jill carlivati

8/18/2019 Jill Carlivati

1/64

Adolescent Attachment

Running Head: ADOLESCENT ATTACHMENT

Adolescent Attachment, Peer Relationshis, and School Success:

Predictor, Mediator, and Moderator Relations

!ill Carli"ati

Distinguished Ma#ors Thesis

$ni"ersit% o& 'irginia

Aril, ())*

Ad"isor: Dr+ !oseh P+ AllenSecond Reader: Dr+ Nanc% S+ ein&ield

*


2/64


Ac-no.ledgements

Man% indi"iduals heled ma-e the .riting o& m% thesis a re.arding learning

e/erience+ Through their unsel&ish suort, 0 met each ro#ect challenge con&identl% as 0

gained ne. insights into 1oth adolescent de"eloment and research methodolog%+

0 than- Dr+ !oseh P+ Allen not onl% &or his ongoing guidance .ith the ro#ect, 1ut

also &or his leadershi .ith the 'irginia Stud% o& Teens and 2amilies, .hich ro"ided the

&rame.or- &or m% stud%+ M% &re3uent discussions .ith Dr+ Allen on underl%ing theor%

and ro#ect design ro"ed in"alua1le+ His direction and suort ro"ided clarit%,

disciline, and meaning to m% .or-+

Similarl%, 0 e/ress dee areciation to Dr+ Nanc% S+ ein&ield, not onl% &or

ser"ing as m% second reader, 1ut also &or her instruction on the nature o& attachment+ Her

e/ertise in this area, as .ell as her .illingness to share this -no.ledge, enhanced m%

understanding o& adolescent attachment and o&&ered me ne. insights+

Additionall%, 0 e/tend a sincere than-4%ou to Heather Tencer &or ser"ing as m%

graduate ad"isor+ Her assistance .ith data anal%sis and the o1ser"ations she made on

earl% "ersions o& the aer .ere articularl% "alua1le+

Other mem1ers o& Dr+ Allen5s la1, articularl% Penn% Marsh, 2elicia Hall, and

Mar%&rances Porter .ere also "er% hel&ul to me as 0 ursued m% .or-+ 0 sincerel%

areciate their suort .ith SAS rogramming and school data anal%sis+

2inall%, to m% &amil%, than- %ou &or &irst teaching me the imortance o& arent4

child relationshis+

(


3/64


A1stract

6ecause o& the in&luences o& school success on di"erse areas o& de"eloment and the

emiricall% suggested connections among adolescent attachment, eer relations, and

academic &actors, the relationshis among these constructs .ere in"estigated+ A samle

o& *78 ninth and tenth graders at ris- &or academic di&&iculties articiated in the stud%+

0ndeendent redicti"e lin-s 1et.een attachment and school &actors, attachment and eer

&actors, and eer and school &actors .ere anal%9ed+ The ossi1ilit% o& eer &actors

ser"ing as a mediator o& the relation 1et.een attachment and school &actors .as

considered+ 2inall%, interactions 1et.een attachment and eer &actors in redicting

school satis&action and er&ormance .ere e/amined+ 0ndeendent lin-s among the three

constructs, as .ell as some mediated and moderated e&&ects o& eer relationshis, .ere

suorted+ Results suggest that a model considering 1oth attachment and eer

relationshi &actors ma% 1est e/lain teenagers5 satis&action .ith school and er&ormance

in the academic en"ironment+


4/64


Adolescent Attachment, Peer Relationshis, and School Success:

Predictor, Mediator, and Moderator Relations

Current research suggests that school er&ormance correlates .ith 3ualit% o& one5s

interersonal relationshis and additional de"elomental outcomes+ Academic &ailure, as

assessed 1% the &re3uenc% o& ro1lems .ith eers and di&&icult% .ith school .or-, has a

great imact on relationshis in the home, as students .ho ha"e had a 1ad da% at school

are more li-el% to disla% a"ersi"e 1eha"ior to.ards their arents that e"ening ;Reetti,

*


5/64


Poor school er&ormance also has conse3uences on h%sical health+ Academic

achie"ement has 1een sho.n to in&luence the association 1et.een the arent4child

relationshi and a teenager5s in"ol"ement in a regnanc% ;Scaramell, Conger, Simons, >

hit1ec-, *


6/64


articular, the adult4child, or more seci&icall% the arent4child, relationshi must 1e

targeted to success&ull% ad"ance academicall% at4ris- teenagers ;illiam T+ rant

2oundation, *


7/64


the conte/t o& the arent4caregi"er relationshi .ill continue to in&luence de"eloment

outside o& this seci&ic relationshi ;Srou&e > aters, *


8/64


Armsden and reen1erg ;*

Land, *


9/64


these se"erel% hinder eer relationshis ;Allen > Land, *

Roo-, * Cassid%, * Land, *


10/64


ith the onset o& adolescence, indi"iduals ha"e reached a le"el o& cogniti"e

de"eloment ad"anced enough that the% ma% generali9e &rom their ast relationshis and

use a1stract thin-ing rocesses to allo. one model o& attachment organi9ation to emerge

&rom their ast e/eriences ;Allen > Land, *


11/64


6e&ore it is ossi1le to anal%9e the connections 1et.een attachment and school

er&ormance in adolescence, it is necessar% to &urther clari&% the construct o& adolescent

attachment and ho. this construct a&&ects teenagers in the classroom en"ironment+ As

adolescents transition to the &ormal oerations stage o& cogniti"e de"eloment,

indi"iduals ma% 1egin to anal%9e all o& their relationshis ;&or e/amle, those .ith eers

or teachers= and ma% e"en alter their internal .or-ing models ;Allen > Land, *


12/64


teachers+ That is, 6o.l1% ;* Sceer%, *


13/64


ersonal organi9ation o& attachment relationshis in general 1ecomes the crucial de&ining

asect o& attachment+

0t is ossi1le that attachment organi9ation is onl% meaning&ul in the conte/t o& an

attachment relationshi ;Allen > Land, *


14/64


academic er&ormance, as children are distracted &rom their studies 1% interersonal

ro1lems+

An increasing 1od% o& research suggests that arental relationshi &actors are

correlated .ith ro1lems in the school setting+ At age &our, children .ho disla% high

le"els o& mother4child a&&ect and intimac% are rated 1% teachers as ha"ing greater

academic cometenc%, 1etter .or- ha1its, and &e.er 1eha"ior ro1lems in the classroom+

2urthermore, mother4child d%ads e/hi1iting more ositi"e maternal 3ualities o&

interaction ha"e children .ith &e.er 1eha"ior ro1lems and re&erred .or- ha1its

;Pianta, Nimet9, > 6ennett, *


15/64


As children rogress through elementar% school, the imortance o& a secure

attachment in contri1uting to scholastic achie"ement does not diminish? children at age

se"en .ho ha"e secure arental attachments as assessed 1% resonses to searation

stories and o1ser"ations ha"e 1etter cogniti"e er&ormance, a trend .hich continues

through adolescence ;!aco1sen, Edelstein, > Ho&mann, *


16/64


et al+, ()))=, .hich could account &or the imact o& securit% on eer relationshis+

Parental relationshi 3ualities, such as mother4child a&&ect and intimac%, are also

correlated .ith eer social s-ills in reschoolers ;Pianta et al+, * Fleac, * Mar-ie.ic9, *


17/64


Sceer%, * 6uhs, *


18/64


Conse3uentl%, it ma% 1e concluded that school er&ormance during adolescence is

connected to asects o& teenagers5 eer relationshis and social s-ills+

Although much research has 1een conducted on the relationshi 1et.een

attachment and eer relations, as .ell as each "aria1le5s connection to school

er&ormance, the relationshis among these three &actors ha"e not 1een thoroughl%

e/lored in adolescence+ Moreo"er, the use o& a .ide range o& school ad#ustment

measures, including sel&4, eer4, and school4reorted "aria1les, to assess academic

er&ormance in the teenage %ears has not 1een emlo%ed .hen in"estigating connections

to 1oth attachment and eer relations+ The stud% o& mediators 1et.een attachment and

school outcomes is lac-ing? it has 1een suggested that this relationshi could 1e mediated

1% a child5s 1eha"ioral sel&4restraint ;2eldman > ent9el, *


19/64


B+ 0s there an% e"idence o& mediated e&&ects o& eer relationsG

+ 0s there an interaction 1et.een ercei"ed attachment to arents and to &riends

in redicting school successG

0t is h%othesi9ed that attachment ercetions and organi9ation .ill correlate .ith

teenagers5 ercetions o& their academic en"ironment, as .ell as their actual success in

school+ Secure attachment organi9ation is also redicted to correlate .ith the resence o&

social suort and eer relationshis+ Positi"e eer relationshi &actors are h%othesi9ed

to redict greater satis&action .ith and er&ormance in school+ Although 1oth attachment

and eer relationshis should indeendentl% relate to academic "aria1les, .ith the most

secure adolescents as .ell as those .ith reorts o& social accetance er&orming at the

highest le"el in school, academic outcomes .ill 1e e/lained 1est 1% a model ta-ing into

account 1oth attachment and eer relations+

Method

Particiants

One hundred and si/t%4si/ ninth and tenth grade students ;@< male, 77 &emale=

articiated in this stud%+ $on entering the stud%, adolescents ranged in age &rom *B to

*@+7 %ears .ith a mean o& *+< %ears ;SD )+@=+ The sel&4identi&ied racialIethnic

1ac-ground o& the samle .as


20/64


uon the resence o& at least one o& &our ossi1le academic ris- &actors: *= &ailing a single

course &or at least a single mar-ing eriod, (= an% histor% o& grade retention, = ten or

more a1sences in one mar-ing eriod, or B= an% histor% o& school susension+ These

1road selection criteria .ere used to include a .ide range o& adolescents .ho could 1e

identi&ied &rom academic records as ha"ing the otential &or &uture academic and social

di&&iculties, including adolescents alread% e/eriencing serious di&&iculties and those .ho

.ere er&orming ade3uatel% .ith onl% occasional, minor ro1lems+ As intended, these

criteria identi&ied aro/imatel% one4hal& o& all ninth and tenth grade students as eligi1le

&or the stud%+

Each teenager .as as-ed to name se"eral &riends .ho -ne. him or her .ell to

articiate in a eer inter"ie.+ Si/t%4one male ;B7+J= and si/t%4eight &emale ;(+7J=

eers .ere inter"ie.ed+ The a"erage age o& eers articiating .as *8+B %ears ;SD *+B

%ears=+ Se"ent%4three ;8+8J= o& the eers .ere Euroean American, &i&t% ;@+@J= .ere

A&rican American, and si/ ;B+7J= .ere o& another racial 1ac-ground+

Procedure

A&ter adolescents .ere identi&ied as meeting the criteria o& the stud%, letters

e/laining the stud% .ere sent to the &amilies o& each otential articiant+ 0nterested

&amilies .ere contacted 1% hone+ 0& 1oth the teenager and the arent;s= agreed to

articiate, the% .ere scheduled &or t.o, three4hour sessions+ Aro/imatel% )J o& the

aroached &amilies agreed to articiate+ 2amilies .ere aid a total o& K*) &or their

articiation+ Acti"e in&ormed consent .as o1tained &rom 1oth adolescents and their

arents+

()


21/64


The teenagers articiating in the stud% .ere as-ed to ro"ide names o& u to &i"e

&riends .ho -ne. them .ell to articiate in a eer inter"ie.+ $ to t.o o& these

&riends .ere contacted &or an inter"ie.+ 0n cases in .hich data .ere gathered &rom t.o

eers, their ratings o& the teenager in the stud% .ere a"eraged to create one eer "aria1le+

Acti"e consent .as o1tained &rom 1oth eers and arents o& eers articiating in the

stud%+ Peers .ere aid K*) to come in &or a one4hour session, during .hich the%

comleted .ritten 3uestionnaires and used 4sort techni3ues to rate the teenager .ho had

nominated them &or articiation in the stud%+ Data .ere collected &rom eers in sessions

searate &rom those o& the articiating target teenagers+ Transortation and childcare

.ere ro"ided &or all articiants as necessar%+

Stud% articiants .ere assured that all in&ormation .ould 1e -et con&idential+

Data .ere rotected 1% a con&identialit% certi&icate issued 1% the $nited States

Deartment o& Health and Human Ser"ices, .hich rotected in&ormation &rom su1oena

1% &ederal, state, and local courts+

Measures

Adult Attachment Interview and Q-Set (George, Kaplan, & Main, 199! Ko"a#,

$ole, %eren-Gillie', %leming, & Gam"le, 199)* Researchers administered this

structured inter"ie. to ro1e indi"iduals5 descritions o& their childhood relationshis

.ith arents, .ith re3uests &or a1stract terms as .ell as seci&ic suorting memories+

2or instance, articiants .ere as-ed to list &i"e .ords descri1ing their earl% childhood

relationshis, and then to descri1e seci&ic instances that re&lected each .ord+ Other

3uestions addressed seci&ic instances o& uset, searation, loss, trauma, and re#ection+

2inall%, inter"ie.ers as-ed articiants to ro"ide more integrati"e descritions o& the

(*


22/64


changes in their relationshis .ith their arents and the current state o& these

relationshis+ Each inter"ie. consisted o& eighteen 3uestions and lasted on a"erage one

hour+ Slight adatations to the adult "ersion o& the attachment inter"ie. .ere made to

ma-e the 3uestions more natural and easil% understood 1% an adolescent oulation

;ard > Carlson, *


23/64


reorted e/eriences, and lac- o& e"idence &or "aluing attachment? and deactivating

ver'u' hperactivating 'trategie', reresenting the o"erall 1alance o& dismissing and

reoccuied st%les+ Fo1a- et al+ ;*


24/64


;alienation=+ Cron1ach alhas measuring internal consistenc% &or the three su1scales

.ere +


25/64


create a single rating &or each scale+ The untrained adolescent raters roduced ratings that

correlated .ith each other surrisingl% .ell ;Searman46ro.n r )+8=, and the resulting

scale had good internal consistenc% ;Cron1ach5s )+@B=+

Annual 3eighted G/A* Scholastic records .ere o1tained &rom the articiating

teenagers5 schools+ Each student5s grade oint a"erage &or the &ull %ear .as comuted,

ad#usting &or an% aliedIsecial or ad"ancedIhonors courses the articiants .ere ta-ing+

Ad"ancedIhonors courses .ere a.arded an e/tra oint in the PA comutation, .hereas

aliedIsecial courses .ere gi"en a hal& o& a oint deduction+

rades .ere also ad#usted so that the num1er o& credits a.arded 1% the school &or

each course ;+, *= .as ta-en into consideration+ All classes, not siml% the core

classes o& English, science, social studies, and math, .ere included in the PA

comutation+

School 4i'#* A summar% school ris- "aria1le .as created to account &or

discilinar% action ta-en against articiating teenagers+ To &orm the "aria1le, the

num1er o& times the teenager had 1een susended, the num1er o& times the teenager had

1een e/elled, and .hether or not the teenager had droed out o& school .ere ta-en into

account+ This in&ormation .as o1tained directl% &rom the teenagers5 schools+ The

categorical school ris- "aria1le ranged &rom 9ero ;lo. school ris-= to &i"e ;high school

ris-=+ 2or a teenager to recei"e a score o& 9ero on the school ris- "aria1le, he or she must

ha"e ne"er 1een susended+ School ris- "alues o& one to &our .ere recei"ed 1% teenagers

.ith "ar%ing num1ers o& susensions, .ith le"el one teenagers 1eing susended one or

t.o times, le"el t.o teenagers susended three to &i"e times, le"el three teenagers

susended si/ to ten times, and le"el &our teenagers susended ele"en or more times+ A

(


26/64


le"el &i"e school ris- .as assigned to teenagers .ho had 1een e/elled &rom school at

an% oint during their education or had droed out o& school+

+otal Attachment to School* A measure o& attitudes to.ards school .as adoted

&rom the ualit% o& School Li&e Scale ;SL= 1% Estein and McPartland ;*


27/64


Results

Preliminar% Anal%ses

5emographic .actor'* Means and standard de"iations o& all demograhic &actors

are resented in Ta1le *+ Correlations .ere run 1et.een redictor "aria1les and the

outcome "aria1les &or the &ull samle ;Ta1les (, , and B=+

Ta1le *

Demograhic "aria1les &or target teenagers and eers

Teenagers PeersAge ;in %ears= Mean ;SD=

*+<+@

*8+B*+B

ender Male 2emale

+8JB8+BJ

B7+J(+7J

RaceIEthnicit% Euroean American A&rican American Other


28/64


Correlational anal%ses o& attachment and school &actors

0+ Attachment organi9ation as measured 1% the Adult Attachment 0nter"ie. correlated.ith school &actors

Attachment

Annualeighted PA

ScholasticCometence

School Ris- Attachment toSchool

Secure +( +*) 4+( +*(

Preoccuied 4+)7 4+*


29/64


Correlational anal%ses o& attachment and eer relationshi &actors

0+ Attachment organi9ation as measured 1% the Adult Attachment 0nter"ie. correlated.ith eer relationshi &actors

Attachment

Attachmentto 2riends

SocialAccetance

SocialAccetance;eer reort=

Close2riendshi

Close2riendshi

;eer reort=

Secure +(* +*B +*@ +(* +*B

Preoccuied 4+( 4+** 4+)@ 4+*8 +)

Note: Q+))*, Q+)*, Q+), Q+*)+

00+ Percetion o& attachment to one5s mother as measured 1% the 0n"entor% o& Parent andPeer Attachment correlated .ith eer relationshi &actors

Attachment

Attachmentto 2riends

SocialAccetance

SocialAccetance;eer reort=

Close2riendshi

Close2riendshi

;eer reort=

Maternal +(7 +(( +*B +(7 +**

Note: Q+))*, Q+)*, Q+), Q+*)+

Ta1le B

(


30/64


Correlational anal%ses o& eer relationshi and school &actors

Annualeighted PA

ScholasticCometence

School Ris- Attachment toSchool

Attachment to

2riends+)@ +) 4+( +


31/64


regression models .ere run .ith eer &actors used to e/amine the "ariance in academic

er&ormance 1e%ond that e/lained 1% the demograhic "aria1les+ All regressions .ere

run to control &or articiants5 gender, race, and total &amil% income? "er% &e. trends and

signi&icant correlations 1ecame nonsigni&icant a&ter accounting &or these &actors+ Results

&rom these regression anal%ses are resented .ith the main result data+

As mediator e&&ects .ere also h%othesi9ed, searate regression anal%ses .ere run

to in"estigate the role o& eer relationshi &actors as mediators o& the relationshi

1et.een attachment and school "aria1les+

0n the &inal set o& anal%ses, interaction terms o& attachment .ith eer "aria1les

.ere entered into hierarchical regression models to determine their contri1ution in

redicting school success+

Adole'cent attachment and 'chool .actor'* 0n the &irst set o& anal%ses,

adolescents5 ercetions o& attachment and organi9ation o& attachment .ere in"estigated

as redictors o& academic "aria1les+ Attachment .as regressed on the school &actors+

6e%ond the e&&ects o& the demograhic "aria1les, a trend to.ards a main e&&ect .as &ound

&or adolescents5 secure attachment organi9ation and school ris- ; 4+*, Q +*)=,

iml%ing that a secure attachment some.hat accounts &or lo.ered school ris-+ A

signi&icant main e&&ect .as &ound &or reoccuied attachment organi9ation and eer4

reorted scholastic cometence ; 4+(, Q +)*=, such that lo.ered scholastic

cometence .as redicted 1% reoccuied attachment+ 2inall%, ercetions o& attachment

to the adolescent5s mother .ere related to school ris- ; 4+*7, Q +)= and attachment to

school ; +((, Q +)=+ There&ore, those adolescents .ho ercei"ed greater attachment

to their mothers had stronger attachments to school and a lessened li-elihood o& 1eing

*


32/64


susended, e/elled, or droing out o& school+ Regression anal%ses o& the attachment

and school &actors are resented in Ta1les and 8+

(


33/64


Ta1le

Hierarchical regression anal%ses o& attachment organi9ation as measured 1% the Adult Attachment 0nter"ie. redicting academic

&unctioning a&ter accounting &or gender, race, and total &amil% income

Predictors

Annual eighted PA

R UR

Scholastic Cometence

R UR

School Ris-

R UR

Attachment to School

R UR

0:ender

Race 0ncome

00: Securit%000: Preoccuation

+)* V V +)@ V V 4+(7 V V +)* V V+( V V +)* V V 4+) V V +)< V V

+B V V 4+** V V 4+(* V V 4+)7 V VV +(7 +(7 V +)( +)( V +*( +*( V +)* +)*

+)7 +(7 ) +* +) +)* 4+* +) +)* +* +)( +)*

4+*) +(@ +)* 4+( +)@ +)8 +** +* +)* 4+) +)* )

Note: Q+))*, Q+)*, Q+), Q+*)+ .eights are &rom "aria1les5 &irst entr% into model+


34/64


Ta1le 8

Hierarchical regression anal%ses o& ercetion o& attachment to one5s mother as measured 1% the 0n"entor% o& Parent and Peer

Attachment redicting academic &unctioning a&ter accounting &or gender, race, and total &amil% income

Predictors

Annual eighted PA

R UR


R UR

School Ris-

R UR


R UR

0:ender

Race 0ncome

00: Percetion o&

MaternalAttachment

+) V V +)< V V 4+(7 V V +)( V V+( V V +)B V V 4+)* V V +*) V V

+ V V 4+*) V V 4+(( V V 4+)8 V VV +( +( V +)( +)( V +** +** V +)* +)*

+)8 +(8 +)* +)7 +)( ) 4+*7 +*B +) +(( +) +)B

Note: Q+))*, Q+)*, Q+), Q+*)+ .eights are &rom "aria1les5 &irst entr% into model+

B


35/64


Adole'cent'6 attachment and relation' to peer'* 0n the ne/t set o& anal%ses,

adolescents5 attachment ercetions and organi9ations .ere e/amined as redictors o&

eer relationshi 3ualit%+ Adolescents5 eer relationshis ;attachment to &riends, social

accetance, and close &riendshis= .ere regressed on adolescent attachment in searate

regression e3uations+ A&ter accounting &or the e&&ects o& the demograhic "aria1les, main

e&&ects .ere &ound &or secure attachment organi9ation as a redictor o& sel&4reorted

social accetance ; +*@, Q +)=, eer4reorted social accetance ; +(


36/64


Ta1le 7

Hierarchical regression anal%ses o& attachment organi9ation as measured 1% the Adult Attachment 0nter"ie. redicting eer

relationshi &actors a&ter accounting &or gender, race, and total &amil% income

Predictors

Attachment to 2riends

R UR

Social Accetance

R UR

Social

Accetance;eer reort=

R UR

Close 2riendshi

R UR

Close 2riendshi

;eer reort=

R UR

0: ender Race 0ncome

00: Securit%000: Preoccuation

+(* V V +)8 V V +*( V V +* V V +(B V V4+) V V 4+)7 V V 4+)7 V V +) V V +)7 V V+*( V V 4+) V V 4+*@ V V +) V V 4+)@ V VV +) +) V +)( +)( V +)8 +)8 V +) +) V +)7 +)7

+* +)7 +)( +*@ +)B +)( +(


37/64


Ta1le @

Hierarchical regression anal%ses o& ercetion o& attachment to one5s mother as measured 1% the 0n"entor% o& Parent and Peer

Attachment redicting eer relationshi &actors

Predictors

Attachment to 2riends

R UR

Social Accetance

R UR

Social

Accetance;eer reort=

R UR

Close 2riendshi

R UR

Close 2riendshi

;eer reort=

R UR


00: Percetion o& Maternal Attachment

+( V V +) V V +*) V V +* V V +(8 V V4+)B V V 4+) V V 4+)B V V +)* V V +)< V V+*8 V V 4+)8 V V 4+*7 V V +)( V V 4+*) V VV +)7 +)7 V +)* +)* V +)B +)B V +)( +)( V +)@ +)@

+) +* +)@ +(* +) +)B +* +)7 +) +(


38/64

Adolescent Attachment @


39/64


Adole'cent'6 peer relation'hip' and academic .actor'* Adolescents5 eer

relationshis .ere e/amined as redictors o& school &actors in the third set o& anal%ses+

The academic &actors in"estigated .ere PA, eer4reorted scholastic cometence,

school ris-, and attachment to school+ School &actors .ere regressed on eer

relationshis+ A&ter accounting &or demograhic "aria1les, se"eral main e&&ects reached

signi&icance+ These main e&&ects in"ol"ed attachment to &riends and school ris- ; 4+(8,

Q +)=, attachment to &riends and scholastic cometence ; +)


40/64


Ta1le <

Hierarchical regressions redicting school &actors &rom eer &actors a&ter accounting &or gender, race, and total &amil% income

Predictors

Annual eighted PA

R UR


R UR

School Ris-

R UR


R UR


00: Attachment to

2riends

+)( V V +** V V 4+*7 V V +) V V+*8 V V 4+)* V V +) V V +)8 V V+ V V 4+** V V 4+B V V 4+( V VV +() +() V +)( +)( V +*( +*( V +) +)

+)8 +() ) +)


41/64


Ta1le < ;continued=

Predictors

Annual eighted PA

R UR


R UR

School Ris-

R UR


R UR

0:ender

Race

0ncome

00: Social Accetance

;eer reort=000: Close 2riendshi ;eer reort=

+) V V +*) V V 4+( V V +)B V V+(B V V +) V V 4+)@ V V +*( V V

+(7 V V 4+** V V 4+* V V 4+* V VV +() +() V +)( +)( V +* +* V +)( +)(

+)8 +() ) +*8 +) +) +)8 +* ) 4+)( +)( )

+*7 +( +) +( +** +)


42/64


/eer relation'hip' a' a mediator "etween attachment and 'chool .actor'* 0n a

series o& anal%ses, attachment to eers and the resence o& close &riendshis .ere

e/amined as mediating the connection 1et.een attachment organi9ation and school

"aria1les ;1oth school ris- and eer4reorted scholastic cometence=+ According to

6aron and Fenn% ;*


43/64


Ta1le *)

Anal%ses o& eer relationshi "aria1les as mediators o& the connection 1et.een

attachment and school "aria1les using 6aron and Fenn% tests

Attachmentand School

Attachmentand Peers

Peers andSchool

Change inRegressionG

E"idence o& a Mediated

E&&ectG

Attachment Mea'ure: Secure AA0School Mea'ure:School Ris-

/eer Mea'ure:Peer Attachment

4+( +(* 4+( Not

signi&icantWes

Attachment Mea'ure: Secure AA0School Mea'ure:School Ris-

/eer Mea'ure:Close 2riendshi

;eer reort=

4+( +(* 4+() 4+((Wes,

although.ea-

Attachment Mea'ure: Preoccuied AA0School Mea'ure:Scholastic

Cometence ;eer reort= /eer Mea'ure:

Close 2riendshi ;sel&4reort=

4+*


44/64


Interaction' o. attachment and peer relation'hip'* Adolescents5 ercetions o&

attachment to mothers and to eers .ere in"estigated to e/amine .hether the% might

interact to redict total attachment to school+ A signi&icant interaction .as &ound ; +

(, Q +)= and is deicted in 2igure *+ The lo.est attachment to school .as &ound &or

teenagers .ho had ercetions o& high attachment to mothers and lo. attachment to

eers+ Slightl% greater, %et still lo., attachment to school .as &ound &or adolescents .ith

ercetions o& 1oth lo. attachment to mothers and to eers+ This grou .as relati"el%

close on le"el o& attachment to school to those teenagers .ith lo. maternal attachment

and high eer attachment+ Comarati"el% high le"els o& attachment to school .ere &ound

&or adolescents .ith high ercetions o& attachment to mothers and to eers+

BB


45/64


2igure *

0nteraction 1et.een ercetion o& attachment to one5s mother and ercetion o&

attachment to eers resulting in "ar%ing le"els o& total attachment to school

O"erall, the data collected in this stud% suggest three redicti"e relationshis: *=

attachment redicting school er&ormance, (= attachment redicting eer relationshis,

and = eer relationshis redicting school er&ormance+ 6oth ercetions o& maternal

attachment and attachment organi9ation redicted academic &actors+ Li-e.ise, regression

e3uations suort that 1oth ercetions o& secure maternal attachment and secure

attachment organi9ation redict greater eer relationshis+ Additionall%, greater eer

relationshis redicted more ositi"e school outcomes+ Some e"idence o& ercei"ed eer

attachment ser"ing as a mediator 1et.een secure attachment organi9ation and school ris-

.as &ound, 1ut onl% .hen demograhic in&luences .ere not considered in the models+

Also suorted .as a signi&icant interaction 1et.een ercetions o& attachment to one5s

mother and to eers resulting in "ar%ing le"els o& attachment to school+

4*

4)+C

)

)+C

*

4( 4* ) * (

Percetion o& Attachment to Peers

A t t a c

h m e n t t o S c h o o l

Percetion o& Lo.Maternal Attachment

Percetion o& High

Maternal Attachment

B


46/64


Discussion

This stud% ro"ides e"idence &or the indeendent lin-s 1et.een adolescent

attachment, eer relationshis, and school &actors, .hile also ro"iding suort &or the

ossi1ilit% o& eer relationshis ser"ing as a mediator 1et.een attachment and school

"aria1les+ An interaction among these three domains is also suorted, .ith "ar%ing

le"els o& ercei"ed attachment to one5s mother and ercei"ed attachment to eers

redicting attachment to school+

Connections 1et.een attachment and school er&ormance .ere h%othesi9ed, and

data &rom this stud% suggest that such relationshis e/ist+ Attachment organi9ation

redicted se"eral di&&erent asects o& school success, as adolescents .ith secure

attachment organi9ations .ere less li-el% to encounter discilinar% di&&iculties+ Also,

teenagers .ith reoccuied attachment organi9ations had lo.er eer4reorted scholastic

cometence+ Additionall%, one5s ercetion o& maternal attachment redicted less

li-elihood o& discilinar% action+

Not all school "aria1les could 1e redicted &rom indi"iduals5 attachment,

ho.e"er, .ith 1oth attachment to school and PA not 1eing redicted 1% maternal

attachment ercetions or attachment organi9ation+ This result could 1e accounted &or i&

one assumes that teenagers5 seci&ic relationshis .ithin the academic en"ironment ;such

as those .ith onl% their school eers and teachers= most greatl% a&&ect satis&action in the

school en"ironment+ This conclusion &ollo.s &rom the assumtion that ercetions o&

attachment .ith arents and eers and attachment organi9ation do not necessaril%

reresent teenagers5 general relationshi 3ualit%+ Ho.e"er, attachment theor% redicts

B8


47/64


that attachment organi9ation should a&&ect one5s internal model o& all relationshis, so this

&inding remains some.hat surrising+

The lac- o& suort &or PA 1eing redicted 1% attachment "aria1les can 1e

e/lained, though, 1% this stud%5s omission o& an anal%sis o& certain &actors intuiti"el%

related to scholastic er&ormance+ 2or e/amle, teenagers5 0, the 3ualit% o& the school

and home en"ironments, and additional &amil% &actors such as arent emhasis on

education .ere not in"estigated+ These &actors5 relationshi to academic achie"ement

should 1e considered in &uture studies+ Additional .or- could also stud% attachment and

school er&ormance .hile controlling &or these additional &actors, erhas allo.ing a

closer relationshi 1et.een attachment and school er&ormance to 1e &ound+

0n the anal%ses o& attachment organi9ation and eer &actors, secure and

reoccuied attachments redicted se"eral eer relationshi "aria1les+ As h%othesi9ed,

adolescents .ith more secure attachment organi9ations .ere ercei"ed 1% themsel"es and

their &riends to ha"e high le"els o& eer grou accetance+ This &inding is congruent .ith

attachment theor%, as those indi"iduals .ith secure attachment organi9ations should ha"e

an internal .or-ing model that allo.s them to &oster the de"eloment o& ositi"e

relationshis .ith others+ Teenagers .ith reoccuied attachment organi9ations .ere less

li-el% to reort ha"ing a close &riendshi, also as redicted 1% attachment theor%, as an

insecure internal .or-ing model should ma-e close interersonal relationshis 1oth

harder to de"elo and more di&&icult to ercei"e in one5s en"ironment ;Allen et al+, *


48/64


&riendshis+ There&ore, a reoccuied attachment organi9ation, .hich is indicati"e o& an

insecure internal .or-ing model, .as most closel% associated .ith sel&4ercetions o&

close &riendshis+ As attachment organi9ation should 1e most closel% associated .ith

attachment4li-e, or close, relationshis, relationshis .ith close &riends rather than the

eer grou as a .hole .ould 1e e/ected to 1e more directl% related to insecure .or-ing

models+ This stud%5s &indings suort this assertion+

Percetions o& attachment .ere li-e.ise redicti"e o& teenagers5 3ualit% o& eer

relationshis+ Attachment ercetions .ere most strongl% lin-ed .ith sel&4reorted social

accetance and close &riendshis+ 0t is ossi1le that indi"iduals5 tendencies to "ie. the

.orld in either a ositi"e or negati"e light contri1uted to these results+ Ha"ing &ound that

teenagers5 sel&4reorts o& attachment and sel&4reorts o& eer measures correlate ma% 1e

due to reorter 1ias e&&ects+ Ho.e"er, trends .ere noted &or ercetions o& attachment

redicting eer4reorted social accetance and the resence o& a close &riendshi+ These

trends suggest that sel&4ercetions o& attachment ma% 1e related to teenagers5 eer

relationshis a1o"e and 1e%ond the e&&ect due to all measures coming &rom the same

reorter+ Perhas i& &uture studies utili9e other measures o& social accetance and close

&riendshi, such as o1ser"ational reorts, the discreanc% 1et.een sel&4 and eer4

reorted data .ould 1e resol"ed, and the lin-age 1et.een ercetions o& attachment and

eer relationshi 3ualit% could 1e clari&ied+

Sel&4 and eer4reorted eer relationshi 3ualit% .ere also &ound to relate to

academic &actors, redicting a .ide range o& school outcomes+ Teenagers5 sel&4reorted

attachment to their &riends redicted ho. &re3uentl% teenagers had disciline ro1lems as

.ell as adolescents5 attachment to school+ Lo. le"els o& disciline ro1lems .ere

B@


49/64


additionall% redicted 1% teenagers5 reorts o& close &riendshis+ These &indings suggest

that ha"ing a close &riend ma% ser"e as a rotecti"e &actor against school disciline

ro1lems, as those teenagers .ho 1elie"e the% ha"e a relia1le &riend ma% 1e less li-el% to

act out in the classroom or su1mit to negati"e eer ressure, actions that ma% result in

school susensions or e/ulsions+ Also, eer4reorted close &riendshis .ere redicti"e

o& eer4reorted scholastic cometence as .ell as students5 PA, as .as h%othesi9ed+

This &inding suorts the assertion that students doing .ell in school are more li-el% to

ha"e a close &riend+

As onl% trends .ere noted &or social accetance "aria1les, accetance 1% one5s

eer grou .as not an imortant eer redicti"e &actor &or scholastic success+ Perhas

this is 1ecause adolescents ma% need onl% one good &riendshi to rotect them &rom lo.

scholastic er&ormance and dissatis&action .ith school, rather than .ide eer accetance+

The results could also 1e accounted &or 1% the "ar%ing in&luences o& eer grous? 1oth

ositi"e and negati"e eer ressure ma% in&luence school er&ormance, .ith the negati"e

e&&ects o& 1eing close to one5s eer grou o&&setting the ositi"e e&&ects &or some

teenagers+

Regression anal%ses suggest that eer relationshi &actors ma% ser"e as mediators

1et.een attachment and school "aria1les in a coule seci&ic instances+ 0t is onl% .hen

attachment organi9ation is used that mediated e&&ects .ere &ound, suggesting that securit%

o& attachment organi9ation, not ercetions o& attachment, is crucial in the mediator

relationshi+ 2urthermore, signi&icant mediated e&&ects onl% occur .hen gender, race, and

total &amil% income are not entered into the regression e3uations, as these demograhic

"aria1les are signi&icantl% con&ounded .ith the mediated relationshis+ $nder these

B


50/64


conditions, the connection 1et.een secure attachment and lo.er le"els o& disciline

ro1lems is mediated 1% ercetions o& eer attachment+ That is, the relationshi

1et.een securit% and school outcomes 1ecomes nonsigni&icant once the e&&ect o&

teenagers5 attachment to their eers is considered+ The relationshi 1et.een securit% and

discilinar% action is also .ea-l% mediated 1% eer reorts o& close &riendshis+ Hence,

although onl% t.o mediated e&&ects .ere &ound, data do suggest that in some seci&ic

situations, eer relationshi 3ualit% ma% act as a mediator &or the relationshi 1et.een

attachment and school outcomes+

An alternati"e e/lanation &or the resence o& onl% t.o mediated e&&ects is that

erhas, in general, eer relationshis do not ser"e as a mediator &or the connection

1et.een attachment and school &actors+ 0t is ossi1le that one iece o& the attachment

construct redicts eer relationshi 3ualit%, another iece o& the attachment construct

redicts school outcomes, and that these t.o ieces o& attachment are non4o"erlaing

asects o& the construct+ This .ould account &or the lac- o& mediated e&&ects &or all o& the

controlled relationshis in"estigated and .ould e/lain the indeendent connections

1et.een the three constructs ;attachment, eer relationshis, and school outcomes= 1eing

in"estigated+

One &inal relationshi 1et.een the three constructs .as &ound? an interaction .as

suorted .ith ercei"ed attachment to mothers and ercei"ed attachment to eers

redicting students5 satis&action .ith school, commitment to class .or-, and reactions to

their teachers+ High ercei"ed attachment to mothers and lo. ercei"ed attachment to

eers redicted the lo.est attachment to school+ This result suggests that adolescents can

1e di"ided into distinct grous 1ased on ercei"ed maternal and eer attachment, and that

)


51/64


these grous ha"e "ar%ing le"els o& school attachment+ There is a grou o& teenagers .ho

are haiest at home, &eeling a strong connection to their mothers and %et, 1ecause o& not

&eeling connected to their eers, are struggling in the school en"ironment+ That is, the

data suggest that adolescents .ith high le"els o& ercei"ed attachment to arents and

eers are li-el% to 1e satis&ied .ith school, e/cet in cases .here high le"els o& ercei"ed

attachment to one5s mother are not 1alanced 1% high le"els o& ercei"ed attachment to

eers+ 2or most adolescents, though, the greater the ercei"ed attachment to one5s

mother and eers, the higher the le"el o& attachment to school, as .as h%othesi9ed+ 2or

all teenagers, higher ercei"ed attachment to eers redicted a greater connection to

school? it seems that the e&&ect o& high ercei"ed attachment "aries onl% &or teenagers5

ercei"ed maternal attachment+

One interesting conclusion &rom these mediator and moderator results has to do

.ith the di&&erences in the &indings in"estigating attachment ercetions and attachment

organi9ation+ Although the lin-s 1et.een attachment and eers as .ell as those 1et.een

attachment and school .ere e"ident .hen using 1oth the 0PPA and AA0, this .as not the

case &or the mediated and moderated relationshis+ 2indings o& this stud% suort eer

relationshis ser"ing as a mediator 1et.een attachment organi9ation and school

measures+ No such relationshis .ere &ound &or ercetions o& attachment+ This ma% 1e

a result o& attachment organi9ation unconsciousl% a&&ecting eer relationshis, .hich in

turn ma% redict school success+ hate"er its cause, siml% ercei"ing that one5s

relationshi .ith attachment &igures is secure is not su&&icient to &oster eer relationshis

and their resulting ositi"e e&&ects on academic li&e+ Similarl%, a ercetion o& a negati"e

*


52/64


arental relationshi ma% not 1e damaging to eer relations and school li&e i& one can

re&lect on these e/eriences coherentl%, hence &orming a secure attachment organi9ation+

Although attachment organi9ation ma% 1e crucial in disco"ering mediated

relationshis, it is also lausi1le that the lac- o& mediators &ound in the in"estigation o&

attachment ercetions could 1e indicati"e o& a lac- o& true eer mediators+ 0t is ossi1le

that some other "aria1le is mediating the connection 1et.een home li&e and scholastic

er&ormance, and that the &e. cases in .hich mediated relationshis .ere &ound .ere

siml% due to this other association+ Hence, the need &or &urther .or- in this area is

e"ident+

E"en though attachment organi9ation could 1e used as a redictor "aria1le in

signi&icant mediated relationshis, it .as onl% ercetions o& attachment that .ere &ound

to interact .ith eer &actors to roduce "ar%ing le"els o& attachment to school+ This is

e"idence that it is teenagers5 "ie. o& their relationshis, rather than actual attachment

organi9ation, that is necessar% in the moderated relationshi among arent4child relations,

eer relations, and school attachment+ That is, the teenagers .ho &eel the lo.est

attachment to school ma% onl% ercei"e ositi"e relationshis .ith their mothers and

oor relationshis .ith their eers? ho.e"er, these ercetions do a&&ect their actual

satis&action .ith school+

There are se"eral imlications o& the &indings o& this stud%+ The lac- o& strong

e"idence &or the mediating or moderating role o& all o& the eer relationshi &actors

in"estigated suggests that there could 1e other &acets o& the eer relationshi not

in"estigated in this stud% that ma% e/lain connections 1et.een attachment and school

&actors+ 0t is also ossi1le that some &actor that is not related to adolescents5 eer

(


53/64


relations could ser"e as a rimar% mediator or moderator 1et.een attachment and school

outcomes+ 2or e/amle, teacher4child relationshis, arenting st%le, and 3ualit% o& the

home en"ironment could 1e studied in the &uture, clari&%ing these &actors5 roles in lin-ing

arent4child relationshis to adolescents5 school satis&action and er&ormance+

Also, this stud% has a &e. inconsistencies in its &indings, articularl%

discreancies among the data &rom di&&erent reorters and among the di&&erent measures

o& eer and school constructs ;that is, eer attachment, social accetance, and the

resence o& a close &riendshi? and PA, scholastic cometence, school ris-, and

attachment to school=+ The inconsistencies across reorters suggests the need &or

o1ser"ational eer and school data, or teacher reorts rather than sel&4 and eer4reorted

ratings+ 2urthermore, &uture directions o& research ma% in"estigate .h% certain &actors

.ithin the eer and school constructs .ere 1etter redictor, mediator, and moderator

"aria1les+

There are also some limitations o& this stud%5s design that re3uire attention+ 2irst,

the a1ilit% to generali9e &indings &rom the samle is in 3uestion+ A grou o& academicall%

at4ris- teenagers .ere recruited as stud% articiants+ 0t is unclear .hether the lin-s

1et.een the three constructs, as .ell as the mediated and moderated e&&ects &ound in this

stud%, .ould hold .ith a more inclusi"e adolescent oulation+ Ho.e"er, the use o& the

limited samle .as 1ene&icial in some resects, as it allo.ed &or data collection &rom a

samle o& indi"iduals .ith a .ide range o& scholastic di&&iculties, heling to ro"ide

meaning&ul results+ Additionall%, there .as di"ersit% in the ercetions o& attachment and

attachment organi9ations o& the articiating teenagers .hich also allo.ed &or su&&icient

"ariance .ithin the samle+


54/64


An additional limitation o& this stud% is its di&&icult% in determining theoreticall%

meaning&ul de&initions o& eer relationshi &actors and adolescent attachment+ Close eer

relationshis ma% mean di&&erent things to di&&erent teenagers, and the actual structure o&

adolescents5 &riendshis ma% "ar% greatl%+ 2urthermore, the imact o& social grous and

indi"idual &riendshis on de"eloment "aries among teenagers, .ith some eers

rein&orcing academicall% rosocial goals, .hile others undermining school success+

2uture .or- ma% .ish to address these issues, as .ell as e/amine ho. in some cases

eers ma% ser"e as attachment &igures &or one another+

0n addition to the limitations o& the eer relationshi &actors, ro1lems also

emerge .ith the construct o& attachment+ Adolescent attachment is an emerging area o&

stud%+ Researchers ha"e resented di&&ering .a%s in .hich adolescent attachment ma% 1e

concetuali9ed? &or e/amle, attachment ma% 1e de&ined as ercetions o& attachment

.ithin adolescent relationshis ;6o.l1%, *


55/64


insecure relationshi+ 0n &act, 1eing a1le to re&lect on negati"e li&e e/eriences in an

organi9ed &ashion, allo.ing &or the ac-no.ledgement o& the imact o& distur1ing

eisodic memories, and %et integrating these memories into a coherent .hole, is

characteristic o& securit%+ An indi"idual .ho does re&lect in this manner .ould 1e

categori9ed as ha"ing a secure attachment organi9ation 1% the AA0, and %et .ould 1e lo.

on securit% according to the 0PPA+ Li-e.ise, denial o& the imortance o& negati"e e"ents

in one5s ast, as e"idenced 1% the resence o& negati"e eisodic memories 1ut ositi"e

descritions o& one5s childhood, .ould result in a secure classi&ication on the 0PPA, 1ut is

e"idence o& an insecure attachment organi9ation+ Thus, the 0PPA is not necessaril% a

"alid measure o& attachment, 1ut rather an indicator o& "arious ercei"ed characteristics

and 3ualities o& the arent4child relationshi+ This is the caacit% in .hich the 0PPA .as

used in this stud% and it is there&ore crucial to recogni9e the di&&erences in results &rom

the 0PPA "ersus the AA0+ hen in"estigating attachment organi9ation and ercetions o&

attachment, the di&&erences in the 0PPA and AA0 ma-e the results &rom these t.o

attachment measures di&&icult to com1ine into one attachment construct+ 2uture stud%

could &ocus on the area o& adolescent attachment measurement, hoe&ull% eliminating

some o& the di&&iculties in researching this construct+

Lastl%, there are imortant limitations in the .a% that the construct o& ositi"e

school outcomes .as de&ined+ There are se"eral di&&erent .a%s that teenagers, arents,

and teachers ma% concei"e adolescent school success, such as hainess in the school

en"ironment, classroom articiation, and the o1tainment o& ad"anced degrees+ 0n this

stud%, success in school .as de&ined in terms o& teenagers5 grades, eer4reorted success

in school, discilinar% actions, and sel&4reorts o& connections to school+ Desite the care


56/64


gi"en to the selection o& these school "aria1les, it is ossi1le that these measures did not

encomass school success in the most meaning&ul .a%+ 0& this is the case, erhas &uture

.or- could in"estigate the additional .a%s in .hich school success can 1e de&ined, so as

to see i& in clari&%ing the de&inition stronger results are o1tained+

0n conclusion, desite its limitations, the resent stud% ro"ides suort &or the

indeendent lin-s 1et.een attachment ercetions and organi9ation, eer relationshis,

and school &actors during adolescence+ Also suorted is the ossi1le role o& eer

relationshis as a mediator ;.hen in"estigating attachment organi9ation= or moderator

;.hen in"estigating ercetions o& maternal attachment=+ Additional research is

suggested in this area, ho.e"er, so as to clari&% the imact o& additional &amil% and

school en"ironment &actors that ma% in&luence academic achie"ement+ More recise

concetuali9ations o& the three constructs .ould also hel &urther this area o& stud%,

allo.ing &or greater recision in de&ining e/actl% .hat elements o& the arent4child and

eer relationshis redict meaning&ul asects o& school success+

A 1etter understanding o& the relationshis among attachment, eer relations, and

school outcomes is "alua1le as it ma% ser"e to &ocus inter"entions &or academicall% at4

ris- adolescents+ As academic success does in&luence a .ide range o& de"elomental

outcomes, ossi1le &indings could ositi"el% a&&ect man% asects o& teenagers5 li"es+

ith the recognition that attachment ercetions, attachment organi9ation, and eer

relations a&&ect educational outcomes, the imortance o& de"eloing academic

inter"entions that e/tend 1e%ond classroom scholastic instruction 1ecomes e"ident+

Hoe&ull% the relationshis among the constructs o& attachment, eer relations, and

school success .ill soon 1e more thoroughl% understood+ Such -no.ledge could allo.

8


57/64


&or the de"eloment o& success&ul inter"ention rograms .hich, through targeting asects

o& attachment and eer relationshis, ma% result in higher le"els o& educational and

de"elomental success &or teenagers+

7


58/64


Re&erences

Allen, !+ P+, Moore, C+, Fuerminc, +, > 6ell, F+ ;*


59/64


6o.l1%, !+ ;* Mitchell, !+ ;()))=+ 4sort

assessment o& attachment securit% during the reschool %ears: Lin-s &rom home to

school+ De"elomental Ps%cholog%, 8;(=, (7B4(@(+

Diehl, D+ S+, Lemerise, E+ A+, Ca"erl%, S+ L+, Ramsa%, S+, > Ro1erts, !+ ;*


60/64


Elic-er, !+, Englund, M+, > Srou&e, L+ A+ ;* McPartland, !+ ;* McPartland, !+ ;*


61/64


Harter, S+ ;* Ho&mann, '+ ;* Ho&mann, '+ ;* Fleac, L+ ;*


62/64


Fo1a-, R+ R+, > Sceer%, A+ ;* Ra&&aelli, M+ ;()))=+ The di&&erential relations o&

arent and eer attachment to adolescent ad#ustment+ !ournal o& Wouth and Adolescence,

( old.%n, R+ ;in ress=+ Adult attachment rating and classi&ication

s%stems+ 0n M+ Main ;Ed+=, A t%olog% o& human attachment organi9ation assessed in

discourse, dra.ings and inter"ie.s ;.or-ing title=+ Ne. Wor-: Cam1ridge $ni"ersit%

Press+

Main, M+, Falan, N+, > Cassid%, !+ ;*


63/64


Nada Ra#a, S+, Mcee, R+, > Stanton, + R+ ;*


64/64


ent9el, F+ R+ ;*

jill carlivati

Documents