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Koto Manufacture: The Instrument, Construction Process, and Aesthetic ConsiderationsAuthor(s): Henry M. JohnsonSource: The Galpin Society Journal, Vol. 49, (Mar., 1996), pp. 38-64Published by: Galpin SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/842391Accessed: 15/06/2008 16:35

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1. Gakuso (the koto ofgagaku)

2. Chikuso (the koto of the Tsukushigoto tradition of performance thatdates from the sixteenth century; this tradition no longer exists)

3. Zokuso ('everyday/popular koto'; the koto of everyday performance thatdates from the seventeenth century with Yatsuhashi Kengy6, 1614-85;it later divided into Ikuta-koto (or Ikuta-goto), which dates from IkutaKengyo, 1656-1715, and Yamada-koto or Yamada-goto), which datesfrom Yamada Kengy6, 1757-1817, the instruments of the Ikuta andYamada raditions respectively - the Ikuta-koto s not at all common today)

4. Tagenso: ('many-stringed koto'), which includes twentieth-centuryinnovative and experimental instrument types (i.e. the widely used

17-, 21- and 30-string koto)The Tsukushigoto was exclusively for sighted male priests; and the zokusowas the instrument of professional blind male musicians, although untilthe beginning of the Meiji era (1868) men did teach the daughters of therising commercial class (women were not allowed to teach or playprofessionally). With the abandonment in 1871 of the guilds thatregulated the transmission of the instrument's music, women dominatekoto performance today. Most well-known composers for the koto in the

last fifty years, however, have been men (for example, Miyagi Michio,Nakanoshima Kin'ichi, and Sawai Tadao).Today, two main types of koto are classified and played: the gakuso and

the zokuso (the Yamada-koto, as opposed to the other main, althoughhistorical, zokuso called Ikuta-koto), although both are usually called kotoin general discourse. While the number ofgakuso - not examined in thisdiscussion - is limited to only the several gagaku orchestras that performtoday (disregarding museum exhibits - also very few), the present-dayYamada-koto s found in abundance throughout the Japanese archipelago.Falconer (1990, p.471), for example, estimates that about two millionplayers of the koto are registered with schools. Only features such as theshape of plectra, sitting position, repertoire, lineage, and musicornamentation differ between traditions, schools and regions.4 (Unlessotherwise stated, the instrument is always described from the perspectiveof the performer, who kneels behind one of the long sides towards theslightly raised right end (the 'head' - the left end is the 'tail'.)

THE MAKERSKoto manufacture is traditionally the trade of men, although women dosometimes help in tasks such as quality control, sales or office work. Themajority of koto manufacture in Japan today is carried out by theco-operative Fukuyama Hogakki Seizogy6 Ky6do Kumiai ('FukuyamaTraditional Japanese Musical Instrument Manufacturing Co-operative';

39



hereafter FHSKK), which is based in the city of Fukuyama in Hiroshima

prefecture.5Most koto makers in Fukuyama today belong to FHSKK and also have

retailing outlets in Fukuyama city. Some also have shops in other parts of

Japan such as Tokyo and Osaka. FHSKK was designated an institutionthat produces traditional objects of craftwork ('Geijutsu K6geihin') bythe Minister of International Trade and Industry in 1985. FHSKK alsocontributes to the dissemination of traditional Japanese music in other

ways. For example, they sponsor concerts and even hold a koto memorialservice (koto-kuyo) on 6 June (hogaku-no-hi: 'Traditional Japanese music

day') where several instruments are burned and prayers are given. This iswhat DeVale would call the receptive mode of musical instrument

participation in music where 'the instrument is the focus of the ritual;that is, a ceremony or ritual procedure is performed on or for theinstrument itself' (1988, p.126).

FHSKK has been singled out for further discussion primarily becauseof the extent to which it monopolises the manufacture and distributionof koto in Japan. For example, even in 1978, four years before FHSKKwas formed, the city of Fukuyama alone boasted a 75% share of the kotomarket for the whole ofJapan (Naganishi 1982, p.550). The productionof FHSKK koto between 1983 and 1993 has been noted by Fukuyama

Sh6k6 Kaigi-sho (personal communication, October 1994):

1983: 12,650 1989: 13,2001984: 12,600 1990: 14,0001985: 12,700 1991: 14,2001986: 12,900 1992: 14,9001987: 13,000 1993: 13,4001988: 13,050

When FHSKK was formed it consisted of a group of twelve businessesthat ranged in size from a one-man workshop making about 100 koto a

year to a large-scale factory that employed about 80 people making about

4,000 koto a year (FHSKK's total share of the koto market is now about

seventy per cent). Today, however, FHSKK consists of nine instrumentmakers and two makie ('sprinkled picture'; traditional Japanese silver and

gold lacquer decoration) specialists. The members of FHSKK make

basically the same types of instrument as each other, although sometimessuch features as decoration and grades of instruments may differ slightlybetween manufacturers (see below).

A typical workshop for koto manufacture would divide into severalmain areas varying according to the size of the business concerned: a

storage and cutting area for the raw materials (logs); a main workshopwhere planks of wood are made into the basic shape of the koto (anoutside area would be used for scorching the surface of the instrument to

40



darken it); and a further workshop that concentrates specifically onattaching additional parts and applying decoration o the main body.

THECONSTRUCTION PROCESS

While the exact order of manufacture will differ slightly between eachmaker, the five main stages given by Hirata (1994, p.67) summarise hebasic process (modified slightly after ranslation):1. Lumbering: ) selection of wood; ii) measuring; ii) marking or cutting;

iv) cutting into boards

2. Drying seasoning of wood)3.

Shapinghe

body: ) scoopingout sound

chamber; i) shaping sound-board (the backboard s made at this time and interior supports or itare fitted); ii) carvings on under surface of inside of soundboard);iv) scorching (of entire outer surface); ) polishing

4. Decoration added parts): n order of attachment: ) shiburoku a thinsheet of wood each side of the two fixed bridges over the widthwisecurve of the upper surface of the soundboard); i) fixed bridges;iii) oak leaf (tail decoration); v) lips (surrounding mouth at head);v) tongue (inside mouth at head); vi) makie decoration on tongue andlips); vii) sound holes (towards each end of backboard); viii) feet(under ail and head)

5. Completion: ) metal parts (string hole supports); i) finishing (adjust-ing); iii) inspection

LumberingThe koto s a wooden instrument, although such materials smetal, ivory,bone, plastic, hardwoods, acquer, silk,6 nylon,7 tetron Japanese: etoron),brocade, and paper, for example, are often used both for decoration andstructural eatures. The main structural part of the koto is its woodenbody, which consists of an upper soundboard and a lower backboard,which are made traditionally rom paulownia mperialis kiri). Kiri s a fast-growing softwood and is also used in Japan for making such traditionalitems as clogs and chests-of-drawers. Today, kiri is usually imported toJapan from North America, although sometimes Chinese, Korean, oreven Japanese wood is used. The tree must be of a sufficient diameter orlogs the width of the koto o be taken from it

(i.e.about 30

cm). Cheaperand aesthetically nferior nstruments are either made with a wood otherthan kiri, or are veneered.

Kiri s actually a very important ree in Japan and has several ymbolicmeanings that help in understanding ts social significance. As well as kirileaves being the Imperial amily crest associated with the Empress thechrysanthemum s associated with the Emperor - the mythical and

41



auspicious ho-o (usually translated as phoenix for convenience) is believedto live in it (Newman and Ryerson 1964, p.98).8

Measurements

Today, the standard length of the koto's soundboard is called honken(6 shaku: about 182 cm). (It is not the objective of this article to showmeasurements concerning every part of the koto's orm. General detailswill suffice the aims of the present discussion.) The width of a modernYamada-koto s usually about 24.7 cm at the head, and 23.5 cm at the tail

(Tsuda 1983, pp.166-7; Table 1 shows some of the koto's other

dimensions).9 The exact measurement of a honken has not always been asfixed as it is today, and the instrument's length has ranged historicallybetween 152 cm and 194 cm (Tanabe and Hirano 1982, p.1350), wherevariation often occurred between East and WestJapan (i.e. the Kantd andKansai areas that historically differentiated between the Yamada-koto fthe Yamada radition and the Ikuta-koto of the Ikuta tradition respec-tively). The term ken of honken (hon means 'main' and ken means

'distance') is also found in architecture and design, where, like the size ofthe koto, it has varied historically according to regional standards. AsWebb has commented:

Whereas the official definition of the ken makes t 1.82 metres .. ., a common

Kansai use of the same unit takes it to be 1.97 metres.10 . . A possible way ofexplaining the discrepancy s simply to say that that unit represents he unit oflength that Japanese architects in whatever part of Japan hey may be - take astheir basic measuring unit. The ken s thus the length of a TATAMI [woven rushmat], or twice the width of one, or the distance between two successive verticalsupports n a traditional building. It should be understood from this that themodular nature of Japanese architecture makes for uniformity n any locality inthe values o be placed on the basic counting units used in constructing buildings.(1983, pp.239-40)

Once the logs have been dried and seasoned, the kiri log is cut intoappropriate size boards that begin to resemble the shape of theinstrument (Figs 3 and 4).11 Each log will be cut slightly differently inorder to make as many instruments as possible with the best type of grainwithout any faults such as knots (cheaper instruments have suchblemishes filled in with an extra piece of wood). A soundboard (ko:'shell'; or kora: 'shell'; or arako: 'rough shell') that is taken from theoutside of the log is considered better than one taken from near thecentre because it is harder (the central part of the log is not usually usedfor soundboards). The planks of wood are given a name and classifiedhierarchically according to their position in the log from which they aretaken. A board from the outside of a log is called uwakko 'top board'), andthen names are used such as nibanko ('second board') and sanbanko ('thirdboard'), and so on (depending on the size of the log), until the centre, ikakko

('squid board') (see Kishibe 1982, p.1364). The maker then planes the

42



surface of the board n order to obtain unique horizontal and latitudinalcurves. At this stage (before the intricate aspects of manufacture arereached), he soundboard s put outside to season for between six monthsand three years.

The plank of wood used for the koto's oundboard s cut in two mainways: with swirling patterns (itame or mokume)12 n the upper surface ofthe soundboard, and straight ines (masame) unning along the length ofthe upper surface of the soundboard (Fig.4). An itame soundboard hasstraight ines on its two long sides, and a masame oundboard has swirlingpatterns on its two long sides. The former type is very common andconsidered the more usual grain pattern. The latter type, however, israther unusual and is given special aesthetic significance; hus its cost isalso increased. This type of grain s taken from a much larger ree becausethe width of the instrument's oundboard would have to be taken fromwithin the radius of the log so that the straight grain is possible on theupper surface (i.e. one of the instrument's ong sides faces the centre ofthe log while the other faces the outside). The widthwise curvature f anitame oundboard ollows the curvature of the tree (log) from which it iscut. An unusual grain pattern called tamamoku, hich consists of unevenswirling patterns that are very close together, is considered the mostexpensive. On such an instrument, the parts that are added to the body

(for example, the fixed bridges, shiburoku, ak leaf, legs, rims of soundholes, lips, and tongue) would normally include large amounts of ivory(sometimes olid) and all other decoration would be of the best quality.

The aesthetics of wood grain n Japan has been compared by Kikkawato the tone quality used in traditional singing: 'The Japanese tend toprefer a voice with sabi (a type of patina that develops with age) or ashibui astringent and refined) voice rather than a voice that is clear andpure. This probably parallels the Japanese aesthetic preference forcomplicated and knotty woodgrains over smooth fine-grained wood'(1986, p.6). This statement s supported by Hendry's observations hat:Many beautiful ontainers re made out of the abundant ood which is to befound n the forests f the Japanese rchipelago. aulownia, apanese edar, ndcypress are amongst he varieties used, and an important lement of theconstruction s the way n which the wood is cut. Masame s the term given o ahighly prized method nvolvingwood cut across he grain rom he centre f thetrunk nd plitby hand o reveal very ine straight rain. Boxes reated rom hiswood will not bend or shrink, and gifts presented n such a container reapparently sign of great espect. 1993,pp.45- 6)13

Shaping he BodyAfter the rough shell has been seasoned, the soundboard is furtherscooped out and shaped with a variety of tools to about 2 cm under thesoundboard (the thickness diminishes towards the sides) and about1.7 cm around each of the three sides (two long sides and tail). The head

43



end of the sound chamber of the instrument s scooped out so that atongue14 an be fixed at a later stage, and the tail of a cheaper nstrumentwould also be scooped out and filled with another piece of wood calledato-zuke 'filled end'). The latter type of koto s called namiko 'standardshell'), and a koto without its tail scooped out is called kuriko 'scooped-out shell'; i.e. scooping out the sound chamber, but leaving the end ofthe tail intact). On a namiko nstrument, he backboard, nce it is fixed tothe bottom of the soundboard, will have its sides visible from the sides ofthe instruments (called beta-zuke: 'plain'). On a more expensiveinstrument i.e. a kuriko see Fig.5), the join where the backboard andthe soundboard meet cannot be seen (called ome-zuke: bevelled').

The underneath of the soundboard f a more expensive nstrument hasgrooves called hori ('carvings'), which may vary in design from straightlines (sudareme),15 erringbone shape (ayasugi; ig.5), pairs of herring-bone carvings (komochi-ayasugi), o unique floral shapes (e.g. asagata-hori).16A cheaper instrument will not have such carvings, and moreexpensive nstruments will have carvings progressing ierarchically romsudareme o komochi-ayasugi. hile these carvings give the impression hatthey run the entire ength of the underneath of the soundboard, hey areusually only carved n the area underneath he backboard's ound holes.While supposedly mproving the sound of an instrument, these grooves

are also 'hidden' signifiers (i.e. not seen during everyday viewing), andonce observed (if the instrument has them) help in determining theoverall aesthetic and monetary value of the finished product.

Before the tongue is fixed at the opening at the head (Fig.6), a piece ofwood called seki-ita ('barrier board') is secured (Fig.5). This piece ofwood usually has several holes in it in order to help to emit sound fromthe sound chamber. Five cross-pieces called dobari or hari-ita; ne can beseen in Fig.5) are placed along the inside of the soundboard to helpprevent t from warping (occasionally, nother support s placed along the

length of the central part of the inside of the soundboard, lthough this israre). A strip of harder wood called ito-kaeshi 'string return'), usually ustover 1 cm wide, is fixed on the inside of the soundboard t the tail for thestrings to rest on so that they do not dig into the soft kiri wood. Thestrings are secured under the head by fastening hem to small pieces oftightly rolled paper. At the tail, the strings runs through the body, overthe tail, and back onto the fixed bridge, where they are tied in a knot tothemselves o that the pressure f the strings keeps them taut.

The backboard ura-ita), which is usually about 1 cm thick or more, isglued to the three sides of the underneath of the soundboard (or twowith a filled tail on a cheaper instrument). This board is made of onepiece of wood on a more expensive instrument and several pieces stucktogether for a cheaper nstrument. Like the soundboard, he backboardmay be made with either straight masame) r swirling grain (itame) n itsmain surface.

44



placed on an oak leaf (the leaf is not eaten). A thin strip (makura-zuno:'pillow horn', or ito-makura: string pillow'), which is usually made of

ivory, is placed on the fixed bridge at the head of the instrument for the

strings to rest on so they do not damage the bridge, but help the sound

pass into the sound chamber (older instruments (i.e. non-Yamada-koto)used a piece of cord or sometimes the strings rested directly on the woodof the fixed bridge at the head). In the outward-facing parts of theshiburoku, metal supports (eyelets) for the string holes, which usually havethe auspicious chrysanthemum shape, are fixed (Fig.8). These supportsare made outside of the koto workshops and are bought by the makers.Other metal parts include the inside of the front legs, which often have a

single protruding metal key in each that locks into the backboard. The

parts of the backboard in which the front legs are positioned are made ofhardwood and are inserted into the softer kiri (the two small square-shaped holes that are made in the backboard are shown in Fig.6).

The main material for some of the added parts is wood, which must beharder than kiri in order to withstand either the pressure of the strings or

protect the instrument at its extremities. From the more expensive to the

cheaper, different types of wood might include, for example: koboku (alsopronounced koki, using the same Chinese characters; high-quality red

sandalwood), tagayasan (ironwood), kokutan (ebony), shitan (red

sandalwood or rosewood), karin (Chinese quince), and sakura (cherry).Decorative edging (in the form of thin strips) is often applied to a more

expensive instrument (Figs 6-11), although on a koto considered to be ofan extremely high quality, sometimes only material of superlativestandard is used with such edging discarded. However, when edging is

used, it is usually in the form of thin strips of ivory, horn, whale bone,deer horn, or plastic (in a descending hierarchy according to aestheticvalue and price). More expensive edging takes the form of double linesor even astragal (slightly raised wood on the edges). The tongue of a

more expensive koto often has a lacquer decoration using the traditionaltechnique of makie (Fig. 11), which uses gold and silver paint. Traditionalnature scenes, typical designs found on this decorative plaque, add to theinstrument's traditional status and give it an auspicious visual content (thecrane shown in Fig. 11 is a symbol of longevity with a life of 1,000 years).Other symbols of longevity such as the tortoise (10,000 years) and

evergreens are also common motives on 'traditional'Japanese objects.The oak leaf on the slightly curved tail (historical instruments did not

have such a sharp curve) has brocade placed on it on which the stringsrest. The head cover, which protects the head and is usually taken offduring performances of high standard, is made with an identical brocadeto that on the tail (usually a traditional pattern with symbolic meaning).Fig. 1 shows the head cover left on during a lesson. The brocade at the tailis usually comprised of several layers which add to the instrument'saesthetic appearance. For example, an instrument of average quality may

46



have three visible layers of brocade, while a better quality koto may havefive (Fig.9). Such odd-number divisions are typical of Japanesenumerology, where, for example, the numbers 7, 5, and 3 are givenauspicious significance. Important festivals are held on the third day ofthe third month (girl's festival: Hina-matsuri), the fifth day of the fifthmonth (children's day: Kodomo-no-hi), and the seventh day of the seventhmonth (star festival: Tanabata). An extension to these odd-number dates isSeptember 9 (the day of the chrysanthemum), hence reinforcing thesignificance of this flower, as indicated earlier, in Japanese culture.Another significant feature concerning numbers is found with thefrequent grouping of the instrument's strings at the tail extremity intoequidistant groups of three and five (Fig.9). Layering is also found inother areas

ofJapanese culture,as

Hendrynotes:

Probably he most extreme Japanese xample of the literal 'wrapping' of the bodyis a set of garments known as the juinihitoe, worn by court ladies of the Heianperiod (ninth-twelfth centuries). The Japanese word means twelve layers, but inits most elaborate form could describe a garment composed of up to twentydistinct kimonos, each chosen carefully to create together an aestheticallypleasing combination of contrasts t the neck and sleeve.... These garments canstill be seen in museums, but imperial weddings are probably he only occasionsformal enough for such sumptuous attire actually o be worn. (1993, p.75)

Hendry uses this example as a way of showing how Japanese society islayered (or 'wrapped'), where the layering of physical objects very oftenreflects a similar social layering. Hendry uses the metaphor 'wrapping' asa way of showing both the physical and social layers of the Japanesesocio-cultural whole, which, when 'unwrapped', can be understoodboth in terms of its cultural objects and social meaning.

AESTHETICS AND CLASSIFICATIONThe finished koto is classified aesthetically according to the type of grainon its soundboard and backboard, if the tail of the soundboard is scoopedout or not, if the backboard is bevelled or not, the types of materials usedfor the additional parts, and the amount and quantity of makie applied tothe lips and tongue.21 Generally, apart from the bipartite divisionsbetween masame and itame, kuriko and namiko, and beta-zuke and tome-zuke, several other grades of koto are classified. The koto is given a uniquename

throughoutthe later

partof the construction

process that identifiesthe quality that it is going to have.22The manufacturers of FHSKK, like most koto makers, construct their

instruments according to different grades, although there are no commonguidelines for the co-operative to follow.23 For example, one of thelargest manufacturers of FHSKK, Ogawa Gakki Seiz6 (1990-3, pp. 3-5;visited May 1994; personal communication May 1994), lists thirteen

47



grades of standard koto (listed in Table 2), while Oda Koto Seisaku-shomakes eight (personal communication, September 1994);24 Shinwa

Kingaku makes six (personal communication, September 1994);25Mishima Gakki five grades (personal communication, September1994);26 and Makimoto Gakki gives eight main grades according to thematerial on the koto's tail (n.d.; visited July 1990 and May 1994),although several subdivisions - just like the examples shown above - are

given in their catalogue according to the quality of the materials used.27Abbreviated names are usually used verbally while extended names are

given in catalogues. Disregarding differences in names, the examplesshown in Table 2 help to illustrate the 'additive' way that materials and

techniques of manufacture are used hierarchically in order to classify theinstrument

accordingto aesthetic

principles (perhaps reflectinghierarchical concepts of Japanese society where one's elders are alwaysrespected and highly regarded; see Nakane 1984 for a study of verticaland linear relationships in Japanese society).

CONCLUSION

A hierarchy of instrument types is found throughout the manufacturingprocess of the koto. Certain grades of koto are determined by the

durability of some of the materials used (e.g. the strength of the kirisoundboard according to the place in the log from which it was taken, orthe strength of the materials used for the added parts such as fixed

bridges), or the amount of time spent by the maker constructing theinstrument (for example, the method of scooping out the soundboard,types of grooves - if any - under the soundboard, or the time spentadorning the mouth and lips with makie). Some grades of koto are givenextra significance by using materials and decoration that have eitheraesthetic or symbolic importance in the culture as a whole (for example,ivory, grooves under the soundboard, layers of brocade on the tail,chrysanthemum-shaped string-hole reinforcements, oak leaf, cat's paws,and edging). In addition, the subject matter of some applied decorationwill also add a layer of meaning to the finished object. The use of, for

example, makie subjects on the tongue and lips that symbolise longevityhelps to add to the instrument's place in Japanese culture as a traditional

Japanese object. Throughout the construction process, the aesthetic

quality of the koto's materials is influenced by such features as their

availability, durability, quantity,cost, and symbolic significance. Koto are

made in grades (layers) that show several hierarchical layers of materialsand craftsmanship on the one hand, and numerous levels of significationon the other hand depending on how much is known or understoodabout the instrument.

An analysis of the manufacture of the koto in terms of the form of the

instrument, the process of construction, and cultural considerations

48



concerning the unfinished and finished product, therefore, helps in

understanding not only the technical aspects of the instrument's form,but also sociological ones that help to decide exactly why the instrumentshould be made as it is. Music making may be one of the primaryfunctions of the finished form of the

koto,but the fact that this

objectconsists of many specific parts that were manufactured by people for

people, constitutes a fundamental reason for taking into consideration an

approach that looks at the processes involved in instrument constructionas a means of attempting to understand fully the place of the koto in Japantoday.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank Dr David Hughes and Dr David Rycroft for theirinvaluable comments on earlier versions of this article. Photographacknowledgments: ig.l: Matsuzaki Shusetsu (koto) and her teacher, NakagawaShuisui July 1990); Figs 3-7: Makimoto Gakki (koto manufacturer) July 1990);Figs 8-10: koto belonging to Matsuzaki Shusetsu; Fig. l: koto belonging toDartington College of Arts (1988). All photographs were taken by the author andfirst used in his doctoral hesis (1993).

FIG. I. Koto (left: Matsuzaki Shusetsu) and shamisen during esson(the teacher, Nakagawa Shisui, is on the right).

49



1

23 ,56 711

I (a) Body I1

it 17 11i

t19 18 9

?I*(b) View offront (m

22

i (c) Backboard^g V^



KEY to FIG. 2a) Body

1. Tail (ryi-bi: 'dragon's tail'; or bibu 'tail part')2. Head.

Ryu-to ('dragon's head'), ryt-zu ('dragon's head'),or tobu

('head part'). Between the right fixed bridge and the far right end iscalled ryu-gaku ('dragon's forehead'). The part of the instrumentbetween the side and the closest hole is called ryu-ken ('dragon'seyelids')

3. Brocade4. Coils of strings5. Oak leaf (kashiwaba r kashiwagata)6. Fixed bridge at tail. Ryu-kaku ('dragon's horn'), un-kaku ('cloud

horn'), or kaku ('horn')7. Strings8. Movable bridge for the 1st string (ji or koto-ji)9. Soundboard. Ryil-ko ('dragon's back') or ko ('back')

10. Fixed bridge at head. Rytu-kaku 'dragon's horn') or kaku ('horn')11. Strings holes. Ryui-gan 'dragon's eyes')12. Raised nut13. Front legs. Rytu-de ('dragon's hands'), ryit-shu ('dragon's forelegs'),

mae-ashi ('front feet'), kami-ashi ('upper feet'), neko-ashi ('cat's paws'),or ashi ('feet')

14. Movable bridge for the 13th string (ji or koto-ji)15. Side of soundboard (iso: 'beach'). The part towards the head is called

ryt7-kyo 'dragon's cheek')16. Side of backboard17. Side of the border of the fixed bridge (sagari)18. Tail legs (side). Mluko-ashi ('opposite legs')19. Tail legs (rear). Ryui-shi ('dragon's legs'), ato-ashi ('back legs'), shimo-

ashi ('back legs'), ashi ('legs'), ryii-de ('dragon's hands'), ushiro-ashi('back legs'), or mukade-ashi ('centipede legs')

b) View offront (mouth)

20. Tongue. Ryti-zetsu ('dragon's tongue') or zetsu ('tongue')21. Lips. Ryut-shin 'dragon's lips')

c) Backboard (ryu-fitku: dragon's belly'; or rytu-hai:'dragon's ack')22. Sound holes (ryt-ku: 'dragon's mouth'). The sound hole under the

head is sometimes called rytl-ko ('dragon's mouth') or kuchi-mae('front mouth')

23. Holes for front legs24. Supports for front legs

51



FIG. 3. Initial stage of cutting planks ofkirifor the koto's soundboard.

FIG. 4. Soundboardsforjushichigen (left;'seventeen-string oto')and koto (itame grainin centre; masame grainto right).

52



FIG. 5. Inside of koto soundboard (under he head). Ayasugi carvings ndsupports d6bari to left and seki-ita to right.

FIG. 6. Tongue beingfitted o the mouth of a koto. Two holesforfront egsand sound hole under he head.

53



FIG. 7. Sagari beingfitted to the side of a koto. Shiburoku and kashiwagata.

FIG. 8. Upper surface f a koto's head showingfixed bridge,metal string hole supports, trings, hiburoku, makura-zuno,

and decorative edging (double ines).

54



FIG. 9. Upper urface f a koto 's tail showingfixed ridge, metal tring olesupports, trings} wocircles f string nds, hiburoku, decorative dging

(double ines),kashiwaba) nd brocade.

FIG. I O. Side of a koto 's tail showing ixed bridge} hiburoku, agari, trings,metal tring ole upports, wocircles f string nds, decorati1vedging

(double ines; ingle on tail eg)) and side of tail egs.

55



FIG. I I. Mouth of a koto showing makie on tongue (showing rane), ips,decorative dging (single ines; double on inside edge of lips),

front legs, ixed bridge, and strings.

TABLE 1Curvature and height of koto*

a: Tail extremityb: Fixed bridge at tailc: 40-70 cm from head a b c d ed: Fixed bridge at heade: Head extremity

Length ofwidthwise curve across 24.6 25.1 27 26.5 26.1soundboard

Height from ground to top of 9.5 11.2 18.3 17.7 16.8soundboard (with front and back legs)

Height from ground to bottom of 1.9 3.8 9 9.5 9.2backboard (with front and back legs)

Thickness of long sides (including 3.8 3.9 4.8 4.3 4.1

soundboard and backboard)* Adapted fromJohnson (1993, p.142). These measurements (in centimetres) give theapproximate dimensions of a typical present-day Yamada-koto this particularinstrument belongs to the author and was purchased n 1988 from Yamaziki Kazuo ofHokkaido; it is basically identical to any of the koto made by FHSKK). Most otherkoto, including the gakuso (albeit with more decoration such as lacquer, tortoiseshell,and inlay), would have a similar form.

56



TABLE 2

Name Features materials or added parts, and decor

Satsuki beta-karin-maki*['May, plain, Chinese quince wrap']

Yamada-ichigo eta-karin maki['Yamada o.1, plain, Chinese quince wrap']

Yamada-nigo uchizuno-karin-maki [' Yamada

no.2,mouth and

horns,Chinese

quince wrap']Yamada-nigo uchizuno-shitan-maki* ' Yamadano.2, mouth and horns, red sandalwood rrosewood wrap']as above*

as above

as above

Yamada-sango an-uwazuno-shitan-maki*

['Yamada o.3, half on the horns, redsandalwood r rosewood wrap']as above, kotobuki-satsuki 'Celebratory May']as aboveU1w^

Chinese quince; beta-zuke backboard h(in centre of fixed bridge at head); edginhigh-quality ed sandalwood r other betof a higher quality; no front egs or makisurface of soundboard

as above, but with edging on front egs

as above, but with edging on inward-facand two side

edgesof the four ends of the

red sandalwood r rosewood; as above; wi

as above; with edging on front egsas above; average qualityas above; better qualityas above, but with edging around all of th

each side of the fixed bridges along the csagari nd corner side of front egsas above

as above; average quality



o Table 2 continued

Name Features materialsfor dded arts, nd deco

as aboveas above

Yamada-yongo wazuno-koki-maki* 'Yamadano.4, on the horns, high-quality edsandalwood wrap']as above

as above

Yamada-gogoinkuchi-koki-maki

'Yamada

no.5, gold mouth, high-quality edsandalwood wrap']as above

Yamada-rokugo iju-maki-hone-maki-kinkuchi-koki-maki 'Yamada o.6, bone wrap, goldmouth, high-quality ed sandalwood wrap']

Yamada-nanago uriko-tama-buchi-koki-maki[' Yamada o.7, scooped-out shell, astragal,

high-quality ed sandalwood wrap']

as above

as above; medium quality; high-qualityas above; better qualityas above, but with edging around oak leacheaper nstruments

as above; average qualityas above; better qualityas above, but with makie round nner pa

as above; better qualityas above, but using bone for the edging (

kuriko oundboard backboard ot showislightly raised dging (tama-buchi: astrag

on shiburoku nd nside and outside rims obridges or oak leaf); outline of oak leaf (klips; makura-zuno

better quality



Yamada-hachigo uriko-tama-buchi-koki-maki['Yamada o.8, scooped-out shell, astragal,high-quality ed sandalwood wrap']

Yamada-kyugoJuriko-tama-buchi-koki-maki['Yamada o.9, scooped-out shell, astragal,high-quality ed sandalwood wrap']

Yamada-jugo uriko-fuku-tama-buchi-ko5ki-maki[' Yamada o.10, scooped-out shell, doubleastragal, igh-quality ed sandalwood wrap']

Yamada-juichigo uriko-tama-buchi-zoge-iri-koki-maki 'Yamada o.11, scooped-out shell,astragal with ivory, high-quality edsandalwood wrap']

Yamada-juichigo asame-zoge-tama-buchi-maki[' Yamada o.11, straight-grain nsoundboard, vory astragal rap']

Yamada-junigo uriko-z6ge-tama-buchi-maki['Yamada o.12, scooped-out shell, ivoryastragal rap']

Yamada-jusango uriko-sozoge-tama-buchi-maki['Yamada o.13, scooped-out shell, all ivoryastragal rap']

as above, but with ivory tongue

as above, but with ivory ips

as above, but with double astragal

as above, but with an added ine of ivory(including ront eet - all three sides an

as above; masame straight ines) soundboand back egs; double vory astragal

as above; tame soundboard

as above, but all added parts are made of i

v * Recommended as a teaching nstrument. Ogawa gakki seiz6, 1990-3, pp.2-5.)D



NOTES

1 The koto has been extensively documented in English by Adriaansz (1973 and

1984) andJohnson (1993).2

The six-string long zither called wagon (or Yamato-goto: Japanese koto [zither]';the term koto often changes to goto in the second element of compounds) is

usually understood as being unique to Japan rather than being introduced likethe koto. Wagon-like zithers, which are today often called mokusei-goto 'woodenkoto'), have been found in Japan from at least the J6mon era (to 200 B.C.), when

they usually had 2 strings, and the Yayoi era (200 B.C. - A.D. 250), when

they usually had 5 or 6 strings (see Hiroshima Kenritsu Rekishi Hakubutsukan

1994, pp.17, 34-5; Saga Kenritsu Hakubutsukan 1994, pp.21-8; and Hughes1988).

3Tanabe and Hirano (1982, p.1350) comment that in the Nara era (710-794)the koto was constructed from several pieces of wood in the shape of a box. A kotothat is dated A.D. 884 is still preserved in Kasuga-taisha (Kasuga shrine) in Nara

city. This instrument has its whole upper surface, including the entiresoundboard, covered with lacquered decoration (makie; later instrumentsexcluded the upper part of the soundboard - where the movable bridges sit -from such decoration). For several further discussions of koto manufacture

(historical and present-day), see, for example, Adriaansz (1973; 1984), Ando

(1986), Chiujo and Hotta (1985), Hirata (1994), Johnson (1993), Kikkawa (1992),Kishibe (1982), Matsuda (1992), Malm (1959), and Tanabe and Hirano (1982).

(Tanabe and Hirano 1982 and Kishibe 1982 are reproduced almost exactly inHirano, Kamisang6 and Gam6 1989.)

4 See Johnson (1993) for an analysis of the form, function and meaning of thekoto in relation to the instrument, its transmission and its music.

5Yamaguchi (1994, p.60) provides an introduction to the history of the koto in

Fukuyama.6 Silk strings are still often found on the gakuso and rarely on the everyday koto.

Tsuge (1978, pp.16-7) notes the importance given to silk in Japan and Asia inconnection with musical instruments (including the koto).

7Nylon was an early twentieth-century alternative for weaker silk strings,although it was replaced by tetron in the 1950s, which is the usual material forthe strings today. Tetron was developed in the United Kingdom in the 1950s.

8 The importance given to kiri in Japan is also found in a piece of music for thekoto in the historical kumiuta form (suites of songs) in the song text by Yatsuhashi

Kengyo (1614-85), 'Kiritsubo' ('The Paulownia Court'), where the first verserefers to passages from the tenth-century novel by Murasaki Shikibu called GenjiMonogatari The Tale of Genji) (see Tsuge 1983, p.16).

9Tsuda (1983, pp.166-7) compares her Ikuta-koto and Yamada-koto, where theformer is about 24.1 cm wide at the head and 22.9 cm at the tail. These

instruments are 176.5 cm and 182.5 cm long respectively.0See also Yoshida (1969, p.68), who notes that the ken of Ky6to (kyoma) is6.5 shaku, and the ken of T6ky6 and elsewhere (inakama) s 6 shaku.

1See Tanabe and Hirano (1982, pp.1350-1) and Adriaansz (1973, p.29) forreference to an historical Chinese symbolism concerning the shape of the koto'ssoundboard and the cosmos.

12The term mokume s also used for woodgrain in general.

60



13Coaldrake (1990) discusses carpentry in Japan in general, although noreferences to the koto are made.

14The longer, lower part of the tongue of a Yamada-koto as a flat plaque that is

angled slightly inward so that the lower part of it is more visible than the

top part. The tongue of a non-Yamada-koto has equidistant sides and pointsoutwards.15The term sudareme efers to traditional Japanese reed blinds called sudare. The

suffix me means 'grain'.16The shamisen too has grooves that are often identical to the koto's. Malm

(1986) discusses similar grooves on the kotsuzumi (hourglass drum). Such groovesare typical geometric patterns of Japanese design; Lee (1981, pp.170-2), for

example, illustrates 23 similar designs on textiles.17 Yamada-koto and non-Yamada-koto have sound holes of a different shape.

While the former have slightly squashed circles at the head and near semi-circular

shapes at the tail, the latter usually have a squashed keyhole shape at the head andan elaborated semi-circular design at the tail.

18 I have called these bridges 'fixed' primarily because they are usually notremoved, unlike the individual movable bridges under each string which may bemoved during (for tuning purposes), or removed after, performance. The 'fixed'bridges can, however, be removed and replaced quite easily by removing thestrings and knocking them out, although this is very rare unless a repair isnecessary. The movable bridges come in three sizes: a standard size used for mostof the strings; a small one for low tunings (usually the second string, countingtowards the player); and one with an added support on it for the thirteenth string(closest to the performer) to stop it falling over or off. The pattern that themovable bridges form along the soundboard has been compared to that of flyinggeese (see Tsuge 1983, p.5; Ackermann 1990, p.346; see also the koto in thebackground of Fig. 1).

19The koto has many of its structural features named after the Japanese mythicalrytu or tatsu or doragon). This creature is usually translated into English as 'dragon'for convenience, as indeed the Japanese word doragon mplies, which is a directborrowing of its English equivalent. Very often, the word ryt is not used as a

prefix, leavingthe

general zoomorphicterm without direct reference to the

mythical creature.20 As Volker (1950, p.29) notes, the centipede is consecrated to Bishamon (god

of prosperity and one of the seven gods of good luck - Shichi Fukujin), whichmay be seen as adding to the instrument's auspicious nomenclature.

21Makie on the mouth costs between 1,000 and 20,000 yen, and for a naga-isoinstrument that has such decoration along its two long sides and sometimes onthe top surface of the head and tail as well, 80,000-300,000 yen (WatanabeMakie, personal communication, September 1994).

22 Most other traditional Japanese musical instruments are similarly classified,especially the jushichigen and other tagenso. The shamisen and kokyu are gradedaccording to the type of wood that is used for the neck: karin for cheaperinstruments, shitan for average instruments, and kOki for better qualityinstruments. All of these instruments are also classified according to the grooves(if any) in the sound chamber.

23And6 (1986, p.17) has noted six grades of koto: beta ('plain'), kakumaki('wrapped horns'), han-uwa ('half horns') (also called han-uwazuno: 'half on the

61



horns'), uwazuno ('on the horns'), kinkuchi ('gold mouth'), and kurik3 ('scoopedout shell'); and Chujo and Hotta (1985, pp.54-8) seven: beta, kakumaki, han-uwazuno (also called han-uwa), uwazuno, sozuno ('all the horns'), zoge-tsutsumi('ivory wrapped'), and kinkuchi.

24 Ichigo semikiri (literally 'no.1, see all the back', or 'no.1, cheap back'); nigikuchi-zuno ('no.2, mouth and horns'); sango han-uwazuno ('no.3, half on the

horns'); yongb uwazuno ('no.4, on the horns'); gogo kinkuchi ('no.5, gold mouth');rokugo niju ('no.6, double'); nanago han-tama-buchi 'no.7, half astragal'); hachigotama-buchi 'no.8, astragal').

25Ichig3 beta ('no.1, plain'), nigb kuchi-zuno (kakumaki) ('no.2, mouth and horns'or 'wrapped horns'), sango han-uwazuno ('no.3, half on the horns'), yongo uwazuno

('no.4, on the horns'), gogb kinkuchi ('no.5, gold mouth'), rokugo nijtu-maki 'no.6,double wrap'), and kurikb-tama-buchi-maki 'scooped-out shell, astragal, wrap').

26

Ichigokarin-beta-maki

'no.1, plain,Chinese

quince, wrap'), nigbshitan-kuchi-

zuno ('no.2, red sandalwood, mouth and horns'), sangb shitan-han-uwa ('no.3, red

sandalwood, half on [the horns]'), yongo uwazuno ('no.4, on the horns'), gogokinkuchi 'no.5, gold mouth'), and kuriko ('scooped-out shell').

27Beta-maki ('plainly wrapped'), kuchi-zuno-maki ('wrapped mouth and horns';Fig. 1), han-uwazuno-maki ('half-wrapped on the horns'), uwazuno-maki ('wrappedon the horns'), kbki-tama-buchi-maki 'high-quality red sandalwood, astragalwrap'), zige-iri-k5ki-tama-buchi-maki 'ivory and high-quality red sandalwood,astragal wrap'; similar to the instrument in Fig.7), zoge-sukashi-tama-buchi-maki('ivory astragal wrap'), and zogan-iri-zoge-tama-buchi-maki 'ivory inlay and astragalwrap').

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ackermann, Peter, Kumiuta: Traditional ongsfor Certificates; A Study of their Textsand Implications Bern: Peter Lang, 1990).

Adriaansz, Willem, The Kumiuta and Danmono Traditions ofJapanese Koto Music

(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973).

Adriaansz, Willem, 'Koto', in The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments, d.

Stanley Sadie (London: Macmillan, 1984), vol.II, pp.465-71.

And6 Masateru, Ikuta-ryut o S6kyoku [Ikuta Tradition Koto Music], ed. KikkawaEishi (T6ky6: K6dan-sha, 1986). [In Japanese]

Chij6 Nobuyuki and Hotta Toshiko, Ikuta-ry&u ikyoku to Jiuta Sangen [IkutaTradition Koto and iuta Shamisen Music] (Tokyo: Naka Shuppan Purodakushon,1985). [In Japanese]

Coaldrake, William H., The Way of the Carpenter: Tools and Japanese Architecture

(New York: Weatherhill, 1990).

DeVale, Sue Carole, 'Musical Instruments and Ritual: A Systematic Approach',Journal of the American Musical Instrument Society XIV (1988), pp.126-60.

Falconer, Elizabeth, 'A New Decade for H6gaku', Japan Quarterly XXXVII

(1990), no.4, pp.468-78.

62



Hendry, Joy, Wrapping Culture: Politeness, Presentation and Power in Japan and otherSocieties Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993).Hirano Kenji, Kamisang6 Yuko, and Gamo Satoaki, editorial supervisors, NihonOngaku Daijiten [Dictionary ofJapanese Music] (Tokyo: Heibon-sha, 1989). [In

Japanese]Hirata Tsutomu, 'Fukuyama Koto no Dekiru Made [The Manufacturing Processof Fukuyama Koto]', in Nihon Koto Hajime: Fukuyama Koto e no Nagare [TheBeginnings of the Japanese Koto: The Transmission of Fukuyama Koto], ed.Hiroshima Kenritsu Rekishi Hakubutsukan (Fukuyama: Hiroshima KenritsuRekishi Hakubutsukan, 1994), pp.67-73. [InJapanese]Hiroshima Kenritsu Rekishi Hakubutsukan, ed., Nihon Koto Hajime: FukuyamaKoto e no Nagare [The Beginnings of the Japanese Koto: The Transmission ofFukuyama Koto] (Fukuyama: Hiroshima Kenritsu Rekishi Hakubutsukan, 1994).

[In Japanese]Hughes, David W., 'Music Archaeology of Japan: Data and Interpretation', inThe Archaeology of Early Music Cultures, ed. Ellen Hickmann and David W.Hughes (Bonn: Verlag fir Systematische Musikwissenschaft, 1988), pp.55- 87.

Johnson, Henry M., The Symbolism of the Koto: An Ethnomusicology of theForm and Function of a Traditional Japanese Musical Instrument (D.Phil thesis,University of Oxford, 1993).Kikkawa Eishi, 'The Musical Sense of the Japanese - The Wind in the Pines,The Sounds of Insects, Ashirai', Aesthetics (The Japanese Society or Aesthetics) II(1986), pp.1-9.Kikkawa Eishi, editorial supervisor, Nihon no Gakki [apanese Musical Instru-ments], ed. Kojima Tomiko, Fujii Tomoaki and Miyazaki Mayumi (Tokyo:Toky6 Shoseki, 1992). [InJapanese]Kishibe Shigeo, 'Seisaku [Manufacture]', in Ongaku Daijiten [Dictionary ofMusic], ed. Shimonaka Kunihiko (Tokyo: Heibon-sha, 1982), s.v. 'S6', vol. 3,pp. 1364- 5. [In Japanese]

Lee, Sherman E., The Genius ofJapanese Design (Tokyo: Kodansha International,1981).

Makimoto Gakki, Koto/Shamisen (Fukuyama and Tokyo: Makimoto Gakki,n.d.). [Catalogue; inJapanese]

Malm, William P., Japanese Music and Musical Instruments (Rutland, Vermont:Charles E. Tuttle, 1959).

Malm, William P., Six Hidden Views ofJapanese Music (London: University ofCalifornia Press, 1986).Matsuda Akira, Gakki no iten (Koto [Koto]) [Dictionary of Musical Instruments(Koto [Koto])], ed. Tanimura K6 (Tokyo: T6ky6 Ongaku-sha, 1992). [In Japanese]Naganishi A., 'Koto', in Hiroshima-ken Dai-Hyakkajiten (jokan) [Encyclopaedia ofHiroshima Prefecture (vol.1)] (Hiroshima: Chigoku Shinbun-sha, 1982), vol.1,pp.550. [InJapanese]Nakane Chie,Japanese Society (Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1984).Newman, Alex R. and Egerton Ryerson, Japanese Art: A Collector's Guide(London: G. Bell and Sons, 1964).

63



Ogawa Gakki Seizd, Ogawa no Wagakki/So-giri Tansu Sogo Katarogu [OgawaJapanese Musical Instruments/Kiri Drawers General Catalogue] (Fukuyama:Ogawa Gakki Seiz6, 1990-3). [In Japanese]

Saga Kenritsu Hakubutsukan, ed.,Jidai o Kanadeta Gakki: Oto no Musubu Sekai

[Played Musical Instruments from Antiquity] (Saga: Saga KenritsuHakubutsukan, 1994). [In Japanese]Tanabe Hisao and Hirano Kenji , 'Nihon no S6 [The Japanese So ]', in OngakuDaijiten [Dictionary of Music], ed. Shimonaka Kunihiko (Tokyo: Heibon-sha,1982), s.v. 'S6', vol.3, pp.1349-51. [In Japanese]Tsuda Michiko, So no Kiso Chishiki [Fundamental Knowledge on the So] (Tokyo:Ongaku no Tomo-sha, 1983). [In Japanese]

Tsuge Gen'ichi, 'Bamboo, Silk, Dragon and Phoenix: Symbolism in the MusicalInstruments of Asia', The World of Music XX (1978), no.3, pp.10-19.

Tsuge Gen'ichi, compiler and trans., Anthology of Sokyoku and Jiuta Song Texts,with Anthony H. Chambers, Carl Sesar, David A. Titus and Richard K. Winslow Jr.Foreword by David P. McAllester (Tokyo: Academia Music, 1983).

Volker, T., The Animal in Far Eastern Art: and Especially in the Art of the JapaneseNetsuke, with References o Chinese Origins, Traditions, Legends, and Art (Leiden:Brill, 1950).

Webb, Herschel, 'Weights and Measures', in Kodansha Encyclopedia ofJapan, ed.Itasaka Gen (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1983), vol. 8, pp.239-40.

YamaguchiOsamu, 'Nihon Koto

Hajime:Fukuyama Koto e no Nagare [The

Beginnings of the Japanese Koto: the Transmission of Fukuyama Koto]', inHiroshima Kenritsu Rekishi Hakubutsukan, ed., Nihon Koto Hajime: FukuyamaKoto e no Nagare [The Beginnings of the Japanese Koto: the Transmission of

Fukuyama Koto] (Fukuyama: Hiroshima Kenritsu Rekishi Hakubutsukan, 1994),pp.51-66. [In Japanese]Yoshida Tetsuro, TheJapanese House and Garden, trans. Marcus G. Sims, Epilogueby Udo Kultermann (London: Pall Mall Press, 1969).

INTERVIEWS AND PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS

Fukuyama Sh6k6 Kaigi-sho (Fukuyama Chamber of Commerce and Industry);personal communication, October 1994.

Makimoto Gakki (FHSKK koto manufacturer); visited July 1990; May 1994.

Mishima Gakki (FHSKK koto manufacturer); personal communication,

September 1994.

Oda Koto Seisaku-sho (FHSKK koto manufacturer); personal communication,

September 1994.

Ogawa Gakki Seiz6 (FHSKK koto manufacturer); visited May 1994; personalcommunication, May 1994.

Shinwa Kingaku (FHSKK koto manufacturer); personal communication, September1994.

Watanabe Makie (FHSKK makie specialist); personal communication, September1994.

johnson - koto manufacture

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