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So Many Words, so Little Time: Helping College ESL Learners Acquire Vocabulary-BuildingStrategiesAuthor(s): Denise Johnson and Virginia SteeleSource: Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, Vol. 39, No. 5 (Feb., 1996), pp. 348-357Published by: Wiley on behalf of the International Reading AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40014655 .

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So many words, so

little time: Helping college ESL learners

acquire vocabulary- building strategies

Denise Johnson Virginia Steele

How can teachers of college developmental reading classes

help ESL students become

independent learners of the enormous amount of unfamiliar vocabulary they will encounter in their academic courses? These teachers experimented with a number of generative strategies supported by ESL /EFL research.

The fact that vocabulary is an important com- ponent of reading comprehension for all readers has been well established (Anderson & Freebody, 1981; Bensoussan & Laufer, 1984; Davis, 1944; Farr & Carey, 1986; Hague, 1987; Nation, 1990; Thorndike, 1917). First language reading researchers have estimated recognition vocabularies of fluent readers to range from 10,000 words to 100,000 words (Nagy & Herman, 1987). Recognition vocabularies of second language readers are far lower, ranging from 5,000 to 7,000 words (Singer, 1981). This limited vocabulary does not meet the needs of second language learners who must deal

with highly technical, infrequently used terms encountered in academic subject matter at the college level.

In our developmental reading classes, ESL students identify the ability to quickly expand their vocabularies in the context of academic subjects as one of their most critical needs. Recognizing that this need could be a major obsta- cle to success in college courses, we searched for effective vocabulary-building strategies supported by research in second language acquisition. We quickly found that although researchers have pro- posed several strategies for ac-

quiring the vocabulary of a second language, little research has been conducted as to the effectiveness of specific learning strategies (Brown & Perry, 1991). Especially in the subject areas, little research has been done to explore how language minority students cope with literacy requirements (Reyes & Molner, 1991). Consequently, little is ac- tually known about how competent ESL students expand their vocabularies to meet the demands of college reading.

We were enthusiastic, however, about experi- menting with some of the strategies that have been proven to help ESL learners gain greater control over their own vocabulary building processes. In

348 Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 39:5 February 1996 ©1996 International Reading Association (pp. 348 -357)



this article, we describe several specific strategies and the research that supports them. We also give examples of students' applications of some of these strategies to materials presented in our developmental reading course.

Identifying generative strategies In our classes, we teach generative reading strategies in the context of entire chapters from college- level textbooks. Generative strategies are those that are student-initiated and monitored and can be employed in a variety of situations. Although there are a number of effective instructional strategies described in the literature, our interest was in identifying effective generative strategies that would enable students to become independent learners of the conceptual meanings of new words (Nist & Diehl, 1994).

Each of the following strategies has been proven to help ESL learners develop their vocabularies as they learn from content materials. Most of the strategies can be used with mixed groups of English-speaking and non-English-speaking students. Each strategy incorporates one or more of the principles of effective vocabulary instruction offered by Stahl (1986). Both definitional and contextual information is included, students are involved in active processing, and students are given multiple exposures to the words.

Each strategy also includes at least one of the three characteristics believed to be important in teaching language-minority students - first, that vocabulary learning is integrated with content instruction; second, that students are given access to vocabulary-building activities in a nonthreaten- ing, cooperative context; and third, that learning activities are "scaffolded" so as to build background and promote learning (Reyes & Molner, 1991).

Vocabulary selection strategies Research has shown that effective readers can tol- erate a high degree of ambiguity, up to 15% of words in a passage (Irvin, 1990). Many ESL learners, on the other hand, have developed the habit of word-by-word reading, feeling the need to stop and

look up, or even translate into their native language, most unknown words they encounter.

Research by Parry (1991) with ESL students indicates that teachers "should encourage the students in our classes to do rapid reading without spend- ing too much time on each word. Less frequent and more specialized words, however, may need more careful treatment to be remembered" (p. 650). She suggests that teachers lead students in a process of identifying "crucial terms," those words whose meaning they must know accurately in order to understand a particular text.

This view is supported by Irvin (1990). "Wide reading should be the primary vehicle for vocabulary learning, yet some selected words can be the focus of direct instruction or study" (p. 12). "Words that are introduced in a leading sentence and then the- matized by repetition or by the use of reference items are obvious candidates for dictionary work, so also are those that are printed in bold or italic type. Most other words, however, need not be looked up, and they should not be because it takes so much time and interrupts the flow of reading" (Parry, 1991, p. 650). Other criteria offered by Diekhoff, Brown, and Dansereau (1982) are "itali- cized terms, terms used in headings, terms defined by the author, terms listed in glossaries, etc." (p. 181).

Peer teaching. This is a strategy adapted from Haggard's (1986) Vocabulary Self-Collection Strategy and Parker's (1990) Desktop Teaching model. First, the student is asked to select one word from a section of the chapter the class is studying. The student must develop a justification for investing time in studying that particular word. The student then chooses a strategy such as a word map or an image that s/he can use to teach the word's meaning to another student. The next day students share their words and the criteria they used to select them. Students are then paired according to Parker's model and alternately teach their word and learn the word of their partner. This leads to a good discussion of the criteria for crucial terms, and it also gives students the opportunity to compare the effectiveness of the different strategies used by their classmates.

So many words, so little time: Helping college ESL learners acquire vocabulary-building strategies 349



Figure 1 A student's use of vocabulary selection strategies

Crucial term identification. In this strategy the teacher selects an excerpt from the reading being studied by the class. The students are then in- structed to read the excerpt and underline only those unfamiliar words that they feel they must know to comprehend the text. The next day, students compare their responses and discuss the criteria they used to select the words (see Figure 1 ). This strategy is especially useful for illustrating the differences between the selection criteria for different types of reading assignments. For example, in a short story it is important that words relating to the plot be understood, while details about the ap- pearance of a character may or may not be equally important. In a chapter from a textbook, words that appear in the introduction or summary may be tar- gets for more intensive study, as are any words in bold type. Students are then asked to use one of the other strategies - context, imagery, or key word - to learn the meanings of the terms they have identified as crucial.

Personal word lists Researchers have come to view vocabulary development as a gradual process, "the result of many encounters with a word towards a more precise

grasp of the concept the word represents" (Parry, 1993, p. 127). If repeated encounters with a word in a meaningful context is the way most vocabulary is learned, a logical inference is that ESL readers should develop their ability to use context clues.

Although the effectiveness of context as a strategy for vocabulary growth in a first language has been debated, research has shown that a great deal of word meaning for an ESL student can be inferred from context (Parry, 1991). Nation (1990) also points out that the analysis of words into affixes and roots is an effective learning strategy.

Too often, ESL students ignore context and structure and instead quickly turn to their dictionaries. Their reading is peppered with frequent "stopper words" that break their concentration and comprehension (Anders & Bos, 1986). This is especially problematic if the student relies on bilingual dictionaries, which is frequently the case.

Recognizing the importance of using context to infer word meaning, we have begun to teach explic- it strategies for using both local (sentence level) and global (whole passage or background knowledge) context clues. We then structure assignments so that students will have many opportunities to apply these strategies as they read.

350 Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 39:5 February 1996



Figure 2 Students' personal word list entries




In our classes, we study full-length chapters from college textbooks representative of a variety of disciplines. The Personal Word List or Personal Dictionary (Nist & Simpson, 1993) requires the student first to select an unfamiliar word from the current chapter. The student, rather than the teacher, does the selecting. Obviously, not all unfamiliar words have equal utility. We often spend time in class discussing the criteria for selecting a word for careful study.

The student is then directed to use either context or the structure of the word to infer a reasonable meaning. If the student is not satisfied that s/he has determined a close approximation of the meaning, or if there are no context or structure clues, s/he may go to the dictionary to find a definition (see Figure 2). In this way, the Personal Word List is a combination of definitional and contextual ap- proaches, but the emphasis is on determining meaning from context or structure when possible. Because the strategy is used within the context of studying an entire chapter, it is likely that the word will reappear, thus naturally reinforcing its meaning.

This strategy is supported by Nation's (1990) finding that the primary strategy for dealing with low- frequency vocabulary should be to teach students how to guess words in context or how to use word- part analysis. Only when these strategies fail should students look up the word in a dictionary and gloss it in the text or their notes.

The Personal Word List is a means of "scaffolding" what should become a natural, automatic process of learning vocabulary while reading. The goal is to encourage good vocabulary-building habits. Keeping a word list has also been shown to increase sensitivity to new words and enjoyment in word learning for American students (Haggard, 1986).

In the beginning, Personal Word List assignments are very structured to ensure that students understand the process. Later the students are asked to gloss the meaning in their texts or simply list words and definitions to approximate a more realistic vocabulary learning experience.

Semantic mapping There is general agreement among educators that vocabulary development involves the complex process of relating words to ideas that exist in the schema of the reader (Irvin, 1990). One explanation for vocabulary acquisition is the Knowledge and Access Hypothesis outlined by Hague (1987). According to this hypothesis, "new words are best learned in semantically related groups that are somehow related to words and knowledge that the reader already knows" (p. 219). Hague suggests that the vocabulary of second language learners should be taught "in semantic networks to the point of automatic access" (p. 220). Further research by Meara (1980) supports the view that words in a second language are meaningfully integrated with words in a first language to form a complex whole lexi- con. These meaningful associations are often referred to in the ESL literature as "collocations" or "paradigmatic relationships."

The use of semantic maps to facilitate the learning of new words is strongly supported by this "knowledge position" of vocabulary acquisition. Coady (1993) contends that "many current techniques for teaching vocabulary are artificial and frequently ineffective because they do not induce the readers to associate the new word-forms and concepts in their minds together with the schemata they already know" (p. 12). Research also supports the effectiveness of semantic maps over more tra- ditional techniques (Johnson & Pearson, 1984).

We do a variety of mapping activities in our classes. One generative vocabulary strategy is making a "word map." The student first selects a word s/he feels is worthy of special study, then tries to write down as many words as possible that relate to that word. S/he then organizes the words and relates them to one another in a meaningful way in the form of a map (see Figure 3). Word maps enable students to relate new words to those they know well. Because semantic mapping helps students see relationships between ideas and connect known information with new information, it is a valuable tool for developing their vocabulary.

The challenge is to give ESL learners sufficient practice in creating word maps to the point that

352 Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 39:5 February 1 996



Figure 3 Students' word maps




they will appreciate their usefulness and continue to use them independently as a means of building their vocabularies. We must find new ways to get students actively involved in assimilating new vocabulary in a meaningful fashion. The learners must take responsibility for relating new ideas to those already possessed. "Ownership of vocabulary oc- curs when students can relate the word in an ap- propriate schema. Instead of asking, 'What is the definition of this word?' students should be asking themselves, 'Where does this word fit?' "

(Thelen, 1986, p. 606).

Imagery Relating a distinct visual image to a new word is a widely accepted learning tool. Likewise, associating a word with its visual or acoustic properties seems to improve recall for ESL learners (Brown & Perry, 1991 ). We encourage our students to create images whenever possible as a means of increasing under- standing and retrieval.

An approach to using imagery to develop vocabulary, which is often referred to in the ESL literature, is the "key word" method originally designed by Raugh and Atkinson (1975) for learning a foreign language. An associative link is created between a new word and a known word, phrase, or image that is acoustically and/or visually similar. "For example, the Spanish word for duck is pato. Employing the English word 'pot' as the key word, one could imag- ine a duck hiding under an overturned flower pot with its webbed feet and tufted tail sticking out be- low" (p. 1 ). The new word is associated with a more familiar word in the student's first language, there- by enhancing comprehension and memory. There is some evidence that when learners create their own images they recall even more than when they are provided with the images (Simpson &Dwyer, 1991).

Because we have a wide range of first languages in a typical class, we have used a modified key word technique by showing the students how to choose an English key word and then write a sentence with the new word and the key word that creates a distinct visual image (see Figure 4).

An example we have used is learning the verb ca- ress by placing the key word cares in the sentence,

"Because he cares for her, he caresses her face gently." The sentence is presented along with a simple drawing of hands caressing a woman's face.

According to Stoller and Grabe (1993) "the mnemonic key word approach has no rivals with re- spect to vocabulary recall. The skill is generalizable, permitting students to use the strategy on their own to build their vocabularies" (p. 36). Although the key word technique has been found to be su-

perior to other methods (Nation, 1990), we have found that our adaptation of the technique is some- what complex to teach and very time consuming for the students to construct.

Although extremely effective for a small number of new words, the key word method seems to have limited usefulness in helping ESL students with the large number of abstract terms they must learn to deal with. In fact, Parry (1991) reports that more than 40% of words identified as "difficult" by the ESL learners she studied came from "bridging vocabulary, general terms that characterize formal prose and often express relationships and other ab- stractions" (p. 637), words like stipulating, augmented, and unsubstantiated. "In sum, memory techniques have a demonstrated power, but teachers and researchers need to understand that such techniques gloss over the complexity of what it means to know a word" (Coady, 1993, p. 13).

Computer-assisted instruction

Although not a truly generative strategy, we provide computer-assisted instruction (CAI) to supplement the strategies we teach in our classes and to provide our students with additional exposure to new vocabulary in a variety of contexts. Some of the advantages of using CAI are increased student in- volvement and motivation and the capacity to provide ample practice outside of class time (Wheatley, Muller, & Miller, 1993). In addition, the computer can offer individualized instruction with immedi- ate reinforcement, all with unending patience. CAI has also been found to have a strong positive ef- fect on the amount of student learning, the time spent in student learning, and student attitudes to- ward learning.

354 Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 39:5 February 1 996



Figure 4 Students' use of imagery

The program we use is Word Attack, P/us! (Davidson, 1988). We chose it because of the "edi- tor" function whereby instructors can enter selected vocabulary and sample sentences. We use words and sentences from the chapters we teach in our reading course, including chapters from health, his- tory, literature, and economics. Instructors survey the chapters and choose vocabulary based on three criteria. Words that are judged to be difficult for

most students, critical for comprehension of the text, and likely to be repeated in other courses are selected.

Through CAI, we provide at least five exposures to the selected words, one in the original context of the chapter, and four in Word Attack, P/us! - the definition in the Word Display activity, the sample sentence in Word Display, definition matching in the Multiple Choice activity, and fill-in-the-blank in the




Sentence Completion activity. (The inability to delete the definition that appears in the Sentence Completion activity is one frustration we have ex- perienced with the program. The presence of the definition above the sentence enables the student to use the definition rather than the context of the sentence to supply the missing word, thus reducing the possibility that the activity will help students develop their use of context clues.) Each time the words are used in class or appear on a quiz additional exposures to the words in meaningful contexts are provided.

The students are given a new list of 25 words each week, taken from the chapter we are studying in class. Because structural analysis is widely recog- nized as a useful aid for students, we also encourage them to complete additional lists of common prefixes and roots available on Word Attack, Plus! for extra credit. Completion of the lab assignments is compulsory and makes up 1 0% of the final grade for the course. We find that the percentage of students using the lab is very high and the response from students is generally very positive. The following is an example of a Word Attack, Plus! entry:

Word: metabolism Definition: chemical changes that produce energy in living cells

Sample sentence: Hormones secreted during the stress response alter the metabolism of every cell in your body. Sentence completion: in living or- ganisms produces the energy that makes growth possible.

Students' evaluations of strategies In order for a strategy to become generative (one that students will independently choose to use in the future), the strategy must be carefully modeled. Students must also be given ample practice in de- ciding how and when to apply the strategy effec- tively. Like any new skill, a new strategy requires extra effort in the beginning, and like all other learners, ESL students often resist doing some- thing in a new way. It is a challenge for us as teachers to provide ample practice while maintaining motivation so that our students will "own" the strategies we teach.

As ESL students enter our classes they identify using a dictionary as their primary strategy for finding a word's meaning as they read and study. At the end of the course, students more often mention using context and keeping a word list. Other strategies mentioned are using word cards, imagery, and key words. In future semesters we hope to identify the generative strategies ESL learners find most useful.

A mixed approach works Certainly reading is one of the most important skills for second language learners in academic settings. The strong relationship between reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge presents teachers of ESL learners with the challenge of meeting their unique need for effective vocabulary-building strategies.

Although specific strategies for effective vocabulary learning have not been the subject of extensive research, both theory and research in second language acquisition seem to support a mixed approach to vocabulary acquisition in ESL. This includes encouraging extensive reading as well as teaching decontextualization and semantic mapping skills and strengthening students' abilities to select vocabulary worthy of careful study. Teachers must work with students to identify those specific strategies that hold the most promise for helping them become enthusiastic and independent word learners.

]ohnson teaches reading education and developmental reading courses in the Department of Childhood Education at the University of Central Arkansas (THD 124C, Conway, AR 72035, USA). Steele teaches developmental reading in the Transitional Studies Program at the same university.

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