m t h e e f f e c t o f ju d g e m e n t ."

F u r th e r m o r e , Jo h n so n d e c l a r e s t h a t " t o jud g e r i g h t l y o f I,"

a n a u th o r we m ust t r a n s p o r t o u r s e l v e s t o h i s t i m e , an d 411

examine w ha t w ere t h e w a n ts o f h i s c o n te m p o r a r i e s , and

w hat were h i s means o f s u p p ly in g th e m ."

a.S a t i r e The c r i t i c e x p r e s s e s w i t h o u t m a le v o le n c e , h i s

j u s t o p in io n s o f l i t e r a r y c o m p o s i t i o n s . The s a t i r i s t ,

on t h e o t h e r h a n d , h o l d s up a b u s e s and e r r o r t o r e p r o b a t i o n

and r i d i c u l e . J o h n s o n d o e s n o t a p p ro v e o f a l l k i n d s o f

s a t i r e , f o r he r e c o g n i z e s t h e s e l f i s h an d r e v e n g e f u l u s e

some a u t h o r s make o f t h i s w eapon . However, he d o es

38

ad m it t h a t u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s e v e n s a t i r e may he

u s e f u l and e f f e c t i v e . " A l l t r u t h i s v a l u a b l e , and

s a t i r i c a l c r i t i c i s m may b e c o n s i d e r e d a s u s e f u l when i t I I I ,

r e c t i f i e s e r r o r and im p ro v es ju d g em e n t: he t h a t r e f i n e s 242

th e p u b l i c k t a s t e i s a p u b l i c k b e n e f a c t o r . "

U n u su a l a s i t may seem , Jo h n s o n f i n d s t h a t Pope

made an e f f e c t i v e u se o f s a t i r e i n t h e "Rape o f t h e L ock" ;

f o r " th e p u rp o s e o f t h e P o e t i s , a s he t e l l s u s , t o I I I f

l a u g h a t ' t h e l i t t l e u n g u a rd e d f o l l i e s o f t h e fe m a le 234

s e x . ' . . . The f r e a k s , and h um ors , and s p l e e n , and v a n i t y

o f women. . . . e m b ro i l f a m i l i e s i n d i s c o r d and f i l l h o u s e s

w i t h d i s q u i e t . . . . I t h a s b e e n w e l l o b s e rv e d t h a t th e

m is e r y o f man p r o c e e d s n o t f rom any s i n g l e c r u s h o f o v e r ­

w helm ing e v i l , b u t from s m a l l v e x a t i o n s c o n t i n u a l l y

r e p e a t e d . "

J o h n so n , how ever , c i t e s more i n s t a n c e s o f t h e a b u se

o f s a t i r e t h a n o f i t s e f f e c t i v e u s e . E ven th o u g h Pope

a s s u r e s b o t h h i s r e a d e r s and h i m s e l f t h a t t h e d e s i g n o f

"The D unciad" was m o r a l , y e t Jo h n so n r e m a in s u n c o n v in c e d .

"The f i r s t m o t iv e was th e d e s i r e o f r e v e n g i n g t h e con tem pt I I I

w i t h w h ic h T h e o b a ld h a d t r e a t e d h i s S h a k e s p e a r e , and 241

r e g a i n i n g t h e ho n o u r w h ich he h a d l o s t , by c r u s h i n g h i s

o p p o n e n t . T h e o b a ld was n o t o f b u l k enough t o f i l l a

poem, and t h e r e f o r e i t was n e c e s s a r y t o f i n d o t h e r

39

enem ies w i t h o t h e r nam es, a t whose expence he m ig h t

d i v e r t t h e p u b l i c k . "

Jo h n so n does n o t t o l e r a t e th e r i d i c u l e o f any

m is f o r tu n e o r d i s t r e s s . He s e v e r e l y c e n s u r e s B u t l e r

f o r lam poon ing Denham b e c a u s e o f te m p o ra ry l u n a c y .

" I know n o t . . . w ha t p r o v o c a t i o n i n c i t e d B u t l e r t o do I ,

t h a t w h ich no p r o v o c a t i o n c a n e x c u s e . " When M i l l e r 75

r i d i c u l e d S a v a g e 's m i s f o r t u n e s , and d e p i c t e d him a s

th e d i s t r e s s e d p o e t who h a d b u t one c o a t , Jo h n so n

s c o rn e d t h i s t a u n t a s " a mean i n s u l t " ; ev en th o u g h I I ,

Savage i n h i s more p r o s p e r o u s d a y s , h a d h i m s e l f 402

s a t i r i z e d o t h e r s l e s s f o r t u n a t e t h a n h i m s e l f . How

Savage " v e ry e a s i l y d i s c o v e r e d t h a t d i s t r e s s was n o t a I I ,

p r o p e r s u b j e c t f o r m e r r im e n t , o r t o p i c k o f i n v e c t i v e . 374

He was t h e n a b l e t o d i s c e r n t h a t , i f m is e r y be th e

e f f e c t o f v i r t u e , i t o u g h t t o be r e v e r e n c e d ; i f o f i l l -

f o r t u n e , t o be p i t i e d ; and i f o f v i c e , n o t t o be i n ­

s u l t e d , b e c a u s e i t i s p e rh a p s i t s e l f a p u n ish m en t a d e q u a te

t o t h e c rim e by w h ic h i t was p ro d u c e d . And t h e h u m an ity

o f t h a t man c a n d e s e r v e no p a n e g y r i c k who i s c a p a b le o f

r e p r o a c h in g a c r i m i n a l i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e e x e c u t i o n e r . "

e .C on tro ­v e r s y

J u s t a s Jo h n s o n c o n s i d e r s s a t i r e a p r o p e r weapon

i f em ployed i n t h e c a u se o f m o ra l t r u t h , so he l i k e w i s e

40

a p p ro v e s o f c o n t r o v e r s i a l v e r s e i f i t i s u s e d t o r e f u t e

e r r o r . He h a s e n u m e ra te d th e u s u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f

a w r i t e r a r g u in g i n v e r s e , i n t h e f o l lo w in g d e s c r i p t i o n

o f C o l l i e r : "He was form ed a c o h t r o v e r t i s t w i t h I I ,

d i c t i o n vehem ent and p o i n t e d ; . . . w i t h u n c o n q u e ra b le 221

p e r t i n a c i t y ; w i t h w i t i n t h e h i g h e s t d e g re e k e e n and

s a r c a s t i c k ; an d w i t h a l l t h o s e pow ers e x a l t e d and i n ­

v i g o r a t e d by j u s t c o n f id e n c e i n h i s c a u s e . "

L e a r n in g i s th e f i r s t r e q u i s i t e o f a c o n t r o -

v e r t i s t ; f o r th e t r u t h o f any c a s e c a n n o t b e p r e s e n t e d ,

u n l e s s t h e w r i t e r i s t h o r o u g h ly a c q u a i n t e d w i t h b o th

s i d e s o f th e q u e s t i o n . Jo h n so n c e n s u r e s W il l ia m K in g ,

who m in g le d i n t h e c o n t r o v e r s y b e tw e e n B o y le a n d B e n t l e y ,

b e c a u s e he was "one o f t h o s e who t r i e d w hat Wit c o u ld 1^

p e r fo rm i n o p p o s i t i o n t o L e a r n i n g , on a q u e s t i o n w h ich 27

L e a r n in g a lo n e c o u ld d e c i d e . " A lth o u g h S h e n s t o n e 's

" R u ra l E le g a n c e " h a s i r r e g u l a r l i n e s , and a l t h o u g h

t h o u g h t s a r e d i f f u s e d w i t h t o o much v e r b o s i t y , y e t Jo h n so n

sa y s t h a t i t c a n n o t b e d e n ie d " t o c o n t a i n b o t h p h i l o s o p h i c a l I I I

a rgum ent an d p o e t i c a l s p i r i t . " 356

Jo h n so n s e e s t h e d a n g e r , h o w ev er , o f g iv in g e x p r e s ­

s i o n t o p e r s o n a l g r i e v a n c e s d u r in g a c o n t r o v e r s y ; f o r

" c o n t r o v e r t i s t s c a n n o t l o n g r e t a i n t h e i r k i n d n e s s f o r e a c h I I ,

o t h e r . " C o n t ro v e r s y t h e n l o s e s i t s d i g n i t y , and c a n no 115

41

lo n g e r be a p p ro v e d ; f o r i t do es n o t f u l f i l l i t s m o ra l

p u rp o s e o f r e f u t i n g e r r o r and o f s u p p o r t i n g t r u t h . An

i l l u s t r i o u s exam ple o f t h i s , i s t h e c o n t r o v e r s y b e tw e e n

M i l to n and S a lm a s iu s , who w ro te r e s p e c t i v e l y th e "D efence

o f t h e P e o p l e , " and t h e "D efence o f t h e K in g ." A f t e r

t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e f i r s t a r t i c l e s , M i l t o n ' s supreme

p l e a s u r e was t o " t a x h i s a d v e r s a r y , so renow ned f o r c r i t i - I ,

c ism , w i t h v i t i o u s L a t i n . " Then f o l lo w e d a c o n t r o v e r s y 113

on th e u se o f t h e L a t i n w ord " P e r s o n a . " F i n a l l y , " a s I ,

S a lm a s iu s r e p r o a c h e d M i l t o n w i t h l o s i n g h i s e y e s i n t h e 115

q u a r r e l , M i l t o n d e l i g h t e d h i m s e l f w i t h t h e b e l i e f t h a t he

had s h o r t e n e d S a lm a s iu s * s l i f e ; an d b o t h p e r h a p s w i t h

more m a l i g n i t y t h a n r e a s o n . S a lm a s iu s d i e d a t t h e Spa ,

S e p t . 3 , 1653; an d , a s c o n t r o v e r t i s t s a r e commonly s a i d t o

be k i l l e d by t h e i r l a s t d i s p u t e , M i l t o n was f l a t t e r e d w i t h

th e c r e d i t o f d e s t r o y i n g h im ."

A t b e s t , c o n t r o v e r s i a l p o e t r y r e c e i v e s o n ly t r a n ­

s i e n t r e c o g n i t i o n . A lth o u g h Jo h n so n a p p ro v e s o f i t when

i t i s u s e d t o r e f u t e e r r o r , y e t he h i m s e l f a d m i t s t h a t

"books o f t h i s k i n d se ldom l i v e l o n g , when i n t e r e s t a n d I I

r e s e n tm e n t h av e c e a s e d . " 27

f .T ran s ­l a t i o n

Many c r i t i c s do n o t a t t r i b u t e p o e t i c g e n iu s to

a t r a n s l a t o r , b e c a u s e th e a r t o f t r a n s l a t i n g do es n o t demand

42

d f t h e w r i t e r t h e same d e g re e o f o r i g i n a l i t y a s t h e a r t

o f w r i t i n g p o e t r y . Jo h n so n t a k e s i s s u e w i t h su ch i n

c o n s i d e r i n g t r a n s l a t i o n a l e g i t i m a t e f i e l d o f p o e t r y .

I n d i s c u s s i n g P o p e ' s v e r s i o n o f th e " I l i a d , " he s a y s t h a t I I I ,

i f Pope h a d g i v e n t h e w o r ld n o t h in g e l s e , " th e name o f £52

p o e t m ust have b e e n a l lo w e d him; i f t h e w r i t e r o f t h e

I l i a d w ere t o c l a s s h i s s u c c e s s o r s he w ould a s s i g n a

v e ry h ig h p l a c e t o h i s t r a n s l a t o r , w i t h o u t r e q u i r i n g any

o t h e r e v id e n c e o f g e n i u s . "

A t r a n s l a t i o n m ust s a t i s f y c e r t a i n r e q u i r e m e n t s ,

how ever , t o be p o e t i c : i t m ust be t r u t h f u l b o t h i n r e g a r d

t o c o n te n t and to s t y l e . B u t f i r s t o f a l l , t h e o r i g i n a l

p o e t s h o u ld be such " a s may d e s e r v e a t r a n s l a t i o n ; t h e n I ,

he who i n t e n d s t o t r a n s l a t e h im s h o u ld e n d eav o r t o u n d e r - 236

s t a n d him; . . . and f i n a l l y th e s t y l e o f t h e o r i g i n a l

sh o u ld be c o p ie d i n i t s e l e v a t i o n and d e p r e s s i o n . " I n

o rd e r t o g iv e a t r u t h f u l r e n d e r i n g o f t h e o r i g i n a l , t h e

f i r s t t r a n s l a t o r s c o p ie d word f o r w ord , an d l i n e f o r l i n e .

"Ben J o n s o n th o u g h t i t n e c e s s a r y t o copy H orace a lm o s t I ’"

word by w ord ; F e l th a m , h i s c o n te m p o ra ry an d a d v e r s a r y , 421 -

c o n s i d e r s i t a s i n d i s p e n s a b l y r e q u i s i t e i n a t r a n s l a t i o n 422

t o g ive l i n e f o r l i n e . I t i s s a i d t h a t Sandys . . . h a s

s t r u g g l e d h a r d t o co m p r ise e v e r y book o f h i s E n g l i s h

M etam orphoses i n t h e same number o f v e r s e s w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l . "

43

Then t h e t r a n s l a t o r s , d e s i r o u s o f f r e e i n g t h e m s e lv e s from

t h i s s e r v i l e d r u d g e r y , w en t t o t h e o t h e r e x t r e m e , and

gave m e re ly t h e l o o s e s t p a r a p h r a s e o f t h e o r i g i n a l . I ,

"H olyday had h a d n o t h i n g i n v iew b u t t o shew t h a t he u n d e r - 422

s to o d h i s a u t h o r . . . . Oowley . . . a s s e r t e d h i s l i b e r t y , and

s p re a d h i s w in g s so b o l d l y t h a t he l e f t h i s a u t h o r s . "

Jo h n so n does n o t a p p ro v e o f e i t h e r e x t r e m e , b u t a g r e e s w i t h

D ryden , who f i x e d t h e l i m i t s o f p o e t i c a l l i b e r t y i n t h e

f o l lo w in g r u l e : " T r a n s l a t i o n . . . i s n o t so l o o s e a s I ,

p a r a p h r a s e , n o r so c lo s e a s m e t a p h r a s e . " ■ 422

Hot o n ly does Jo h n so n demand t h a t t h e t r a n s l a t o r

r e n d e r t r u t h f u l l y t h e a u t h o r ' s t h o u g h t , b u t he i n s i s t s t h a t

t h e fo rm er e x h i b i t f a i t h f u l l y t h e s t y l e o f t h e o r i g i n a l .

"He i s t o e x h i b i t h i s a u t h o r ' s t h o u g h t s i n such a d r e s s o f I ,

d i c t i o n a s t h e a u th o r w ou ld h av e g iv e n th em , h ad h i s 423

la n g u a g e b e e n E n g l i s h : r u g g e d m a g n i f i c e n c e i s n o t t o be

s o f t e n e d ; h y p e r b o l i c a l o s t e n t a t i o n i s n o t t o b e r e p r e s s e d ,

n o r s e n t e n t i o u s a f f e c t a t i o n t o have i t s p o i n t s b l u n t e d . A

t r a n s l a t o r i s to be l i k e h i s a u t h o r ; i t i s n o t h i s b u s i n e s s

t o e x c e l h im ."

g-n a r r a ­t i o n

Jo h n so n a p p ro v e s o f t h o s e t y p e s o f p o e t r y w h ic h con­

vey t r u t h s to t h e m ind o f t h e r e a d e r . I n a s much a s

n a r r a t i v e p o e t r y som etim es co n v ey s a m o ra l t r u t h , Jo h n so n

44

p e r m i t s i t s u se e i t h e r a s a f a b l e o r a s a t a l e . He

d i s t i n g u i s h e s a f a b l e from a t a l e a s f o l l o w s : "A F a b l e . . . H f

seems t o be i n i t s g e n u in e s t a t e a n a r r a t i v e i n w h ich 283

b e i n g s i r r a t i o n a l , an d som etim es in a n i m a t e , . . . a r e f o r

t h e p u rp o se o f m o ra l i n s t r u c t i o n f e i g n e d t o a c t an d sp e ak

w i t h human i n t e r e s t s and p a s s i o n s . " The o n ly r e q u i s i t e

o f a n a r r a t i v e poem t h a t Jo h n so n m e n t io n s , i s r a p i d i t y o f

a c t i o n .

h .D e s c r ip ­

t i o nA n o th e r t y p e o f p o e t r y w h ic h Jo h n so n b a r e l y s u g g e s t s

i s d e s c r i p t i v e v e r s e . He a p p ro v e s o f su ch d e s c r i p t i o n s

a s convey i n f o r m a t i o n ; and s t r a n g e t o s a y , he d o e s n o t

o b j e c t t o t h e s c i e n t i s t ' s accom pany ing th e p o e t on a r a m b le .

He a p p ro v e s o f James Thom son 's d e s c r i p t i o n s i n "The S e a s o n s ,"

w here b o th t h e p o e t and th e s c i e n t i s t d e s c r i b e " t h e w hole

m a g n i f i c e n c e o f N a tu r e , w h e th e r p l e a s i n g cor d r e a d f u l . . . . 299

The p o e t l e a d s u s t h r o u g h t h e a p p e a r a n c e s o f t h i n g s a s

th e y a r e s u c c e s s i v e l y v a r i e d by t h e v i c i s s i t u d e s o f t h e y e a r ,

and i m p a r t s t o u s so much o f h i s own e n th u s ia s m t h a t our

th o u g h t s expand w i t h h i s im agery and k i n d l e w i t h h i s

s e n t i m e n t s . Nor i s t h e n a t u r a l i s t w i t h o u t h i s p a r t i n

t h e e n t e r t a i n m e n t ; f o r he i s a s s i s t e d t o r e c o l l e c t and t o

com bine , and t o a r r a n g e h i s d i s c o v e r i e s , and t o a m p l i f y th e

sp h e re o f h i s c o n t e m p l a t i o n . "

45

Jo h n so n c e n s u r e s Cowley f o r g i v i n g i n f e r e n c e s , I ,

i n s t e a d o f im ag es , an d f o r show ing " n o t w hat may be 51

su p p o sed t o have b e e n s e e n , b u t w ha t t h o u g h t s t h e s i g h t

m ig h t have s u g g e s t e d . " He a l s o c r i t i c i s e s M i l t o n ' s

d e s c r i p t i o n s b e c a u s e th e y w ere n o t c o p ie d from t h e o r i g i n a l

fo rm . "He saw N a tu re , a s D ryden e x p r e s s e s i t , ' t h r o u g h I ,

t h e s p e c t a c l e s o f b o o k s ' ; and on m ost o c c a s i o n s c a l l s 178

l e a r n i n g t o h i s a s s i s t a n c e . "

D e s c r i p t i v e p o e t r y , t h e n , a c c o r d in g t o J o h n s o n 's

t h e o r y , s h o u ld be s c i e n t i f i c , - a t l e a s t i n s t r u c t i v e ; i t

sh o u ld n o t be im a g in a t iv e n o r c o n t e m p l a t i v e .

i .E leg y One ty p e o f c o n te m p la t iv e p o e t r y m e e ts w i t h

J o h n s o n 's a p p r o v a l , how ever , b e c a u s e i t h a s a u n i v e r s a l

a p p e a l ; and t h a t i s t h e e l e g y . He p r a i s e s S h e n s t o n e 's

c o n c e p t io n o f an e l e g y a s v e r y j u d i c i o u s and d i s c r i m i n a t i n g .

The e l e g y i s , a c c o r d in g to S h e n s t o n e ' s a c c o u n t , " t h e I I I

e f f u s i o n o f a c o n te m p la t iv e m in d , som etim es p l a i n t i v e , 355

and a lw ay s s e r i o u s , and t h e r e f o r e s u p e r i o r to t h e

g l i t t e r o f s l i g h t o r n a m e n ts . " Jo h n so n i n s i s t s t h a t u n i v e r s a l

t u r t h i s a lw ay s a s u i t a b l e s u b j e c t f o r p o e t r y ; h ence t h e

e le g y i s a n a p p ro v e d p o e t i c fo rm . "The C h u rc h -y a rd abounds

w i th im ages w h ich f i n d a m i r r o u r i n e v e r y m in d , and w i t h

s e n t im e n t s t o w h ich e v e ry bosom r e t u r n s an e c h o ." 441

46

He p r a i s e s e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y e v e n G r a y ' s " E le g y ,"

a l th o u g h he i s none to o k i n d l y d isposed , to w a rd G ray ;

and he g e n e r o u s ly s a y s : "Had Gray w r i t t e n o f t e n t h u s I I I ,

i t h a d b e e n v a i n t o b la m e , and u s e l e s s t o p r a i s e h im ." 442

Jo h n so n b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e " c h a r a c t e r o f th e I I ,

e l e g y i s g e n t l e n e s s and t e n u i t y . " T h e r e f o r e he warm ly 316

commends Edmund S m i t h 's e l e g y on t h e d e a th o f Jo h n I I

P h i l i p s , "w hich j u s t i c e m u s t p l a c e among t h e b e s t 16

e l e g i e s w h ich our l a n g u a g e c a n shew, a n e l e g a n t m ix tu r e

o f fo n d n e s s and a d m i r a t i o n , o f d i g n i t y and s o f t n e s s . "

D e s p i t e h i s a c c e p ta n c e o f t h e fo rm , Jo h n so n d o es

n o t r a n k t h e e le g y a s t h e h i g h e s t k i n d o f p o e t r y , f o r

t h e f i e l d i s so n a rro w and so f a m i l i a r , t h a t " i t i s I I , '

im p o s s ib l e t o t r a v e l i n i t w i t h o u t t r e a d i n g i n t h e f o o t - 407

s t e p s o f t h o s e who have gone b e f o r e . "

5 •Drama

■ f

T here s t i l l r e m a in s a l a r g e f i e l d o f p o e t r y , t h e

dram a, w h ich Jo h n so n d i s c u s s e s ; n o t , ho w ev er , a t so

g r e a t a l e n g t h a s m ost r e a d e r s m ig h t e x p e c t . E v en when

he does c r i t i c i s e th e dram a, he do es so d e s t r u c t i v e l y

r a t h e r t h a n c o n s t r u c t i v e l y , a s i n t h e c a s e o f t h e e p i c .

J o h n s o n 's age was n o t a d r a m a t ic a g e ; m o re o v e r , t h e

R e s t o r a t i o n p e r i o d p r e c e d i n g J o h n s o n 's t im e p ro d u c e d so

many l i c e n t i o u s p l a y s , t h a t Jo h n so n h a s no sym pathy w h a t-

47

e v e r w i t h t h e m ass o f d r a m a t i c p r o d u c t i o n .

J u s t a s i n o th e r p o e t r y , so h e r e a l s o Jo h n so nt

demands t h a t t r u t h be t h e k e y n o te o f th e dram a. I n

a h i s t o r i c a l p l a y , he d o e s n o t i n s i s t upon f i d e l i t y

t o m in o r f a c t s and d e t a i l s , b u t r a t h e r a l l o w s t h e d r a m a t i s t

a c e r t a i n amount o f p o e t i c l i b e r t y . He g o e s on t o a d v i s e

th e p l a y w r i g h t , h o w ev er , t o choose f o r h i s s u b j e c t - m a t t e r ,

c h a r a c t e r s and e v e n t s f a r rem oved i n p o i n t o f t im e ; o t h e r ­

w ise any d e v i a t i o n from f a i t h f u l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f ev en

th e s l i g h t e s t d e t a i l s w i l l o f f e n d t h e r e a d e r a c q u a i n t e d

w i t h t h e f a c t s . He d i s a p p r o v e s o f S a v a g e 's c h o ic e o f

c o n te n t i n " S i r Thomas O v e rb u ry ," " a s t o r y w e l l a d a p te d I I ,

t o t h e s t a g e , though p e r h a p s n o t f a r enough rem oved 338

from t h e p r e s e n t a g e , to a d m i t p r o p e r l y t h e f i c t i o n s

n e c e s s a r y t o c o m p le te th e p l a n ; f o r th e m in d , w h ich

n a t u r a l l y l o v e s t r u t h , i s a lw a y s m ost o f f e n d e d w i t h t h e

v i o l a t i o n o f t h o s e t r u t h s o f w h ic h we a r e m o s t c e r t a i n ,

and we, o f c o u r s e , c o n c e iv e t h o s e f a c t s m o s t c e r t a i n w hich

a p p ro a c h n e a r e s t t o ou r own t i m e . "

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , Jo h n so n a l l o w s no e x c e p t i o n

t o h i s demands f o r m o r a l t r u t h . F o r t h i s r e a s o n he

c e n s t i r e s D ryden m o st s e v e r e l y ; a l t h o u g h he r e c o g n i z e s

F ry d en a s th e g r e a t e s t p o e t o f h i s a g e , and e s te e m s h i s

g e n iu s e v e n above t h a t o f P o p e ' s . The dram a, " A l l f o r L o v e ,"

48

m e e ts w i t h d i s a p p r o v a l , b e c a u s e o f t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h i s

p l a y Dryden h a s com m itted "one f a u l t e q u a l t o many, th o u g h I ,

r a t h e r m o ra l t h a n c r i t i c a l , t h a t by a d m i t t i n g t h e rom an- 361

t i c k o m nipo tence o f L ove, he h a s recommended a s l a u d a b l e

and w o r th y o f i m i t a t i o n t h a t co n d u c t w h ic h th r o u g h a l l

a g e s t h e good have c e n s u r e d a s v i c i o u s , and t h e b a d d e s p i s e d

a s f o o l i s h . "

He d i s a p p r o v e s o f D ry den1s c o m e d ie s , an d he does

n o t f o r g i v e D ryden when t h e l a t t e r t r i e s t o e x c u se h i m s e l f ;

f o r "when he c a n n o t d isow n t h e g r o s s n e s s o f one o f h i s I ,

p l a y s , he d e c l a r e s t h a t he knows n o t any law t h a t 415

p r e s c r i b e s m o r a l i t y t o a com ick p o e t . " J o h n s o n v e r y

s t e r n l y r e p r o v e s him i n th e f o l l o w i n g l i n e s : "Of t h e I ,

m ind t h a t c an t r a d e i n c o r r u p t i o n , a n d c a n d e l i b e r a t e l y 3 9 8 -

p o l l u t e i t s e l f w i t h i d e a l w ic k e d n e s s f o r t h e sak e o f 399

s p r e a d in g th e c o n ta g i o n i n s o c i e t y , I w is h n o t t o c o n c e a l

o r e x cu se t h e d e p r a v i t y . - S u c h d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e d i g n i t y

o f g e n iu s , su ch a b u se o f s u p e r l a t i v e a b i l i t i e s , c a n n o t

be c o n te m p la te d b u t w i t h g r i e f and i n d i g n a t i o n . What

c o n s o l a t i o n c a n be h a d Dryden h a s a f f o r d e d , by l i v i n g

t o r e p e n t , and t o t e s t i f y h i s r e p e n t a n c e . "

I n a s i m i l a r way Jo h n so n condemns C o n g re v e 's p l a y s ,

s i n c e i t " i s a ck now ledg ed w i t h u n i v e r s a l c o n v i c t i o n t h a t I I ,

th e p e r u s a l o f h i s w orks w i l l make no man b e t t e r ; and 222

49

t h a t t h e i r u l t i m a t e e f f e c t i s t o r e p r e s e n t p l e a s u r e i n

a l l i a n c e w i t h v i c e , an d t o r e l a x t h o s e o b l i g a t i o n s b y

w hich l i f e o ug h t t o be r e g u l a t e d . "

Jo h n so n d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e tw e e n s e v e r a l t y p e s o f

drama: t r a g e d y , comedy, o p e r a , an d m asqu e . I n t r a g e d y ,

Jo h n so n d o e s n o t i n s i s t upon t h e o b s e rv a n c e o f t h e u n i t i e s

o f t im e and p l a c e , s i n c e i n r e a l l i f e su ch c r u c i a l e v e n t s

do n o t g e n e r a l l y h a p p en i n t h e same p l a c e and on t h e

same d a y . On th e w h o le , he does n o t a g re e w i t h D e n n i s ' s

c r i t i c i s m o f A& ctison 's t r a g e d y " C a to " ; b u t when t h e

fo rm er a t t a c k s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e a c t i o n an d t h e r e a s o n ­

a b l e n e s s o f t h e p l a n , b e c a u s e o f th e s t r i c t a d h e re n c e t o

t im e and p l a c e r e g u l a t i o n s , Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s him l e a s t

r e s i s t i b l e . "E very c r i t i c a l r e a d e r m ust r e m a rk t h a t I I

A dd ison h a s , w i t h a s c r u p u l o s i t y a lm o s t u nexam pled on t h e 136

E n g l i s h s t a g e , c o n f in e d h i m s e l f i n t im e t o a s i n g l e day ,

and i n p l a c e t o r i g o r o u s u n i t y . The sc e n e n e v e r c h a n g e s ,

and t h e w hole a c t i o n o f t h e p l a y p a s s e s i n t h e g c e a t h a l l

o f C a t o ' s h o use a t U t i c a . Much t h e r e f o r e i s done i n t h e

h a l l , f o r w h ich an y o t h e r p l a c e h a d b e e n more f i t ; an d

t h i s i m p r o p r i e t y a f f o r d s D en n is many h i n t s o f m e r r im e n t a n d

o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f t r i u m p h ."

Jo h n so n does i n s i s t n e v e r t h e l e s s , upon u n i t y o f

a c t i o n . He c r i t i c i s e s C o n g r e v e 's t r a g e d y , "The M ourn ing

50

B r i d e , " b e c a u s e " th e p l o t i s b u sy and i n t r i c a t e and t h e I I ,

e v e n t s t a k e h o l d on t h e a t t e n t i o n , t u t , e x c e p t a v e r y 219

few p a s s a g e s , we a r e r a t h e r amused w i t h n o i s e and p e r ­

p l e x e d w i t h s t r a t a g e m t h a n e n t e r t a i n e d w i t h any t r u e

d e l i n e a t i o n o f n a t u r a l c h a r a c t e r s . "

I n comedy, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , Jo h n so n makes b u t

few demands. "As t h e l i g h t e r s p e c i e s o f d r a m a t i c k p o e t r y II,'

p r o f e s s e s t h e i m i t a t i o n o f common l i f e , o f r e a l m a n n e rs , 216

and d a i l y i n c i d e n t s , i t a p p a r e n t l y p r e s u p p o s e s a f a m i l i a r

know ledge o f many c h a r a c t e r s and e x a c t o b s e r v a t i o n o f

th e p a s s i n g w o r l d . "

Jo h n so n does n o t c o n s i d e r t h e o p e ra o f a v e r y h ig h

o rd e r o f l i t e r a r y m e r i t . He t o l e r a t e s t h e b a l l a d o p e ra

b e c a u s e i t h a s p r o v e d i t s own m e r i t by c o n t i n u e d p o p u l a r i t y .

"Much, h o w ev er , m ust be a l lo w e d t o t h e a u th o r o f a new I I ,

s p e c i e s o f c o m p o s i t io n , th o u g h i t be n o t o f t h e h i g h e s t 282-

k i n d . We owe t o Gay t h e B a l l a d O pera; a mode o f comedy 283

w hich a t f i r s t was su p p o sed t o d e l i g h t o n ly by i t s

n o v e l t y , b u t h a s now b y t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f h a l f a c e n t u r y

b e e n fo und so w e l l accom oda ted t o t h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f a

p o p u la r a u d ie n c e t h a t i t i s l i k e l y t o keep lo n g p o s s e s s i o n

o f t h e s t a g e . " He do es n o t even t o l e r a t e t h e I t a l i a n

o p e ra , b u t c a l l s i t " a n e x o t i c k and i r r a t i o n a l e n t e r t a i n m e n t , I I ,

w h ich h a s b e e n a lw a y s com bated and a lw ay s h a s p r e v a i l e d . " 160

51

A no th e r one o f t h e l i g h t e r s p e c i e s o f d r a m a t ic

p o e t r y i s t h e m asque . S in c e by i t s v e r y n a t u r e i t i s

l i g h t and a i r y , Jo h n so n i n s i s t s t h a t i t be t r e a t e d a c c o r d ­

i n g l y . He f i n d s M i l t o n ' s "Comus" t o o h e av y ; " i t i s a I ,

drama i n t h e e p ic k s t y l e , i n e l e g a n t l y s p l e n d i d , and 169

t e d i o u s l y i n s t r u c t i v e . " However, e v e n th o u g h i t i s a

l e s s e r ty p e o f d ram a, y e t t r u t h m u s t be t h e k e y n o te .

A g a in Jo h n so n c r i t i c i s e s "Comus," b e c a u s e a s " a drama i t I ,

i s d e f i c i e n t . The a c t i o n i s n o t p r o b a b l e . A M asque, 168

i n t h o s e p a r t s where s u p e r n a t u r a l i n t e r v e n t i o n i s a d m i t t e d ,

m ust in d e e d b e g i v e n up t o a l l t h e f r e a k s o f im a g in a t io n ;

b u t so f a r a s t h e a c t i o n i s m e re ly human i t o ugh t t o

be r e a s o n a b l e . "

True p o e t r y i s t h a t w h ich co nvey s t r u t h t o t h e

m ind o f t h e r e a d e r . I n o r d e r t o s a t i s f y t h i s d e te r m in in g

p o e t i c r e q u i s i t e , Jo h n so n i n s i s t s t h a t i t m ust t e a c h

t r u t h s d e r i v e d from one or a l l o f t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e s o u r c e s :

a m o ra l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r i g h t and w rong ; a s y m p a th e t ic

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h u m a n ity ; and a t h o r o u g h know ledge o f

e x t e r n a l n a t u r e . S in c e i n t h e e p i c t h e r e a d e r f i n d s t r u t h

from t h e s e t h r e e s o u r c e s m ost e f f e c t u a l l y b l e n d e d , Jo h n so n

c o n s i d e r s t h e e p ic a s t h e h i g h e s t t y p e o f l i t e r a t u r e . I n

d i d a c t i c p o e t r y , i n c r i t i c a l , s a t i r i c a l , and c o n t r o v e r s i a l

v e r s e s , a s w e l l a s i n n a r r a t i v e , d e s c r i p t i v e , an d e l e g i a c

p o e t r y , he f i n d s one or t h e o t h e r s o u rc e p r e d o m in a n t .

52

I n a t r a n s l a t i o n , o f c o u r s e , he f i n d s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

o f th e o r i g i n a l ; and t h e r e f o r e J o h n s o n 's f i r s t c a u t i o n

t o t h e t r a n s l a t o r , i s t o s e e k a w ork t h a t may d e s e rv e

a t r a n s l a t i o n . I n t h e dram a, t r a g e d y i s g r e a t e r t h a n

comedy o r any o f i t s v a r i e t i e s , b e c a u s e i t a f f o r d s b e t t e r

o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f p r e s e n t i n g t h e t r u t h d e r i v e d from t h e

com bined t h r e e - f o l d s o u r c e . T r u th , t h e r e f o r e , i s th e

t o u c h s to n e by m eans o f w h ich Jo h n so n e s t i m a t e s p o e t i c

m e r i t*

I I

' AS RESPECTS PLEASURE

Not a l o n e , h o w e v er , i s t h e c o n c e rn o f p o e t r y w i t h

t r u t h . Jo h n so n s a y s t h a t " p o e t r y i s t h e a r t o f u n i t i n g I ,

p l e a s u r e w i t h t r u t h " ; f o r "we l o v e t e t t e r t o b e p l e a s e d 170

t h a n t o be t a u g h t . " T h e r e f o r e , " t h a t b o o k i s good i nII,

v a i n w hich t h e r e a d e r th ro w s aw ay . He o n ly i s t h e m a s te r • •144

who k e e p s t h e m ind i n p l e a s i n g c a p t i v i t y ; whose p a g e s I ,

a r e p e r u s e d a g a i n ; and whose c o n c l u s i o n i s p e r c e i v e d w i th 454

an eye o f so r ro w , such a s t h e t r a v e l l e r c a s t s u pon de­

p a r t i n g d a y ." "To a t h o u s a n d c a v i l s one answ er i s I I I ,

s u f f i c i e n t ; t h e p u rp o s e o f a w r i t e r i s t o be r e a d , and 24=0

th e c r i t i c i s m w h ich w ould d e s t r o y t h e power o f p l e a s i n g

53

m ust be b low n a s i d e . " "F or t o w h a t u s e c a n th e w ork I I I ,

be c r i t i c i s e d t h a t w i l l n o t be r e a d ? " " I t i s n o t by 420

com paring l i n e w i t h l i n e t h a t t h e m e r i t o f g r e a t w orks

i s to be e s t i m a t e d , b u t by t h e i r g e n e r a l e f f e c t s and I ,

u l t i m a t e r e s u l t . . . . Works o f i m a g i n a t i o n e x c e l by t h e i r 454

a l l u r e m e n t and d e l i g h t ; by t h e i r power o f a t t r a c t i n g and

d e t a i n i n g t h e a t t e n t i o n . " "He who p l e a s e s many m ust I ,

have some s p e c i e s o f m e r i t " , f o r " t h e end o f p o e t r y i s 302

p l e a s u r e . " 1 7 5

I n s p i t e o f th e f a c t t h a t J o h n s o n a t t r i b u t e s

e v e ry i n t e l l e c t u a l e x c e l l e n c e t o M i l t o n ' s g r e a t e p i c ,

y e t he d e p l o r e s t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e power o f a t t r a c t i n g and

d e t a i n i n g t h e a t t e n t i o n . "The w ant o f human i n t e r e s t I ;

i s a lw ay s f e l t . P a r a d i s e L o s t i s one o f t h e b o o k s 1 8 3 -

w hich t h e r e a d e r a d m ire s and l a y s down, and f o r g e t s t o 184

ta k e up a g a i n . . . . I t s p e r u s a l i s a d u ty r a t h e r t h a n a

p l e a s u r e . We r e a d M i l t o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n , r e t i r e

h a r a s s e d a n d o v e rb u rd e n e d , and lo o k e ls e w h e re f o r r e c ­

r e a t i o n ; we d e s e r t our m a s t e r , and s e e k f o r c o m p a n io n s ."

However, t h e l i t e r a r y w o r ld h a s b e e n t a u g h t how t o a p p re ­

c i a t e M i l t o n ' s m a s t e r p i e c e , c h i e f l y th r o u g h t h e c r i t i c i s m s

o f A ddison ; f o r , "by t h e b l a n d i s h m e n t s o f g e n t l e n e s s and I I ,

f a c i l i t y he h a s made M i l t o n an u n i v e r s a l f a v o u r i t e w i t h 147

whom r e a d e r s o f e v e ry c l a s s t h i n k i t n e c e s s a r y t o be

54

p l e a s e d . "

S i m i l a r l y , P r i o r ' s poem "Solomon" c o n t a i n s much

knowledge and much th o u g h t ; i t h a s p o l i s h e d e l e g a n c e ,

d i g n i f i e d w i th s p le n d o r and s u b l i m i t y . To t h i s poem

P r i o r e n t r u s t e d t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f h i s name. He " p e r - I I ,

c e iv e d i n i t many e x c e l l e n c e s , and d i d n o t d i s c o v e r t h a t 206

i t w a n ted t h a t w i t h o u t w h ich a l l o t h e r s a r e o f s m a l l

a v a i l , t h e power o f e n g a g in g a t t e n t i o n and a l l u r i n g

c u r i o s i t y . "

Not o n ly i n o r i g i n a l poem s, b u t i n t r a n s l a t i o n s

a s w e l l , Jo h n so n demands t h i s power o f p l e a s i n g . H ence ,

a l t h o u g h he c a n n o t c a l l A d d i s o n 's t r a n s l a t i o n s s c h o l a r l y

b e c a u s e t h e y a r e to o l i c e n t i o u s l y p a r a p h r a s t i c a l , y e t

he h i g h l y a p p ro v e s o f them . "They a r e . . . f o r t h e m ost H ,

p a r t smooth and e a s y , a n d , w h a t i s th e f i r s t e x c e l l e n c e o f 145

a t r a n s l a t o r , such a s may be r e a d w i t h p l e a s u r e b y t h o s e

who do n o t know t h e o r i g i n a l s . "

1 . PLEASURES OF THE MIND

J o h n s o n d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e tw e e n two k i n d s o f p l e a s u r e s :

t h e p l e a s u r e s o f t h e m ind; an d t h e p l e a s u r e s o f t h e h e a r t .

B e s id e s t h e e p i c , t h e t y p e s o f p o e t r y i n w h ich he i s m ost

i n t e r e s t e d a r e d i d a c t i c , c o n t r o v e r s i a l , and c r i t i c a l v e r s e s .

A l l o f t h e s e a r e p r e d o m in a n t ly i n t e l l e c t u a l i n n a t u r e ;

y e t he i n s i s t s t h a t a l l poems m ust a f f o r d p l e a s u r e t o t h e

55

r e a d e r . How c a n p u r e l y i n t e l l e c t u a l poems p l e a s e ?

Jo h n so n s u g g e s t s two s o u r c e s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l p l e a s u r e ,

n o v e l t y and v a r i e t y .

a .N o v e lty "The p l e a s u r e s o f t h e m ind im p ly so m e th in g sudden X,

and u n e x p e c te d ; t h a t w h ich e l e v a t e s m ust a lw a y s s u r p r i s e . 59

What i s p e r c e i v e d b y s low d e g r e e s may g r a t i f y u s w i t h

th e c o n s c io u s n e s s o f im p rov em en t, b u t w i l l n e v e r s t r i k e

w i t h t h e s e n s e o f p l e a s u r e . " " N o v e l ty i s t h e g r e a t I I ,206

s o u rc e o f p l e a s u r e , " and i t i s " a lw a y s g r a t e f u l w here i t I ,317 ’

g i v e s no p a i n . " "The w o r ld h a s b u t l i t t l e new"; and I I I ,271

t h e r e f o r e " t h e h i g h e s t p r a i s e o f g e n iu s i s o r i g i n a l i n - I ■194

v e n t i o n . "

The c h i e f r e a s o n t h a t J o h n s o n p r a i s e s so h i g h l y

P o p e ' s "Rape o f t h e L o c k ," i s b e c a u s e o f t h e t w o f o l d

n o v e l t y e x h i b i t e d i n t h i s poem; f o r i n t h i s w ork "new

t h i n g s a r e made f a m i l i a r , and f a m i l i a r t h i n g s a r e made m ,

new ." Pope " a lw a y s c o n s i d e r e d t h e i n t e r m i x t u r e o f t h e 233,

m a c h in e ry w i t h t h e a c t i o n a s h i s m ost s u c c e s s f u l e x e r t i o n I I I ,

o f p o e t i c a l a r t . He in d e e d c o u ld n e v e r a f t e r w a r d s p r o - 104

duce a n y th in g o f such unexam pled e x c e l l e n c e . Those

p e r fo rm a n c e s , w h ic h s t r i k e w i t h w o n d e r , a r e c o m b in a t io n s

o f s k i l f u l g e n iu s w i t h happy c a s u a l t y ; and i t i s n o t

l i k e l y t h a t any f e l i c i t y , l i k e t h e d i s c o v e r y o f a new r a c e

56

o f p r e t e r n a t u r a l a g e n t s , s h o u ld h a p p en t w i c e t o th e same

m a n ."

S in c e t h e " e s s e n c e o f p o e t r y i s i n v e n t i o n , " I ,

Jo h n so n r e c o g n i z e s p o e t i c g e n iu s i n su c h a u t h o r s a s Denham,291

C ongreve , Gay, S av ag e , Jam es Thomson, and Young. Denham 's

poem " C o o p e r 's H i l l " i s t h e w ork " t h a t c o n f e r s upon him I ,

th e r a n k an d d i g n i t y o f an o r i g i n a l a i t h o r , . . . t h e a u th o r 77

o f a s p e c i e s o f c o m p o s i t io n t h a t may be d e n o m in a te d l o c a l

p o e t r y . . . . To t r a c e a new scheme o f p o e t r y h a s i n i t s e l f

a v e r y h ig h c la im t o p r a i s e , and i t s p r a i s e i s y e t more

when i t i s a p p a r e n t l y c o p ie d b y G a r th and P o p e ."

"C ongreve h a s m e r i t o f t h e h i g h e s t k i n d : he i s IX,

an o r i g i n a l w r i t e r , who b o rro w ed n e i t h e r th e m o d e ls o f 228

h i s p l o t n o r t h e m anner o f h i s d i a l o g u e . "

Gay i s p r a i s e d a s t h e i n v e n t o r o f th e b a l l a d o p e r a .

"W hether t h i s new drama was t h e p r o d u c t o f judgem ent o r I I ,

o f l u c k th e p r a i s e o f i t m ust be g i v e n t o t h e i n v e n t o r ; 283

and t h e r e a r e many w r i t e r s r e a d w i t h more r e v e r e n c e t o

whom such m e r i t o f o r i g i n a l i t y c a n n o t be a t t r i b u t e d . "

Jo h n so n g e n e r a l l y d oes n o t p r a i s e p a n e g y r i c s , f o r

th e p a t h s t h e r e i n a r e so b e a t e n t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o

t r a v e l i n them w i t h o u t t r e a d i n g i n o t h e r s ' f o o t s t e p s .

However, he p l a c e s above c e n s u re S a v a g e 's p a n e g y r i c on t h e

d e a th o f th e queen ; f o r by " t r a n s f e r r i n g th e m e n t io n o f II ,"

57

her death to her birthday he has formed a happy combina- 407

tion of topicks, which any other man would have thought

it very difficult to connect in one view, but whioh he

has united in such a manner that the relation between

them appears natural." Indeed, Johnson ranks Savage's

poem "among the best that the death of princes has II,

produced." 407

One o f th e v e ry few n a t u r e poems t h a t Jo h n so n

m e n t io n s , i s Thom son 's poem, "The S e a s o n s . " B ecau se o f I I I

th e n o v e l t y o f t h i s poem, Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s Thomson"en- 298

t i t l e d t o one p r a i s e o f t h e h i g h e s t k i n d : h i s mode o f 299

t h i n k i n g and o f e x p r e s s i n g h i s t h o u g h t s i s o r i g i n a l . . . .

The r e a d e r o f The S e a so n s w on ders t h a t he n e v e r saw

b e f o r e w ha t Thomson shews h im , and t h a t he n e v e r y e t h a s

f e l t w ha t Thomson i m p r e s s e s . "

A lth o u g h Jo h n so n d o e s n o t g e n e r a l l y app rove o f

b l a n k v e r s e ; y e t he p r a i s e s u n r e s e r v e d l y Y o u n g 's b l a n k

v e r s e and h i s rhym ing l i n e s . "H is v e r s i f i c a t i o n i s h i s H I

own. . . . He p i c k s up no h e m i s t i c h s , he c o p ie s no f a v o u r i t e 399

e x p r e s s i o n s ; he seems t o have l a i d u p no s t o r e s o f th o u g h t

o r d i c t i o n , b u t t o owe a l l t o t h e f o r t u i t o u s s u g g e s t i o n

o f th e p r e s e n t moment. . . . He seem s n e v e r t o have s t u d i e d

p r o s o d y , n o r t o have h a d any d i r e c t i o n b u t from h i s own

e a r . B u t , w i t h a l l h i s d e f e c t s , he was a man o f g e n iu s

58

and a p o e t . "

b .V arie ty - Very c l o s e l y c o n n e c te d w i t h n o v e l t y i s v a r i e t y .

The fo rm er a t t r a c t s t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e r e a d e r ; t h e

l a t t e r r e t a i n s i t . " U n i f o r m i ty m ust t i r e a t l a s t , I ,

th o u g h i t be u n i f o r m i t y o f e x c e l l e n c e . We lo v e t o e x p e c t ; 212

an d when e x p e c t a t i o n i s d i s a p p o i n t e d o r g r a t i f i e d , we w an t

t o be a g a i n e x p e c t i n g . For t h i s im p a t ie n c e o f t h e p r e s e n t ,

whoever w ould p l e a s e m u s t make p r o v i s i o n . "

Whoever do es n o t p r o v id e a g a i n s t t h i s im p a t ie n c e

o f th e p r e s e n t i s g u i l t y o f t e d i o u s n e s s , w h ich i s in d e e d

" t h e m ost f a t a l o f a l l f a u l t s ; n e g l i g e n c e s o r e r r o r s a r e I I ,

s i n g l e and l o c a l , b u t t e d i o u s n e s s p e r v a d e s t h e w ho le . . . . 206

U n h a p p i ly t h i s p e r n i c i o u s f a i l u r e i s t h a t w h ich a n a u th o r

i s l e a s t a b l e t o d i s c o v e r . We a r e se ldom t i r e s o m e t o

o u r s e l v e s ; and th e a c t o f c o m p o s i t io n f i l l s and d e l i g h t s

th e m ind w i t h change o f la n g u a g e an d s u c c e s s i o n o f im a g e s ."

T h e r e f o r e , e v e ry poem, i n o r d e r t o a f f o r d i n t e l l e c t u a l

p l e a s u r e b y a t t r a c t i n g an d d e t a i n i n g t h e a t t e n t i o n , m ust

e x c e l b o t h i n n o v e l t y and i n v a r i e t y .

2 . PLEASURES OF THE HEART

Jo h n so n e n jo y s i n t e l l e c t u a l p o e t r y , su c h a s

d i d a c t i c v e r s e , c r i t i c i s m , o r c o n t r o v e r s y ; t h e r e f o r e he

59

a .In th e Drama

p r e f e r s t h e p l e a s u r e s o f t h e m ind to t h o s e o f t h e h e a r t .

I n t h o s e t y p e s o f p o e t r y , how ever , i n w h ich t h e human

p a s s i o n s a r e p o r t r a y e d o r e x p r e s s e d , su c h a s i n th e

drama and i n th e l y r i c , he d o e s i n s i s t t h a t t h e y be

t r u t h f u l l y p r e s e n t e d . The d ram a, much more t h a n any o t h e r

k in d o f p o e t r y , d e a l s w i t h t h e p a s s i o n s o f t h e human

h e a r t ; and t h e r e f o r e i t s s u c c e s s depends u p o n a s t r o n g

e m o t io n a l a p p e a l . Deep t h o u g h t and c a r e f u l r e a s o n i n g

may be l a c k i n g ; b u t an a p p e a l t o t h e e m o t io n s i s i n ­

d i s p e n s a b l e . O tw a y 's p l a y , "The O rp h a n ," was e x h i b i t e d I ,

i n 1680 . " T h is i s one o f t h e few p l a y s t h a t keep 245

p o s s e s s i o n o f th e s t a g e , and h a s p l e a s e d f o r a lm o s t a

c e n tu r y t h r o u g h a l l t h e v i c i s s i t u d e s o f d r a m a t i c k

f a s h i o n . . . . I t s w hole power i s u pon t h e a f f e c t i o n s , f o r

i t i s n o t w r i t t e n w i t h much c o m p re h e n s io n o f th o u g h t o r

e le g a n c e o f e x p r e s s i o n . B u t i f t h e h e a r t i s i n t e r e s t e d ,

many o t h e r b e a u t i e s may be w a n t in g , y e t n o t be m i s s e d . "

A no th e r s u c c e s s f u l drama i s R ow e 's p l a y , " J a n e S h o r e ."

" T h is p l a y , c o n s i s t i n g c h i e f l y o f d o m e s t ic k s c e n e s a n d H ,

p r i v a t e d i s t r e s s , l a y s h o l d upon t h e h e a r t . . . . T h is 6 9 -

t h e r e f o r e i s one o f t h o s e p i e c e s w h ich we s t i l l 70

welcome on t h e s t a g e . "

On th e o t h e r h a n d , c e r t a i n d ram as have f a i l e d

b e c a u s e t h e y p r e s e n t e d r a t h e r a s u c c e s s i o n o f s e n t im e n t s

60

t h a n a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f n a t u r a l a f f e c t i o n s , o r o f any

s t a t e p ro b a b le o r p o s s i b l e i n t h i s l i f e ; f o r " p o e t i c a l I,

p l e a s u r e m ust b e such a s human i m a g i n a t i o n can a t l e a s t 182

c o n c e iv e , an d p o e t i c a l t e r r o u r such a s human s t r e n g t h

and f o r t i t u d e c a n c o m b a t ." A d d i s o n 's t r a g e d y " C a to , "

w hich Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s t h e n o b l e s t p r o d u c t i o n o f h i s

g e n iu s , h a s b e e n s t y l e d r a t h e r a poem i n d i a lo g u e t h a n

a dram a. "N o th in g h e r e ' e x c i t e s o r a s s u a g e s e m o t i o n ; 1 I I ,

h e re i s 'n o m a g ic a l power o f r a i s i n g p h a n t a s t i c k t e r r o r 132

or w i l d a n x i e t y . 1 The e v e n t s a r e e x p e c te d w i th o u t

s o l i c i t u d e , an d a r e rem em bered w i t h o u t jo y o r so r ro w . . . .

N e i th e r gods n o r men c a n have much a t t e n t i o n ; f o r t h e r e

i s n o t one am ongst them t h a t s t r o n g l y a t t r a c t s e i t h e r<

a f f e c t i o n o r e s t e e m ."

I n l i k e m an n e r , Jo h n so n d e p l o r e s D r y d e n 's d e f i ­

c i e n t d r a m a t i c f a c u l t i e s , a l t h o u g h he r e c o g n i z e s t h e

w ide r a n g e o f t h e l a t t e r ' s p o e t i c a b i l i t i e s . " P e rh a p s I ,

no n a t i o n e v e r p ro d u c e d a w r i t e r t h a t e n r i c h e d h i s 469

la n g u a g e w i t h su c h v a r i e t y o f m o d e l s . " Y e t , "upon I

o c c a s io n s t h a t w ere p r e s e n t e d he s t u d i e d r a t h e r t h a n f e l t , 457

and p ro d u c e d s e n t im e n t s n o t su ch a s N a tu re e n f o r c e s ,

b u t m e d i t a t i o n s u p p l i e s . W ith t h e s im p le and e l e m e n ta l

p a s s i o n s , a s t h e y s p r i n g s e p a r a t e i n th e m in d , h e seems

n o t much a c q u a i n t e d . " He n e i t h e r u n d e r s t o o d n o r a p p r e -

61

c i a t e d lo v e a n a p a t h o s , - t h e two fu n d a m e n ta l e m o tio n s

upon w h ich t h e drama i s b a s e d . " D r y d e n 's was n o t I ,

one o f th e ' g e n t l e b o s o m s : ' L ov e , a s i t s u b s i s t s i n 458

i t s e l f , w i t h no te n d e n c y b u t t o t h e p e r s o n lo v e d a n d

w is h in g o n ly f o r c o r r e s p o n d i n g k i n d n e s s ; such lo v e a s

s h u t s o u t a l l o t h e r i n t e r e s t . . . was t o o s o f t a n d s u b t l e

t o p u t h i s f a c u l t i e s i n m o t io n . . . . He i s t h e r e f o r e ,

w i th a l l h i s v a r i e t y o f e x c e l l e n c e , n o t o f t e n p a t h e t i c k ;

and h a d so l i t t l e s e n s i b i l i t y o f t h e power o f e f f u s i o n s

p -urely n a t u r a l , t h a t he d id n o t e s te e m them i n o t h e r s .

S i m p l i c i t y gave him no p l e a s u r e ; and f o r th e f i r s t p a r t

o f h i s l i f e he lo o k e d on Otway w i t h c o n te m p t , th o u g h

a t l a s t , in d e e d v e ry l a t e , he c o n f e s s e d t h a t i n h i s p l a y

' t h e r e w as N a tu r e , Which i s t h e c h i e f b e a u t y . " '

S i m i l a r l y i t may be d o u b te d w h e th e r Jam es Thomson was

much q u a l i f i e d f o r t r a g e d y ; f o r i t " d o e s n o t a p p e a r t h a t I I I

he h a d much s e n se o f t h e p a t h e t i c k . " H ence , t h e s u c c e s s 293

o f a t r a g e d y dep en d s upon th e c o n v in c in g p o r t r a y a l o f

g e n u in e e m o t io n s .

b .I n t h e L y r ic

I n l y r i c p o e t r y , w h ich i s e n t i r e l y s u b j e c t i v e ,

t h e p o e t m ust e x p e r i e n c e t h e e m o t io n s w h ic h he p r o f e s s e s

t o e x p r e s s ; o th e r w is e h i s v e r s e s do n o t s a t i s f y t h e f i r s t

r e q u i s i t e o f p o e t r y , s i n c e t h e y a r e n o t b a s e d upon t r u t h :

62

n o r , where t h e r e i s no p l e a s u r e i n t h e w r i t e r , w i l l any

be found i n h im who r e a d s t h e w ork . For " t h e b a s i s o f I ,

a l l e x c e l l e n c e i s t r u t h ; he t h a t p r o f e s s e s l o v e o u g h t 6

t o f e e l i t s po w er . P e t r a r c h was a r e a l l o v e r , an d

L a u ra d o u b t l e s s d e s e r v e d h i s t e n d e r n e s s . Of Cowley

we a r e t o l d b y B a r n e s , . . . he i n r e a l i t y was i n lo v e

b u t onoe , an d t h e n n e v e r h a d r e s o l u t i o n t o t e l l h i s

p a s s i o n . " T h e r e f o r e , Jo h n so n does n o t v a lu e h i g h l y

C o w le y 's l y r i c , t h e " M i s t r e s s , " s in c e th e a u th o r h i m s e l f

d e c l a r e d t h a t he w ro te l o v e poems o n ly t o be c o n s i d e r e d

a f reem an among p o e t s , who m ust so o n e r o r l a t e r p le d g e

th e m s e lv e s t o be t r u e t o L o v e .

L y r i c p o e t r y m ust be b a s e d upon a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e s

o f an o r d e r c a l c u l a t e d t o p l e a s e . P r i o r , a l s o , was

u n s u c c e s s f u l i n h i s am orous e f f u s i o n s ; " f o r t h e y a r e n o t I I ,

d i c t a t e d by n a t u r e o r by p a s s i o n , and have n e i t h e r 202

g a l l a n t r y n o r t e n d e r n e s s . They h ave t h e c o ld n e s s o f

Cowley w i t h o u t h i s w i t ; t h e d u l l e x e r c i s e s o f a s k i l f u l

v e r s i f i e r r e s o l v e d a t a l l a d v e n t u r e s t o w r i t e som e th in g

a b o u t C h lo e , and t r y i n g t o be am orous by d i n t o f s t u d y . "

Jo h n so n i n s i s t s t h a t l o v e - l y r i e s m u s t be

e m o t io n a l ; he condemns them i f t h e y a r e c o ld and p a s s i o n ­

l e s s , b e c a u s e t h e n th e y a r e n o t g e n u in e e f f u s i o n s o f t h e

h e a r t . However, he condemns ev en more s e v e r e l y t h o s e

63

l y r i c s w h ich v i o l a t e t r u t h by e x a g g e r a t i o n . W a l l e r ' s

am orous v e r s e s he c o n s i d e r s s e n t i m e n t a l , f o r t h e y c o n t a i n

" to o much lo v e an d to o many t r i f l e s . L i t t l e t h i n g s a r e I ,

made to o i m p o r t a n t ; an d t h e E m pire o f B e a u ty i s r e p r e s e n t e d 287

a s e x e r t i n g i t s i n f l u e n c e f u r t h e r t h a n c a n be a l lo w e d by

th e m u l t i p l i c i t y o f human p a s s i o n s an d t h e v a r i e t y o f human

w a n ts . Such b o o k s t h e r e f o r e may be c o n s i d e r e d a s shew ing

t h e w o r ld u n d e r a f a l s e a p p e a r a n c e , a n d , so f a r a s t h e y

o b t a i n c r e d i t from t h e young and u n e x p e r i e n c e d , a s m i s l e a d ­

in g e x p e c t a t i o n and m is g u id in g p r a c t i c e . "

Y e t , s t r a n g e a s i t may seem , Jo h n so n d o es n o t

b e l i e v e i n " p o e t i c i n s p i r a t i o n . " He i s s u r p r i s e d t h a t so

g r e a t a g e n iu s a s M i l t o n s h o u ld have d e c l a r e d t h a t w i t h th e

advance o f t h e s p r i n g he f e l t t h e i n c r e a s e o f h i s p o e t i c a l

f o r c e . " T h is dependance o f t h e s o u l u p o n th e s e a s o n s , I ,

t h o s e te m p o ra ry and p e r i o d i c a l e b b s an d f lo w s o f i n t e l l e c t , 136

may, I su p p o s e , j u s t l y be d e r i d e d a s t h e fum es o f v a i n 137

i m a g i n a t i o n . • • • Our po w ers owe much o f t h e i r e n e rg y to

our h o p e s ; 'p o s s u n t q u ia p o s s e v i d e n t u r . 1" A lth o u g h

Jo h n so n p r a i s e s h i g h l y G r a y ' s " E le g y , " b e c a u s e i t makes such

a g e n u in e and u n i v e r s a l a p p e a l t o t h e human h e a r t , y e t he

c r i t i c i s e s t h e a u th o r f o r h a v in g t h i s p e c u l i a r i t y , " t h a t

he had a n o t i o n . . . t h a t he c o u ld n o t w r i t e b u t a t c e r t a i n I I I

t im e s , o r a t happy moments; a f a n t a s t i c k f o p p e r y , t o 433

64

which, my k i n d n e s s f o r a man o f l e a r n i n g and o f v i r t u el . «t

w is h e s ^ to h ave b e e n s u p e r i o r . "

B . JOHNSON'S OPINION REGARDING

FORM OF POETRY

I

AS RESPECTS STYLE

• •

" P o e t r y i s th e a r t o f u n i t i n g p l e a s u r e w i t h t r u t h , I ,

by c a l l i n g i m a g i n a t i o n to t h e h e l p o f r e a s o n . " For a l l 170

t h i s , Jo h n so n m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e e x c e l l e n c e o f p o e t r y

m ust be d i s t i n g u i s h e d , n o t o n ly b y i t s c o n t e n t , b u t b y i t s

form a s w e l l . F o r " t r u t h in d e e d i s a lw a y s t r u t h , and I ,

r e a s o n i s a lw a y s r e a s o n ; t h e y have a n i n t r i n s i c k and 59

u n a l t e r a b l e v a l u e , a n d c o n s t i t u t e t h a t i n t e l l e c t u a l g o ld

w hich d e f i e s d e s t r u c t i o n : b u t g o ld may be so c o n c e a l e d i n

b a s e r m a t t e r t h a t o n ly a c h y m is t c a n r e c o v e r i t ; s e n se may

be so h id d e n i n u n r e f i n e d and p l e b e i a n w ords t h a t none

b u t p h i l o s o p h e r s c a n d i s t i n g u i s h i t ; and b o t h may be so

b u r i e d i n i m p u r i t i e s a s n o t t o pay t h e c o s t o f t h e i r ex ­

t r a c t i o n . "

I n D ry d e n 's c r i t i c a l w o rk s , a s w e l l a s i n R y m er 's

p e r f o r m a n c e s , t h e c o n t e n t m a t t e r i s t r u t h ; b u t each w r i t e r

p r e s e n t s t r u t h i n a d i f f e r e n t way. "W ith D ryden we a r e I ,

w a n d e r in g i n q u e s t o f T r u th , whom we f i n d , i f we f i n d h e r

65

a t a l l , d r e s t i n th e g r a c e s o f e le g a n c e ; and i f we m is s 413

h e r , t h e l a b o u r o f t h e p u r s u i t r e w a r d s i t s e l f : we a r e

l e d on ly t h r o u g h f r a g r a n c e an d f l o w e r s . Rymer, w i th o u t

t a k i n g a n e a r e r , t a k e s a r o u g h e r way; e v e ry s t e p i s to

be made th r o u g h t h o r n s and b r a m b le s , a n d T r u th , i f we m eet

h e r , a p p e a r s r e p u l s i v e b y h e r m ie n and u n g r a c e f u l by

h e r h a b i t . D ryden1s c r i t i c i s m h a s t h e m a je s ty o f a queen ;

R y m er 's h a s th e f e r o c i t y o f a t y r a n t . "

B la c k m o r e 's poem on " C r e a t io n " h a s two c o n s t i t u e n t

p a r t s : r a t i o c i n a t i o n and d e s c r i p t i o n . Jo h n so n a d m i t s t h a t

i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o r e a s o n i n v e r s e , b u t he m a i n t a i n s

t h a t B lackm ore n o t o n ly r e a s o n s w e l l , b u t v e r y o f t e n r e a s o n s

p o e t i c a l l y . M o reo v er , i n h i s d e s c r i p t i v e p a s s a g e s , b o t h

o f l i f e and o f n a t u r e , " th e p o e t and th e p h i lo s o p h e r h a p p i l y I I

c o - o p e r a t e ; t r u t h i s recommended by e l e g a n c e , and e l e g a n c e 254

s u s t a i n e d by t r u t h . "

1 . CLASSIFICATION OF STYLE

T here a r e two p h a s e s o f p o e t i c form w hich Jo h n so n

c o n s i d e r s : s t y l e and v e r s i f i c a t i o n . " A l l p o l i s h e d

l a n g u a g e s have d i f f e r e n t s t y l e s : t h e c o n c i s e , t h e d i f f u s e , I ,

t h e l o f t y , and th e h u m b le ." The c o n c i s e a n d th e d i f f u s e 422

a r e t h e a n t i t h e s e s o f e a c h o t h e r , w h i l e th e l o f t y and t h e

humble a r e o pposed t o e ac h o t h e r . I n p o i n t o f t i m e , t h e

66

a .C onciseS ty le

c o n c i s e p r e c e d e s t h e d i f f u s e . "T here i s a t im e when I I I ,

n a t i o n s em erg ing from b a r b a r i t y , an d f a l l i n g i n t o r e g u l a r 239

s u b o r d i n a t i o n , g a i n l e i s u r e t o grow w i s e , and f e e l t h e

shame o f ig n o ra n c e and th e c r a v i n g p a i n o r u n s a t i s f i e d

c u r i o s i t y . To t h i s h u n g e r o f t h e m ind p l a i n s e n s e i s

g r a t e f u l ; t h a t w h ich f i l l s t h e v o i d rem oves u n e a s i n e s s ,

and t o be f r e e from p a i n f o r a w h i l e i s p l e a s u r e ; b u t r e p l e ­

t i o n g e n e r a t e s f a s t i d i o u s n e s s , a s a t u r a t e d I n t e l l e c t soon

becom es l u x u r i o u s , an d know ledge f i n d s no w i l l i n g r e c e p t i o n

t i l l i t i s recommended by a r t i f i c i a l d i c t i o n . Thus i t

w i l l be found i n t h e p r o g r e s s o f l e a r n i n g t h a t i n a l l

n a t i o n s t h e f i r s t w r i t e r s a r e s im p le , and t h a t e v e r y age

im p ro v es i n e l e g a n c e . "

The c o n c i s e s t y l e , t h e n , i s p e c u l i a r l y a d a p te d

t o poems c o n v ey in g i n f o r m a t i o n . Jo h n so n m e n t io n s D ryden

and S w if t a s p o e t s who w r i t e i n t h i s s i m p l e , d i r e c t way.

D ry den 1s s t y l e i s a lw a y s c l e a r and v i g o r o u s , y e t i t i s

a lw ay s v a r i e d . "D ryden i s a lw a y s ' a n o t h e r and th e same;* I,

he d oes n o t . . . a p p e a r t o h av e any a r t o t h e r t h a n t h a t 418

o f e x p r e s s in g w i t h c l e a r n e s s w h a t he t h i n k s w i t h v i g o u r . "

STJrift, a l s o fo u n d d e l i g h t i n s i m p l i c i t y . He s t u d i e d

p u r i t y ; and i t was h i s d e s i r e t o a t t a i n a n e a s y and s a f e

conveyance o f m ea n in g . " A l l h i s v e r s e s e x e m p l i fy h i s I I I ,

own d e f i n i t i o n o f a good s t y l e , t h e y c o n s i s t o f ’p r o p e r 65

w ords i n p r o p e r p l a c e s . ' " For p u r p o s e s m e re ly d i d a c t i c ,

67

when so m e th in g i s t o b e t o l d t h a t was n o t known b e f o r e ,

Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s th e c o n c i s e s t y l e th e b e s t mode o f ex ­

p r e s s i n g th o u g h t : ""but a g a i n s t t h a t i n a t t e n t i o n by w h ich I I I ,

known t r u t h s a r e s u f f e r e d t o l i e n e g l e c t e d i t makes no 52

p r o v i s i o n ; i t i n s t r u c t s , b u t do es n o t p e r s u a d e . "

b .D i f fu s e

S ty le T h e r e f o r e , a s n a t i o n s become more f a s t i d i o u s ,

p o e t s add t o u c h e s o f l u x u r y and e le g a n c e t o t h e i r p o e t r y .

B ecau se o f t h i s i n c r e a s e d l i t e r a r y demand f o r p o e t i c

b e a u t i e s , Jo h n so n a p p ro v e s o f and a p p la u d s P o p e ' s v e r s i o n

o f t h e " I l i a d . " " I suppose many r e a d e r s o f t h e E n g l i s h I I I ,

I l i a d , when t h e y have b e e n to u c h e d w i t h some u n e x p e c te d 239

b e a u ty o f th e l i g h t e r k i n d , have t r i e d t o e n jo y i t i n th e

o r i g i n a l , w h e re , a l a s l i t was n o t t o b e fo u n d . Homer

d o u b t l e s s owes t o h i s t r a n s l a t o r many O v id ia n g r a c e s n o t

e x a c t l y s u i t a b l e t o h i s c h a r a c t e r ; b u t t o have ad d ed can

be no g r e a t c r im e i f n o th in g be t a k e n away. E le g a n c e i s

s u r e l y t o b e d e s i r e d i f i t b e n o t g a in e d a t t h e expence

o f d i g n i t y . "

Here many p o e t s , ho w ev er , make t h e i r f a t a l m is t a k e ;

f o r t h e y g a i n e l e g a n c e a t th e e x p e n s e , n o t o n ly o f d i g n i t y ,

b u t ev en o f l u c i d i t y and o f p e r s p i c u i t y . I n James

Thom son 's poem, "The S e a s o n s , " t h e g r e a t d e f e c t i s w an t o f

m ethod . Jo h n so n f i n d s some e x cu se f o r i t i n t h i s poem,

68

how ever: b e c a u s e , " o f many a p p e a r a n c e s s u b s i s t i n g a l l I I I ,

a t o n c e , no r u l e c a n be g i v e n why one sh o u ld be m e n t io n e d 299 -

b e f o r e a n o th e r ; y e t t h e memory w a n ts t h e h e l p o f o r d e r , and 300

t h e c u r i o s i t y i s n o t e x c i t e d by su s p e n s e o r e x p e c t a t i o n . "

I n W e s t 's " I n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e G a r t e r , " t h e r e i s s u f f i c i e n t

knowledge o f t h e m an n e rs t h a t p r e v a i l e d i n t h e age t o

w h ich i t r e f e r r e d , a s w e l l a s g r e a t e le g a n c e o f d i c t i o n ;

" b u t , f o r w an t o f a p r o c e s s o f e v e n t s , n e i t h e r know ledge I I I ,

n o r e le g a n c e p r e s e r v e t h e r e a d e r from w e a r i n e s s . " 332

S i m i l a r l y , r e a d e r s o f S a v a g e 's poem, "The W a n d e re r ," have

g e n e r a l l y o b j e c t e d " t h a t t h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f t h e p a r t s i s H ,

i r r e g u l a r ; t h a t t h e d e s i g n i s o b s c u r e , and t h e p l a n p e r - 365

p le x e d ; t h a t t h e im a g e s , however b e a u t i f u l , su c c e e d e a c h

o t h e r w i t h o u t o r d e r ; and t h a t t h e w ho le p e r fo rm a n c e i s

n o t so much a r e g u l a r f a b r i o k a s a h e ap o f s h i n i n g m a t e r i a l s

th row n t o g e t h e r b y a c c i d e n t , w h ich s t r i k e s r a t h e r w i t h

th e so lem n m a g n i f i c e n c e o f a s tu p e n d o u s r u i n t h a n th e

e l e g a n t g ra n d e u r o f a f i n i s h e d p i l e . "

Y o u n g 's s t y l e i s so m e tim es d i f f u s i v e an d som etim es

c o n c i s e . Jo h n so n c r i t i c i s e s h i s m ethod o f c o m p o s i t io n .

"H is p l a n seems t o have s t a r t e d i n h i s m ind a t t h e p r e s e n t I I I , '

moment, a n d h i s t h o u g h t s a p p e a r t h e e f f e c t s o f c h a n o e , 393

som etim es a d v e r s e an d som etim es l u c k y , w i t h v e ry l i t t l e

o p e r a t i o n o f ju d g e m e n t ." I n h i s f i r s t g r e a t p e r fo rm a n c e ,

69

"The L a s t L a y ," many p a r a g r a p h s a r e n o b l e , an d few a r e

mean, " y e t t h e w hole i s l a n g u i d ; t h e p l a n i s to o much H I ,

e x te n d e d , an d a s u c c e s s i o n o f im ages d i v i d e s and w eak- 393

e n s th e g e n e r a l c o n c e p t i o n . "

Of a l l w r i t e r s o f t h e d i f f u s e s t y l e , Jo h n so n

f i n d s none who u s e s i t more s u c c e s s f u l l y t h a n Cowley does

i n h i s poem, "The C h r o n i c l e , " w h ic h Jo h n s o n c o n s i d e r s "a

c o m p o s i t io n u n r i v a l l e d and a lo n e : such g a i e t y o f f a n c y , I ,

such f a c i l i t y o f e x p r e s s i o n , such a s u c c e s s i o n o f im a g e s ,37

and su ch a dance o f w o rd s , i t i s v a i n t o e x p e c t e x c e p t

from Cowley. H is s t r e n g t h a lw a y s a p p e a r s i n h i s a g i l i t y ;

h i s v o l a t i l i t y i s n o t t h e f l u t t e r o f a l i g h t , b u t th e

bound o f an e l a s t i c m in d . H is l e v i t y n e v e r l e a v e s h i s

l e a r n i n g b e h in d i t ; t h e m o r a l i s t , t h e p o l i t i c i a n , and th e

c r i t i c k , m in g le t h e i r i n f l u e n c e ev en i n t h i s a i r y f r o l i c k

o f g e n iu s * "

H is " D a v i d e i s , " h o w ever , i s n o t so s u c c e s s f u l ;

f o r h e r e "we f i n d w i t and l e a r n i n g u n p r o f i t a b l y s q u a n d e re d . I ,

A t t e n t i o n h a s no r e l i e f ; t h e a f f e c t i o n s a r e n e v e r moved; 55

we a r e som etim es s u r p r i s e d , b u t n e v e r d e l i g h t e d , and f i n d

much t o a d m i re , b u t l i t t l e t o a p p r o v e . " "The f a u l t o f I ,

Cowley . . . i s t h a t o f p u r s u i n g h i s t h o u g h t s t o t h e i r 45

l a s t r a m i f i c a t i o n s , by w h ich he l o s e s t h e g r a n d e u r o f

g e n e r a l i t y , f o r o f th e g r e a t e s t t h i n g s t h e p a r t s a r e l i t t l e . "

70

Cowley i s a p o e t who u s e d th e d i f f u s e s t y l e , - s o m e ­

t im e s h a p p i l y , som etim es d i s a s t r o u s l y . He i s one o f t h e

m ost s u c c e s s f u l e x p o n e n ts o f a g roup o f a u t h o r s known a s

m e ta p h y s i c a l p o e t s . Jo h n so n a d m i t s t h a t t h e s e w ere men

o f l e a r n i n g , b u t he c e n s u r e s them b e e a u s e i t was t h e i r

w hole e n d ea v o r t o show t h e i r l e a r n i n g . He r e f u s e s t o

r e c o g n iz e m ost o f t h e i r v e r s e s a s p o e t r y , b e c a u s e t h e y f a i l

t o s a t i s t y h i s p o e t i c demands b o t h i n r e g a r d t o c o n t e n t/

and t o form . These a u t h o r s v i o l a t e d t r u t h b y t h e i r su p p ly

o f h y p e r b o l e , a s w e l l a s by t h e i r v i o l e n t an d u n n a t u r a l

f i c t i o n . They a f f o r d e d no p l e a s u r e , f o r t h e y l a c k e d w i t

and e m o t io n . T h e i r t h o u g h t s w ere " o f t e n new, b u t se ldom

n a t u r a l . . . . T h e i r c o u r t s h i p was v o i d o f f o n d n e s s and I ,

t h e i r l a m e n t a t i o n s o f so r ro w . T h e i r w is h was o n ly t o 20

say w hat t h e y hoped h a d n e v e r b e e n s a i d b e f o r e . "

The m e t a p h y s i c a l p o e t s e x a g g e r a t e d i n form a s

much a s i n c o n t e n t ; t h e y u s e d t h e d i f f u s e s t y l e , a s t h e i r I ,

" a t t e m p t s w ere a lw ay s a n a l y t i c k : t h e y b ro k e e v e r y image 21

i n t o f r a g m e n t s , and c o u ld no more r e p r e s e n t by t h e i r

s l e n d e r c o n c e i t s and l a b o u r e d p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s th e p r o s p e c t s

o f n a t u r e o r t h e s c e n e s o f l i f e , t h a n he who d i s s e o t s a

sunbeam w i t h a p r i s m oan e x h i b i t t h e w ide e f f u l g e n c e o f a

summer n o o n ." They c o u ld n o t r e a c h t h e l o f t y s t y l e ; f o r

" s u b l i m i t y i s p ro d u c e d b y a g g r e g a t i o n , and l i t t l e n e s s I ,

71

by d i s p e r s i o n . G r e a t t h o u g h t s a r e a lw a y s g e n e r a l , a n d 21

c o n s i s t i n p o s i t i o n s n o t l i m i t e d by e x c e p t i o n s , and i n

d e s c r i p t i o n s n o t d e s c e n d in g t o m i n u t e n e s s . "

o.L o f ty

S ty l eThe l o f t y s t y l e Jo h n so n t h e r e f o r e c o n s i d e r s s u p e r i o r

t o th e d i f f u s e s t y l e . The g r e a t e s t exam ple o f t h i s mode I ,

o f w r i t i n g , i s M i l t o n ' s " P a r a d i s e L o s t . " " I t s end i s t o 177

r a i s e th e t h o u g h t s above s u b lu n a r y c a r e s o r p l e a s u r e s . . . .

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c k q u a l i t y o f t h i s poem i s s u b l i m i t y .

M i l t o n som etim es d e s c e n d s t o t h e e l e g a n t , b u t h i s e le m e n t

i s t h e g r e a t . He c a n o c c a s i o n a l l y i n v e s t h i m s e l f w i t h

g r a c e , b u t h i s n a t u r a l p o r t i s g i g a n t i c k l o f t i n e s s . He

c an p l e a s e when p l e a s u r e i s r e q u i r e d ; b u t i t i s h i s p e c u l i a r

power t o a s t o n i s h . He e e a n s t o h ave b e e n w e l l a c q u a i n t e d

w i t h h i s own g e n i u s , an d t o know w hat i t was t h a t N a tu re h a d

b e s to w e d upon him more b o u n t i f u l l y t h a n upon o t h e r s ; t h e

power o f d i s p l a y i n g t h e v a s t , i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e s p l e n d i d ,

e n f o r c i n g t h e a w f u l , d a rk e n in g t h e g loom y, and a g g r a v a t i n g

th e d r e a d f u l : he t h e r e f o r e chose a s u b j e c t on w h ich he m ig h t

t i r e h i s f a n c y w i t h o u t t h e c e n s u r e o f e x t r a v a g a n c e . "

Not e v e ry a u t h o r , h o w e v er , c a n r e a c h a l o f t y s t y l e

o f w r i t i n g . C e r t a i n t y p e s o f p o e t r y demand s u b l i m i t y ;

an d t h e r e f o r e t h e w r i t e r t r i e s t o i n v e s t suoh poems w i t h

t h i s l o f t y q u a l i t y . I f he i s u h a b le t o do t h i s n a t u r a l l y ,

72

h i s v e r s e s a r e l a b o r e d . Jo h n so n f i n d s G r a y ' s poem,

"The B a r d , " u n p l e a s a n t , b e c a u s e i t f a i l s t o r e a c h t h e

s u b l i m i t y f o r w h ic h i t s t r i v e s . "The m ind o f t h e w r i t e r I I I #U

seems t o w ork w i t h u n n a t u r a l v i o l e n c e . . . . He h a s a 440

k in d o f s t r u t t i n g d i g n i t y , and i s t a l l b y w a lk in g on

t i p t o e . H is a r t and h i s s t r u g g l e a r e t o o v i s i b l e , and

t h e r e i s to o l i t t l e a p p e a r a n c e o f e a s e and n a t u r e . "

a.RambleS ty le

Thus t h e l o f t y s t y l e i s u s e d o n ly by a g r e a t p o e t i c

g e n i u s . B u t n o t e v e ry p o e t i c g e n iu s c a n d e s c e n d t o

t h e humble s t y l e . " M i l to n n e v e r l e a r n e d t h e a r t o f d o in g I ,

l i t t l e t h i n g s w i th g r a c e ; he o v e r lo o k e d th e m i l d e r e x - 163

c e l l e n c e o f s u a v i t y a n d s o f t n e s s : he was a 'L io n * t h a t

h ad no s k i l l 1 i n d a n d l i n g t h e K i d i 1" T h e r e f o r e , t h e

humble s t y l e h a s i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and i t s charm s q u i t e

a s d i s t i n c t a s any o t h e r mode o f w r i t i n g , ev en i f i t i s

u s e d b y l e s s e r p o e t s t h a n t h o s e who a r e m a s t e r s o f t h e

sub lim e s t y l e .

Jo h n so n c h o o s e s t o t e rm t h e v e r s e s w r i t t e n in . t h e

humble s t y l e a s " p r e t t y p o e m s ." "What i s l i t t l e c a n I ,

be b u t p r e t t y , and by c l a im in g d i g n i t y beoomes r i d i c u l o u s . " 45

W a ls h 's poems have more e le g a n c e t h a n v i g o r , and so t h e y I ,

seldom r i s e h i g h e r " t h a n t o be p r e t t y . " I n l i k e m anner , 330

S h e f f i e l d i s " a t b e s t b u t p r e t t y . H is so n g s a r e upon

73

common t o p i c k s ; he h o p e s , and g r i e v e s , and r e p e n t s , and II,

d e s p a i r s , and r e j o i c e s , l i k e any o t h e r m aker o f l i t t l e 175

s ta n z a s ? t o b e g r e a t he h a r d l y t r i e s ; t o be gay i s h a r d l y

i n h i s p o w e r .”

Humble poems a r e u s u a l l y w r i t t e n by p o e t s n o t o f

t h e f i r s t r a n k . B u t g e n iu s "now and t h e n p r o d u c e s a I ,

l u c k y t r i f l e . We s t i l l r e a d t h e Dove o f A n acreon 284

and Sparrow o f C a t u l l u s , an d a w r i t e r n a t u r a l l y p l e a s e s

h i m s e l f w i t h a p e r fo rm a n c e w h ich owes n o t h in g t o th e s u b j e c t .

B ut c o m p o s i t io n s m e r e ly p r e t t y have t h e f a t e o f o th e r

p r e t t y t h i n g s , and a r e q u i t t e d i n t im e f o r so m e th in g u s e f u l ;

t h e y a r e f l o w e r s f r a g r a n t and f a i r , b u t o f s h o r t d u r a t i o n ;

o r t h e y a r e b lo s s o m s t o be v a lu e d o n ly a s t h e y f o r e t e l l

f r u i t s . "

2 . SOURCES OF STYLISTIC EFFECT

a .D ic t io n

A p o e t , t h e r e f o r e , may ohoose any one o f f o u r s t y l e s ?

th e c o n c i s e , t h e d i f f u s e , t h e l o f t y , and t h e h u m ble . I n

e ac h c a s e , t h e r e a r e two s o u r c e s o f s t y l e : d i c t i o n and

f i g u r e s o f s p e e c h . J o h n s o n i s a c l a s s i c i s t ; he b e l i e v e s i n

a p o e t i c d i c t i o n , b o t h g ra v e and e l e g a n t . "E v ery l a n g u a g e I ,

o f a l e a r n e d n a t i o n n e c e s s a r i l y d i v i d e s i t s e l f i n t o d i e - 420

t i o n s c h o l a s t i c k and p o p u l a r , g ra v e an d f a m i l i a r , e l e g a n t

and g r o s s ; an d from a n i c e d i s t i n c t i o n o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n t

p a r t s a r i s e s a g r e a t p a r t o f t h e b e a u t y o f s t y l e . " J o h n s o n

74

la m e n ts t h a t t h e r e was l i t t l e d e l i c a c y o f s e l e c t i o n among

e a r l y a u t h o r s . W ith th e e x c e p t i o n o f a few f a v o r i t e s

o f n a t u r e , p o e t s d id n o t d i s c r i m i n a t e b e tw e e n w ords

s c h o l a s t i c k and p o p u l a r ; "o u r sp e e c h l a y b e f o r e them i n a I ,

heap o f c o n f u s i o n , an d e v e r y man to o k f o r e v e ry p u rp o s e 480

w hat chance m ig h t o f f e r h im . T here was t h e r e f o r e b e f o r e

th e t im e o f D ryden no p o e t i c a l d i c t i o n : no sy s te m o f

w ords a t once r e f i n e d from t h e g r o s s n e s s o f d o m e s t ic k u s e

and f r e e from t h e h a r s h n e s s o f t e r m s , a p p r o p r i a t e d t o

p a r t i c u l a r a r t s . Words to o f a m i l i a r o r to o re m o te d e f e a t

th e p u rp o se o f a p o e t . From t h o s e so unds w h ic h we h e a r

on s m a l l or on c o a r s e o c c a s i o n s , we do n o t e a s i l y r e c e i v e

s t r o n g i m p r e s s io n s o r d e l i g h t f u l im a g e s ; and w o rd s t o

w hich we a r e n e a r l y s t r a n g e r s , w henever t h e y o c c u r , draw

t h a t a t t e n t i o n on t h e m s e lv e s w h ich t h e y s h o u ld t r a n s m i t

t o t h i n g s . "

D ryden and Pope u s e d such c h o ic e p o e t i c d i c t i o n ,

t h a t t h e e n t i r e E n g l i s h w o r ld awoke t o a new l i t e r a r y

a p p r e c i a t i o n . Pope s a i d t h a t he c o u ld s e l e c t from I ;

D ryden1s w orks " b e t t e r sp e c im en s o f e v e ry mode o f p o e t r y 469

th a n any o t h e r E n g l i s h w r i t e r c o u ld s u p p l y . " J o h n s o n

i n t u r n s a y s t h a t P o p e ' s v e r s i o n o f th e " I l i a d " may

be s a i d " t o have t u n e d th e E n g l i s h t o n g u e , f o r s i n c e i t s m ,

238

75

a p p e a ra n c e no w r i t e r , : how ever d e f i c i e n t i n o t h e r p o w e rs ,

h a s w an ted m e lo S y ."

P o e t i c d i c t i o n e x c lu d e s w o rds to o f a m i l i a r a s

w e l l a s w ords to o r e m o te . "Language i s th e d r e s s o f I ,

t h o u g h t and a s t h e n o b l e s t m ien o r m o s t g r a c e f u l a c t i o n 58 -

w ould be d e g ra d e d and o b s c u re d by a g a rb a p p r o p r i a t e d 59

t o t h e em ploym ents o f r u s t i c k s and m e e h a n ic k s , so t h e

m ost h e r o i c k s e n t im e n t s w i l l l o s e t h e i r e f f i c a c y , and

th e m ost s p l e n d i d i d e a s d ro p t h e i r m a g n i f i c e n c e , i f t h e y

a r e conveyed by w ords u s e d commonly upo n low an d t r i v i a l

o c c a s i o n s , d e b a se d by v u l g a r m o u th s , and c o n ta m in a te d by

i n e l e g a n t a p p l i c a t i o n s . "

Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s e x p l e t i v e s , and such s m a l l

v e r b s a s "do" and " d i d , " e n t i r e l y t o o f a m i l i a r f o r p o e t i c

u s e . " E x c la m a t io n seldom s u c c e e d s i n our l a x g u a g e , and I I I ,

I t h i n k i t may be o b s e rv e d t h a t t h e p a r t i c l e 0! u s e d a t 266

th e b e g in n i n g o f a s e n te n c e a lw ay s o f f e n d s . " He a l s o

e x c lu d e s " t h e w ord s do an d d i d , w h ich so much d e g ra d e i n I ,

p r e s e n t e s t i m a t i o n t h e l i n e t h a t a d m i t s th e m ." 60

M o reover , Jo h n so n e x c lu d e s from p o e t i c d i c t i o n ,

a lo n g w i th w o rd s to o f a m i l i a r , th o s e t h a t a r e to o re m o te ;

f o r i n s t a n c e , f o r e i g n w ords an d id io m s , o b s o l e t e la n g u a g e ,

n e w ly -c o in e d w o rd s , an d t e c h n i c a l e x p r e s s i o n s . He d i s ­

a p p ro v e s o f some o f P o p e ' s l a t t e r p r o d u c t i o n s , i n w h ich

76

" th e d i c t i o n i s som etim es v i t i a t e d by F re n c h i d io m s . " I l l ,

He c r i t i c i s e s theB roem e t o G a y 's p a s t o r a l s , b e c a u s e i t 250

i s w r i t t e n i n su ch o b s o l e t e l a n g u a g e and i n su ch a

s t y l e a s w as " n e v e r spok en n o r w r i t t e n i n any age o r i n I I ,

any p l a c e . " He condemns G r a y ' s u s e o f n e w ly -c o in e d 269

w ords ; f o r t h e l a t t e r was " to o fo n d o f w o rds a r b i t r a r i l y I I I ,

compounded. 'M a n y - tw in k l in g ' was c e n s u r e d a s n o t 437

a n a l o g i c a l ; we may sa y m a n y - s p o t t e d , b u t s c a r c e l y many-

sp o t t i n g . " And f i n a l l y he e x c lu d e s su c h t e c h n i c a l te rm s

a s " d i a p a s o n , " w h ich L ry d en u s e s i n t h e "Ode f o r S t .

C e c i l i a ' s L a y ," a s w e l l a s a l l w ords o r p h r a s e s u s e d

e x c l u s i v e l y i n any a r t , s c i e n c e , o r t r a d e . " I t i s a I ,

g e n e r a l r u l e i n p o e t r y t h a t a l l a p p r o p r i a t e d t e r m s o f 433

a r t s h o u ld be sunk i n g e n e r a l e x p r e s s i o n s , b e c a u s e

p o e t r y i s t o sp e a k an u n i v e r s a l l a n g u a g e . T h is r a l e

i s s t i l l s t r o n g e r w i t h r e g a r d t o a r t s n o t l i b e r a l o r

c o n f in e d t o few , an d t h e r e f o r e f a r rem oved from common

k n o w le d g e ."

b .Figuresof

Speech

P o e t i c d i c t i o n t h e n , by e x c l u d i n g w o rd s to o f a m i l i a r

and w ords t o o r e m o te , e n h a n c e s p o e t i c s t y l e . A no the r

m eans o f s e c u r i n g a d i s t i n c t l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t y l e i s

th e c a r e f u l u se o f f i g u r e s o f s p e e c h . Jo h n so n m e n t io n s

and c r i t i c i s e s f o u r t y p e s f r e q u e n t l y u s e d b y p o e t s :

77

s i m i l e , m e ta p h o r , a l l i t e r a t i o n , an d o n o m a to p o e ia . "A

p o e t i c a l s i m i l e i s t h e d i s c o v e r y o f l i k e n e s s b e tw e e n I I ,

two a c t i o n s i n t h e i r g e n e r a l n a t u r e d i s s i m i l a r , o r 129 ~

o f c a u s e s t e r m i n a t i n g by d i f f e r e n t o p e r a t i o n s i n some I 30

re s e m b la n c e o f e f f e c t . B u t t h e m e n t io n o f a n o th e r

l i k e co n seq u e n c e from a l i k e c a u s e , o r o f a l i k e p e r ­

fo rm ance by a l i k e a g e n c y , i s n o t a s i m i l e , b u t a n

e x e m p l i f i c a t i o n . I t i s n o t a s i m i l e t o s a y t h a t th e

Thames w a t e r s f i e l d s a s t h e Po w a t e r s f i e l d s . . . . When

H orace s a y s o f P i n d a r , t h a t he p o u r s h i s v i o l e n c e and

r a p i d i t y o f v e r s e , a s a r i v e r sw o ln w i t h r a i n r u s h e s

from th e m o u n ta in ; . . . he . . . p ro d u c e s a s i m i l e : t h e

m ind i s im p re s s e d w i t h th e re s e m b la n c e o f t h i n g s g e n e r a l l y

u n l i k e , a s u n l i k e a s i n t e l l e c t an d b o d y . . . . A s i m i l e

may be com pared t o l i n e s c o n v e rg in g a t a p o i n t and i s

more e x c e l l e n t a s th e l i n e s a p p ro a c h from g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e :

an e x e m p l i f i c a t i o n may be c o n s i d e r e d a s two p a r a l l e l

l i n e s w h ich r u n on t o g e t h e r w i th o u t a p p r o x im a t io n , n e v e r

f a r s e p a r a t e d , and n e v e r j o i n e d . "

"A s i m i l e , t o be p e r f e c t , m ust b o t h i l l u s t r a t e I I I ,

and e n n o b le t h e s u b j e c t ; . . . b u t e i t h e r o f t h e s e q u a l i t i e s 229-

may be s u f f i c i e n t t o recommend i t . I n d i d a c t i c k p o e t r y , 230

o f w h ich t h e g r e a t p u rp o s e i s i n s t r u c t i o n , a s i m i l e may

be p r a i s e d w h ich i l l u s t r a t e s , th o u g h i t does n o t e n n o b le ;

78

i n h e r o i c k s , t h a t may be a d m i t t e d w h ic h e n n o b le s th o u g h

i t does n o t i l l u s t r a t e . T h a t i t may be c o m p le te i t i s

r e q u i r e d to e x h i b i t , i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f i t s r e f e r e n c e s , a

p l e a s i n g im age; f o r a s i m i l e i s s a i d t o be a s h o r t

e p i s o d e . "

Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s P o p e ' s c o m p a r is o n o f a s t u d e n t ' s

p r o g r e s s i n th e s c i e n c e s w i th t h e jo u r n e y o f a t r a v e l e r

i n t h e A lp s , ( a s found i n t h e " E ssa y on C r i t i c i s m , " ) a s

t h e b e s t s i m i l e t h a t E n g l i s h p o e t r y c an show; f o r i t b o th

i l l u s t r a t e s an d e n n o b le s th e s u b j e c t , w h i le t h e image i n

i t s e l f i s p l e a s i n g . Not a l l o f P o p e ' s s i m i l e s , h o w ev er ,

a r e p l e a s i n g ; f o r Jo h n s o n c r i t i c i s e s Pope f o r t h e g r o s s n e s s

o f h i s im ages i n "The D u n c ia d ."

Jo h n so n b lam e s p o e t s , n o t o n ly f o r f a u l t y s i m i l e s ,

b u t a l s o f o r m ixed m e ta p h o r s . I n A d d i s o n 's " L e t t e r from

I t a l y , ” t h e r e i s a n o t e d exam ple o f a b o r k e n m e ta p h o r :

" F i r ' d w i t h t h a t name -

I b r i d l e i n my s t r u g g l i n g Muse w i t h p a i n ,

T hat l o n g s t o l a u n c h i n t o a n o b l e r s t r a i n . "

Jo h n so n t a r t l y r e m a r k s : "To b r i d l e a g o d d e ss i s no v e r y 11,"

d e l i c a t e i d e a ; b u t why m ust she be b r i d l e d ? b e c a u s e 128

she lo n g s to l a u n c h : a n a c t w h ich w as n e v e r h i n d e r e d by

a b r i d l e : and w h i t h e r w i l l s h e l a u n c h ? i n t o a n o b le r

s t r a i n . She i s i n t h e f i r s t l i n e a h o r s e , i n t h e se co n d

79

a b o a t ; and t h e c a r e o f t h e p o e t i s t o k e ep h i s h o r s e

o r h i s b o a t from s i n g i n g . "

I n P o p e ' s p o e t r y , t o o ,m ix e d m e ta p h o rs a r e o c ca ­

s i o n a l l y fo u n d .

"The w e l l - s u n g woes s h a l l s o o th e my Cpensive^ g h o s t ;

He b e s t c a n p a i n t them who s h a l l f e e l them m o s t . "

R e g a rd in g th e above f i g u r e , Jo h n so n s a y s : " M a r t i a l ex ­

p l o i t s may b e p a i n t e d : p e r h a p s w oes may be p a i n t e d ; b u t II,

t h e y a r e s u r e l y n o t p a i n t e d by b e in g w e l l - s u n g : i t 129

i s n o t e a s y t o p a i n t i n song o r t o s i n g i n c o l o u r s . "

G ray , a l s o , "seem s i n h i s r a p t u r e t o c o n fo u n d t h e H I

im ages o f ' s p r e a d i n g so u n d ' and ' r u n n i n g w a t e r . ' A 436

's t r e a m o f m u s ic k ' may be a l lo w e d ; b u t w here does M us ick ,

however 's m o o th and s t r o n g , ' a f t e r h a v in g v i s i t e d th e

'v e r d a n t v a l e s , ' ' r o w l down t h e s t e e p am ain ,* so a s t h a t

' r o c k s and n o d d in g g r o v e s r e b e l l o w t o th e r a o r ' ? I f

t h i s be s a i d o f M usick , i t i s n o n s e n s e ; i f i t be s a i d o f

W ate r , i t i s n o t h in g t o t h e p u r p o s e . "

Jo h n so n recommends t h e u s e o f b o t h s i m i l e and

m e ta p h o r , i f c a r e and c o n s i s t e n c y a r e shown. He d o e s n o t ,

how ever, a p p ro v e o f th e u s e o f a l l i t e r a t i o n , " o f u s i n g I ,

i n th e same v e r s e many w ords b e g in n in g w i t h t h e same l e t t e r .295

B u t t h i s k n a ck , w h a te v e r be i t s v a l u e , was so f r e q u e n t

among e a r l y w r i t e r s , t h a t G a sc o ig n , a w r i t e r o f th e s i x t e e n t h

80

c e n t u r y ,A w a rn s t h e young p o e t a g a i n s t a f f e c t i n g i t . " He r e g r e t s

G r a y 's u se o f i t i n "The B a rd " ; f o r t h e " i n i t i a l r e - H I ,

se m b la n c e s , or a l l i t e r a t i o n s , ' r u i n , * ' r u t h l e s s , * 439

'h e lm no r h a u b e rk , * a r e be low th e g r a n d e u r o f a poem

t h a t e n d e a v o rs a t s u b l i m i t y . "

Jo h n so n d i s a p p r o v e s , n o t o n ly o f a l l i t e r a t i o n ,

b u t a l s o o f o n o m ato p o e ia , o r " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e h a rm o n y ,"

a s he c h o o se s t o te rm i t . " B e a u t i e s o f t h i s k i n d a r e I I I ,

commonly f a n c i e d ; an d when r e a l a r e t e c h n i c a l and n u g a to r y , 232

n o t t o be r e j e c t e d and n o t t o be s o l i c i t e d . " "V erse can

i m i t a t e o n ly sound and m o t i o n . " " T h is n o t i o n o f 1 ,62

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e m e t r e , an d t h e d e s i r e o f d i s c o v e r i n g f r e - I I I ,

q u e n t a d a p t a t i o n s o f t h e sound t o t h e s e n s e , have p ro d u c e d , 230-

i n my o p in io n , many w i l d c o n c e i t s and im a g in a ry b e a u t i e s . 231

A l l t h a t c a n f u r n i s h t h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a r e t h e sound s

o f t h e w ords c o n s i d e r e d s i n g l y , an d t h e t im e i n w h ich th e y

a r e p ro n o u n c e d . E v e ry la n g u a g e h a s some w o rds fram ed t o

e x h i b i t t h e n o i s e s w h ic h th e y e x p r e s s , a s thum p, r a t t l e .

g r o w l , h i s s . T h e se , h o w ever , a r e b u t few , and t h e p o e t

c a n n o t make them m ore, n o r c a n t h e y be o f any u se b u t when

sound i s t o be m e n t io n e d . The t im e o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n was

i n t h e d a c t y l i c k m e a s u re s o f t h e l e a r n e d l a n g u a g e s c a p a b le

o f c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i e t y ; . . . b u t o u r l a n g u a g e h a v in g l i t t l e

f l e x i b i l i t y our v e r s e s can d i f f e r v e r y l i t t l e i n t h e i r

c a d e n c e . The f a n c i e d r e s e m b l a n c e s , I f e a r , a r i s e som etim es

81

m e re ly from t h e a m b ig u i ty o f w ords ; t h e r e i s sup p o sed

t o be some r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n a s o f t l i n e a n d a s o f t couch ,

or b e tw e e n h a r d s y l l a b l e s a n d h a r d f o r t u n e . "

I I

AS RESPECTS PROSODY

1 . METER

a .R e g u la r

M eter

S t y l e , t h e n , h a s two l e a d i n g s o u r c e s , d i c t i o n and

f i g u r e s o f sp e e c h ; w h ic h , by a v a r i e t y o f u s e s , c h a r a c t e r i z e

s t y l e e i t h e r a s c o n c i s e , d i f f u s e , l o f t y , o r h u m ble . B u t

i n c o n s i d e r i n g p o e t r y , J o h n s o n d i s c u s s e s a n o th e r p h a se

o f p o e t i c form b e s i d e s s t y l e ; nam ely , v e r s i f i c a t i o n . J u s t

a s Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s t r u t h a s t h e k e y n o te o f p o e t l e c o n t e n t ,

w h e th e r i n t e l l e c t u a l o r e m o t io n a l ; so he a l s o c o n s i d e r s

r e g u l a r i t y a s t h e k e y n o te o f p o e t i c fo rm . "The e s s e n c e

o f v e r s e i s r e g u l a r i t y , and i t s o rnam ent i s v a r i e t y . " I ,

T h is r e g u l a r i t y Jo h n so n f i n d s more i n P o p e ' s v e r s e s t h a n 467

i n any o t h e r p o e t r y ; henoe he c o n s i d e r s P o p e 's p o e t r y a s

th e acme o f p e r f e c t i o n . "New s e n t im e n t s and new im ages

o t h e r s may p ro d u c e , b u t t o a t t e m p t any f u r t h e r im provem ent 251

o f v e r s i f i c a t i o n w i l l be d a n g e r o u s . . . . I f Pope be

n o t a p o e t , where i s p o e t r y t o be fo u n d ?" P o p e 's c h a r a c ­

t e r i s t i c form i s t h e h e r o i c c o u p l e t ; h e n c e , Jo h n so n

p r a i s e s t h e p r e d e c e s s o r s o f Pope who have a t t e m p t e d t o u se

82

t h e c o u p l e t . " A f t e r a b o u t h a l f a c e n t u r y o f f o r c e d I ,

th o u g h t s and r u g g e d m e tr e some a d v a n c e s to w a rd n a t u r e 419

and harmony h ad b e e n a l r e a d y made by W a l le r and Denham;

t h e y h a d shewn t h a t l o n g d i s c o u r s e s i n rhyme grew more

p l e a s i n g when t h e y WBre b r o k e n i n t o c o u p l e t s , and t h a t

v e r s e c o n s i s t e d n o t o n ly i n t h e number b u t t h e a r r a n g e m e n t

o f s y l l a b l e s . " Jo h n s o n , h ow ever , c r e d i t s D ryden w i t h

e s t a b l i s h i n g t h i s new v e r s i f i c a t i o n ; f o r , from h i s t im e

" i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t E n g l i s h p o e t r y h a s h a d no te n d e n c y t o I ,

r e l a p s e t o i t s fo rm e r s a v a g e n e s s . " 421

Jo h n so n names s e v e r a l ex am p les o f t h i s " fo rm e r

s a v a g e n e s s " o f v e r s e ; f o r i n s t a n c e : P i n d a r i c o d e s , s o n n e t s ,

t r i p l e t s , a l e x a n d r i n e s , a s w e l l a s h e m i s t i c h s and r u n -

over l i n e s . He i s p a r t i c u l a r l y d i s t r e s s e d b y t h e " P i n d a r i c

i n f a t u a t i o n " o r " m a d n e s s ," w h ich h a d t a k e n p o s s e s s i o n

o f t h e l i t e r a r y w o r ld . " T h is l a x a n d l a w l e s s v e r s i f i c a t i o n I , '

so much c o n c e a le d t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s o f t h e b a r r e n an d 48

f l a t t e r e d t h e l a z i n e s s o f t h e i d l e , t h a t i t im m e d ia te ly

o v e r s p r e a d our b o o k s o f p o e t r y ; a l l t h e b o y s and g i r l s

c a u g h t t h e p l e a s i n g f a s h i o n , and t h e y t h a t c o u ld do n o th ­

i n g e l s e o o u ld w r i t e l i k e P i n d a r . " Jo h n so n f a i l s t o se e

any b e a u ty i n t h a t s t y l e o f p o e t r y , w h ich c o n s i d e r s " i t s I ,

n e a r a f f i n i t y t o p r o s e " a s t h e h i g h e s t k in d o f p r a i s e . 48

He c o n s i d e r s some o f W a t t s ' s o d e s "defo rm ed by t h e P i n d a r i c k

83

f o l l y t h e n p r e v a i l i n g , " To C o n greve , ho w ev er , " i t I I I ;

m ust be c o n f e s s e d t h a t we a r e i n d e b t e d f o r t h e c o r r e c t i o n 303

o f a n a t i o n a l e r r o r , an d f o r t h e c u re o f our P i n d a r i c k

m a d n e ss . He f i r s t t a u g h t t h e E n g l i s h w r i t e r s t h a t

P i n d a r ' s o d e s w ere r e g u l a r . "

A no the r im p o r te d v e r s e o f w h ic h Jo h n so n d i s a p p r o v e s ,

i s t h e s o n n e t ; f o r " th e f a b r i c k o f a s o n n e t , how ever a d a p t e d I ,

t o t h e I t a l i a n l a n g u a g e , h a s n e v e r su c c e e d e d i n o u r s , w h ic h , 169-

h a v in g g r e a t e r v a r i e t y o f t e r m i n a t i o n , r e q u i r e s th e rhym es 170

t o h© o f t e n c h a n g e d ."

S in c e th e e s s e n c e o f v e r s e i s r e g u l a r i t y , Jo h n so n

c o n s i d e r s a l e x a n d r i n e s and t r i p l e t s a s v i o l a t i o n s to o

g r e a t t o be a d m i t t e d i n t o a p p ro v e d v e r s e . "To w r i t e v e r s e I ,

i s t o d i s p o s e s y l l a b l e s an d so un ds h a r m o n i c a l ly by some 467-

known a n d s e t t l e d r u l e - a r u l e how ever l a x enough t o 468

s u b s t i t u t e s i m i l i t u d e f o r i d e n t i t y . . . . The E n g l i s h h e r o i c k

a d m i t s o f a c u t e o r g ra v e s y l l a b l e s v a r i o u s l y d i s p o s e d ; . . .

b u t t h e E n g l i s h a l e x a n d r i n e b r e a k s t h e l a w f u l b o u n d s , and

s u r p r i s e s t h e r e a d e r w i t h two s y l l a b l e s more t h a n he ex ­

p e c t e d . The e f f e c t o f t h e t r i p l e t i s t h e same: t h e e a r

h a s b e e n a c c u s to m e d to e x p e c t a new rhyme i n e v e ry c o u p le t ;

b u t i s on a sudden s u r p r i s e d w i t h t h r e e rhym es t o g e t h e r ,

t o w h ich t h e r e a d e r c o u ld n o t accom odate h i s v o i c e d i d he

n o t o b t a i n n o t i c e o f t h e change from t h e b r a c e s o f t h e m a r g in s .

84

Surely there is something unskilful in the necessity

of such mechanical direction."

A noth e r i r r e g u l a r i t y o f w h ich Jo h n so n d i s a p p r o v e sII

i s th e h e m i s t i c h . He c r i t i c i s e s C o w le y 's " D a v id e i s ,

b e c a u s e t h e a u th o r i n t r o d u c e d some v e r s e s l e f t i m p e r f e c t ,

i n i m i t a t i o n o f V i r g i l , whom Cowley e v i d e n t l y su p p o se d

" n o t t o have i n t e n d e d t o c o m p le te them : t h a t t h i s o p i n io n I ,

i s e r r o n e o u s may be p r o b a b ly c o n c lu d e d , b e c a u s e t h i s 63

t r u n c a t i o n i s i m i t a t e d by no s u b s e q u e n t Roman p o e t ; b e ­

cau se V i r g i l h i m s e l f f i l l e d up one b r o k e n l i n e i n th e h e a t

o f r e c i t a t i o n ; b e c a u s e i n one t h e s e n se i s now u n f i n i s h e d ;

and b e c a u s e a l l t h a t c a n be done by a b ro k e n v e r s e , a

l i n e i n t e r s e c t e d by a c a e s u r a an d a f u l l s t o p w i l l e q u a l l y

e f f e c t . "

Not o n ly in c o m p le te l i n e s , b u t a l s o r u n - o v e r

l i n e s o f f e n d , by g i v in g t o t h e r e a d e r a rhy th m d i f f e r e n t

from t h a t w h ic h he e x p e c te d . P r i o r , i n h i s " p r e f a c e t o I I ,

Solomon . . . p r o p o s e s some im p ro v e m en ts , by e x te n d in g 209

t h e se n se from one c o u p le t t o a n o t h e r , w i t h v a r i e t y o f

p a u s e s . T h is he h a s a t t e m p t e d , b u t w i t h o u t s u c c e s s ; h i s

i n t e r r u p t e d l i n e s a r e u n p l e a s i n g , and h i s s e n s e a s l e s s

d i s t i n c t i s l e s s s t r i k i n g . "

2. RHYME

Thus Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s r e g u l a r m e te r a r e q u i s i t e

85

o f v e r s e ; b u t i t i s n o t t h e o n ly c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w h ich

he demands o f v e r s i f i c a t i o n s , f o r " th e e s s e n c e o f v e r s e I I ,

i s o r d e r and c o n s o n a n c e ." H ence, he i n s i s t s t h a t 210

p o e t r y have rhyme a s w e l l a s m e t r i c a l rh y th m . B ecau se

o f t h i s demand, he f a i l s t o a p p r e c i a t e much t h a t i s p o e t i c ,

s in c e b l a n k v e r s e o c c u p ie s a n i m p o r t a n t p l a c e i n E n g l i s h

l i t e r a t u r e . Jo h n so n a d m i ts t h a t p o e t r y "may s u b s i s t I ,

w i t h o u t rhym e, b u t E n g l i s h p o e t r y w i l l n o t o f t e n p l e a s e ; 193

n o r c a n rhyme e v e r be s a f e l y s p a r e d b u t w here t h e s u b j e c t

i s a b l e t o s u p p o r t i t s e l f . B la n k v e r s e . . . h a s n e i t h e r

th e e a s i n e s s o f p r o s e n o r t h e m elody o f n u m b ers ." He

c o n s i d e r s b l a n k v e r s e a n i m p o r t a t i o n , p r o b a b ly from t h e

I t a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e ; and he m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e E n g l i s h

h e r o i c l i n e i s u n s u i t e d t o b l a n k v e r s e , b e c a u s e i t s m usic

s t r i k e s th e e a r so f a i n t l y t h a t i t i s e a s i l y l o s t , " u n l e s s I ,

a l l th e s y l l a b l e s o f e v e ry l i n e c o - o p e r a t e t o g e t h e r ; t h i s 192

c o - o p e r a t i o n c a n be o n ly o b t a i n e d by t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f

ev e ry v e r s e u n m in g le d w i t h a n o th e r a s a d i s t i n c t sy s te m

o f so u n d s , a n d t h i s d i s t i n c t n e s s i s o b t a i n e d and p r e s e r v e d

by t h e a r t i f i c e o f rhy iS e ."

Among a l l E n g l i s h p o e t s , from Cowley t o L y t t l e t o n ,

Jo h n so n f i n d s o n ly t h r e e whom he c o n s i d e r s t o have u s e d

b l a n k v e r s e e f f e c t i v e l y : M i l t o n , Thomson, and Young.

R e g a rd in g M i l t o n ' s e p i c , Jo h n so n s a y s : "W hatever be t h e I ,

86

a d v a n ta g e o f rhyme I c a n n o t p r e v a i l on m y s e l f t o w is h 194

t h a t M i l t o n h a d b e e n a rh y m e r , f o r I c a n n o t w is h h i s

w ork t o be o t h e r t h a n i t i s ; y e t l i k e o t h e r h e r o e s he i s

t o be a d m ire d r a t h e r t h a n i m i t a t e d . He t h a t t h i n k s

h i m s e l f c a p a b le o f a s t o n i s h i n g may w r i t e b l a n k v e r s e ,

b u t t h o s e t h a t hope o n ly t o p l e a s e m ust c o n d e sc e n d t o

rh y m e ." S i m i l a r l y he f i n d s "The S e a so n s" one o f t h e I I I ,

w o r k s " in w h ich b l a n k v e r s e seems p r o p e r l y u s e d ; Thom son 's299

w ide e x p a n s io n o f g e n e r a l v ie w s , and h i s e n u m e ra t io n

o f c i r c u m s t a n t i a l v a r i e t i e s , w ould have b e e n o b s t r u c t e d

and e m b a r ra s s e d by t h e f r e q u e n t i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e s e n s e ,

w h ich a r e th e n e c e s s a r y e f f e c t s o f rh y m e ." And f i n a l l y ,

Y o u n g 's "N ig h t T h o u g h ts" i s a l s o "one o f t h e few poems I I I ,

i n w hich b l a n k v e r s e c o u ld n o t be changed f o r rhyme b u t 395

w i th d i s a d v a n t a g e . The w i l d d i f f u s s i o n o f t h e s e n t im e n t s

and th e d i g r e s s i v e s a l l i e s o f i m a g i n a t i o n w ould have b e e n

co m pressed a n d r e s t r a i n e d by c o n f in e m e n t t o rh y m e ."

However, " i f b l a n k v e r s e be n o t tu m id and g o rg e o u s , I I ,

i t i s c r i p p l e d p r o s e ; " a n d Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s t h e g r e a t e r 319-

p a r t o f b l a n k v e r s e a s c r i p p l e d p r o s e . "B lan k v e r s e 320

l e f t m e re ly t o i t s num bers h a s l i t t l e o p e r a t i o n e i t h e r I ,

on t h e e a r o r m ind : i t c a n h a r d l y s u p p o r t i t s e l f w i t h o u t 237

b o l d f i g u r e s and s t r i k i n g im a g e s . A poem f r i g i d l y

d i d a c t i c k w i t h o u t rhyme i s so n e a r t o p r o s e t h a t t h e r e a d e r

87

o n ly s c o r n s i t f o r p r e t e n d i n g t o be v e r s e . " As an

example o f such, v e r s e , he m e n t io n s Roscommon's " E s s a y , "

i n w h ich t h e r e i s a n i n t e r p o s i t i o n o f a lo n g p a r a g r a p h

o f b l a n k v e r s e , w h ich Jo h n so n c o n s i d e r s a s " u n w a r r a n t a b ly I ,

l i c e n t i o u s . " I n l i k e m anner J . P h i l i p s " u n h a p p i ly 237

p l e a s e d h i m s e l f w i t h b l a n k v e r s e ; " w h i l e F e n t o n ' s I ,

" t r a n s l a t i o n from Homer i n t o b l a n k v e r s e w i l l f i n d few 319

r e a d e r s w h i l e a n o th e r c a n be h a d i n rh y m e ." Jo h n s o n does I I ,

n o t a p p ro v e o f th e c h o ic e o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r i n I y e r ' s 264

poem, "The F l e e c e " ; " a n d t h e d i s g u s t w h ich b l a n k v e r s e .

encum bering an d encum bered , s u p e r a d d s t o a n u n p l e a s i n g 346

s u b j e c t , soon r e p e l s th e r e a d e r , how ever w i l l i n g t o be

p l e a s e d . " Of M a l l e t ' s "Amyntor and T h e o d o ra ," J o h n s o n 's

comment i s e f f e c t i v e , th o u g h b r i e f : "B u t i t i s b l a n k I I I ,

v e r s e . " A k en s id e i s commended f o r h a v in g " fe w e r 406

a r t i f i c e s o f d i s g u s t t h a n m o st o f h i s b r e t h r e n o f t h e I I I ,

b l a n k s o n g ." Y e t , ev en A k ensid e do es n o t e sc a p e c e n s u r e , 418

f o r th e p e d a n t i n t r u d e s i n t o t h i s w ork; - " t u t when was I I I ,

b l a n k v e r s e w i t h o u t p e d a n t r y ? " "The e x e m p tio n w h ich 418

b la n k v e r s e a f f o r d s from t h e n e c e s s i t y o f c l o s i n g t h e I I I ,

t h e se n se w i t h t h e c o u p l e t , b e t r a y s l u x u r i a n t and a c t i v e 417-

m inds i n t o such s e l f - i n d u l g e n c e t h a t t h e y p i l e image upon 418

im age , o rnam ent upon o rn am en t, and a r e n o t e a s i l y p e r s u a d e d

t o c lo s e th e se n se a t a l l . B la n k v e r s e w i l l t h e r e f o r e ,

88

I f e a r , be to o o f t e n fo u n d i n d e s c r i p t i o n e x u b e r a n t ,

i n a rgum en t l o q u a c i o u s , an d i n n a r r a t i o n t i r e s o m e . "

C o n s e q u e n t ly , u n l e s s th e s u b j e c t c a n s u p p o r t i t s e l f ,

Jo h n so n p r e f e r s rhymed m e te r t o b l a n k v e r s e .

B u t ev en i n rhyme Jo h n so n l a y s down c e r t a i n r u l e s .

I n t h e f i r s t p l a o e , rhyme m u st a lw a y s b e s u b s e r v i e n t to

s e n s e ; no w o rds m ust be t o l e r a t e d w h ich a r e i n t r o d u c e d

m e re ly f o r t h e sake o f rhym e. He o b j e c t s t o S a v a g e ’ s

f r a g m e n t , "London and B r i s t o l d e l i n e a t e d , " b e c a u s e "some I I ,

o f th e l i n e s a r e r a t h e r i n s e r t e d t o rhyme t o o t h e r s t h a n 426

t o s u p p o r t b r im prove t h e s e n s e . " S i m i l a r l y , P o p e ’ s

e p i t a p h on th e Duke o f Buckingham i s w eak, b e c a u s e "a r t I I I ,

i s . . . u s e d f o r a r t s t h a t a rhyme may be h a d t o h e a r t . " 271

8 •O rd e r lyRhyme

B e s i d e s s u p p o r t in g t h e s e n s e , J o h n s o n demands

t h a t rhyme have b o t h o r d e r and c o n so n a n c e . He a d v o c a te s

r e g u l a r i t y a s t h e k e y - n o te o f rhy m e-sch em e , a s w e l l a s

o f m e t e r . T h e r e f o r e he p r e f e r s t h e rhym ed c o u p l e t , i n

w h ich t h e rhym es s u c c e e d e ac h o t h e r r e g u l a r l y ; and he

d i s a p p r o v e s o f D ryden’ s "Ode f o r S t . C e c i l i a ’ s D ay ," I ,

b e c a u se " th e rhym es a r e to o re m o te from one a n o t h e r . " 440

A nother d e f e c t o f th e rhym e-schem e o f t h i s poem, i s t h a t I ,456-

"some o f t h e l i n e s a r e w i t h o u t c o r r e s p o n d e n t r h y m e s ." 457

b .Conso­n a n tRhyme

Thus Jo h n so n demands o r d e r l y a r r a n g e m e n t o f rhyme;

b u t he a l s o i n s i s t s upon t h e co n sonance o f t h e w ords them -

89

s e l v e s . Rhyming w ords m u s t n o t he to o s i m i l a r a s

" n i g h t ” and " l i g h t " ; n e i t h e r may th e y he t o o d i s s i m i l a r H I ,

a s " b r e a t h " and " b i r t h . " They m ust b e v a r i e d , f o r 270

v a r i e t y i s one o f t h e s o u r c e s o f p l e a s u r e . Jo h n so n m ,

c r i t i c i s e s Denham f o r u s i n g t h e w ord " d i e " t o rhyme 80

t h r e e c o u p l e t s i n s i x . F i n a l l y , t h e w o rds th e m s e lv e s I ,

m ust be i m p o r t a n t , s u g g e s t i v e w ords ; o th e r w i s e t h e 82

rhyme w eak en s , r a t h e r t h a n s t r e n g t h e n s t h e l i n e . "E very I I I ,

rhyme s h o u ld b e a w ord o f e m p h a s is , no r oan t h i s r u l e 258

be s a f e l y n e g l e c t e d , e x c e p t w here t h e l e n g t h o f th e

poem m akes s l i g h t i n a c c u r a c i e s e x c u s a b l e , o r a l lo w s

room f o r b e a u t i e s s u f f i c i e n t to overpow er t h e e f f e c t s o f

p e t t y f a u l t s . " T h e r e fo r e he d i s a p p r o v e s o f P o p e ' s I I I ,

u se o f t h e w ord " to o " i n h i s e p i t a p h on S i r W il l ia m 258

Trum bal; o f W a l l e r ' s u s e o f t h e word " s o , " tw ic e w i t h i n I ,

t e n l i n e s ; o f D ryden*s p r a c t i c e o f e n d in g t h e f i r s t l i n e 294

o f a c o u p l e t w i t h a weak o r g ra v e s y l l a b l e , t h u s rhym ing I ,

such w ords a s " ty r a n n y " and " s k y ; " and f i n a l l y o f 468

C o w le y 's f r e q u e n t u s e o f " p ro n o u n s o r p a r t i c l e s , o r t h e I ,

l i k e u n im p o r ta n t w o rd s , w h ic h d i s a p p o i n t t h e e a r and 60

d e s t r o y t h e e n e rg y o f t h e l i n e . "

Thus Jo h n so n b r i e f l y s t a t e s h i s t h e o r y o f v e r s i ­

f i c a t i o n i n t h e s e w o rd s : " th e e s s e n c e o f v e r s e i s o r d e r I I ,

and c o n s o n a n c e ." B o th m e te r and rhym e-schem e m ust b e 210

90

t e g u l a r , w h i l e th e rhym es th e m s e lv e s m u st be c o n s o n a n t . "

CONCLUSION

SUMMARY

To c o n c lu d e , we have n o te d t h a t Jo h n s o n d e f i n e s I ,

p o e t r y a s " th e a r t o f u n i t i n g p l e a s u r e w i t h t r u t h , by 170

c a l l i n g i m a g i n a t i o n t o t h e h e l p o f r e a s o n . " T h e r e f o r e ,

p o e t i c t r u t h an d p o e t i c p l e a s u r e d e te rm in e a tw o f o ld

c o n te n t o f p o e t r y : an i n t e l l e c t u a l e le m e n t and a n e m o t io n a l

a p p e a l .

I n o r d e r t o b e c o m p le te , p o e t i o t r u t h m ust p r e s e n t

a r e l i g i o u s and m o ra l know ledge o f r i g h t an d w rong; a sym­

p a t h e t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h u m a n ity ; or a th o ro u g h s tu d y o f

e x t e r n a l n a t u r e . B ecau se t h e y f a i l t o p r e s e n t p o e t i c

t r u t h , Jo h n so n e x c lu d e s from th e r e a lm o f t r u e p o e t r y , t h e

f o l lo w in g t y p e s o f v e r s e : f i c t i o n , m y th , p a s t o r a l , en co ­

m i a s t i c and o c c a s i o n a l v e r s e s , e p i t a p h , b u r l e s q u e , and v e r s e s

w r i t t e n i n i m i t a t i o n o f o t h e r s . He a l s o e x c lu d e s contem -*

p l a t i v e s a c r e d v e r s e b e c a u s e t h e t r u t h s c o n ta i n e d t h e r e i n

a r e beyo nd t h e d i g n i t y and g ra n d e u r o f p o e t r y . On th e

o t h e r h a n d , b e c a u s e t h e f o l lo w in g p r e s e n t a t l e a s t some

p h a se o f p o e t i o t r u t h , Jo h n so n a p p ro v e s o f o t h e r t y p e s

o f p o e t r y ; ' nam ely: e p i c , d i d a c t i c , c r i t i c a l a n d c o n t r o v e r s i a l

w o rk s , s a t i r e , t r a n s l a t i o n , n a r r a t i v e , d e s c r i p t i v e , e l e g i a c ,

and d ra m a t ic p o e t r y .

91

A no th e r r e q u i s i t e r e m a in s . P o e t r y i s th e a r t o f

p r e s e n t i n g t r u t h p l e a s i t r a b l y . A poem t h e r e f o r e , b e s i d e s

a n i n t e l l e c t u a l e le m e n t , m ust c o n t a i n an e m o t io n a l a p p e a l .

Jo h n so n , h o w ev er , d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e tw e e n two k i n d s o f p l e a s ­

u r e s : th o s e o f th e m ind , and t h o s e o f t h e h e a r t . The

s o u rc e s o f t h e fo rm er a r e t w o f o l d , - n o v e l t y and v a r i e t y ;

w h i le th e s o u r c e s o f t h e l a t t e r c o n s i s t i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n

and p o r t r a y a l o f th e p a s s i o n s o f th e human h e a r t , a s found

c h i e f l y i n t h e drama and i n th e l y r i c .

M o reover , a lo n g w i t h i t s c o n t e n t , p o e t r y m ust have

fo rm . Jo h n so n d i s c u s s e s two p h a s e s o f f o r m , - s t y l e and

p ro s o d y . Of s t y l e , he names f o u r k i n d s : t h e c o n c i s e ,

th e d i f f u s e , t h e l o f t y , and t h e h u m ble . Of e a c h o f t h e s e

t h e s o u r c e s a r e d i c t i o n and f i g u r e s o f s p e e c h . P ro so d y

t r e a t s o f m e te r and rhym e; w i t h t h e l a t t e r Jo h n so n d i s p e n s e s

on ly when t h e s u b j e c t i s a b l e t o s u p p o r t i t s e l f .

Jo h n so n e x p r e s s e s h i s i d e a s r e g a r d i n g p o e t r y i n

f o u r d i f f e r e n t w o rk s : "The R a m b le r ," " R a s s e l a s , " t h e S hak es ­

p e a r e " P r e f a c e , " and th e " L iv e s o f t h e E n g l i s h P o e t s . " I n

th e t h r e e f i r s t - m e n t i o n e d w orks t h e s e c r i t i c i s m s a r e

o c c a s i o n a l and i n c o m p le te . I n t h e " L iv e s o f t h e E n g l i s h

P o e t s , " how ever , Jo h n so n p r e s e n t s h i s m a tu re c r i t i c a l

d o c t r i n e i n i t s f u l l e s t fo rm . I t may be summed up i n two

s t a t e m e n t s : t h e k e y n o te o f p o e t i c c o n t e n t i s t r u t h ; o f p o e t i c

s t r u c t u r e , i s r e g u l a r i t y .

92

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. A rn o ld , M atthew : P r e f a c e and n o t e s o f e d i t i o no f " C h ie f L iv e s o f th e P o e t s "

2 . A rn o ld , M atthew : " E s s a y s i n C r i t i c i s m "

3 . B o s w e l l , Jam es: " L i f e o f Samuel Jo h n so n "

4 . Jo h n so n , Sam uel: " L iv e s o f t h e E n g l i s h P o e t s "E d i t e d by G eorge B i rk b e c k H i l l

5 . Jo h n so n , Samuel: " P r e f a c e " on S h a k e sp e a re

6 . S a i n t s b u r y , G eorge : " H i s t o r y o f C r i t i c i s m "