Japan

“Nippon”redirects here. For other uses, see Japan(disambiguation) and Nippon (disambiguation).“JPN”redirects here. For the album, see JPN (album).

Japan (/dʒəˈpæn/; Japanese: ⽇本 Nippon [nip̚põ̞ɴ]or Nihon [nihõ̞ɴ]; formally ⽇本国 Nippon-koku orNihon-koku, “State of Japan”) is an island country inEast Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the eastof the Sea of Japan, the East China Sea, China, NorthKorea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Seaof Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwanin the south. The kanji that make up Japan's name mean“sun origin”, and Japan is often called the“Land of theRising Sun”.Japan is a stratovolcanic archipelago of 6,852 islands.The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu, andShikoku, which make up about ninety-seven percent ofJapan's land area. Japan's population of 126 million isthe world's tenth largest. Approximately 9.1 million peo-ple live in Tokyo,*[10] the capital city of Japan, which isthe second largest city proper in the OECD. The GreaterTokyo Area, which includes Tokyo and several surround-ing prefectures, is the world's largest metropolitan areawith over 35 million residents and the world's largest ur-ban agglomeration economy.Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhab-ited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period. The firstwritten mention of Japan is in Chinese history textsfrom the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions,mainly Imperial China, followed by periods of isolation,later from Western European influence, has character-ized Japan's history. From the 12th century until 1868,Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shogunswho ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan enteredinto a long period of isolation in the early 17th cen-tury, which was only ended in 1853 when a United Statesfleet pressured Japan to open to the West. Nearly twodecades of internal conflict and insurrection followed be-fore the Meiji Emperor was restored as head of state in1868 and the Empire of Japan was proclaimed, with theEmperor as a divine symbol of the nation. In the late19th and early 20th centuries, victories in the First Sino-Japanese War, the Russo-Japanese War and World War Iallowed Japan to expand its empire during a period ofincreasing militarism. The Second Sino-Japanese Warof 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941,which came to an end in 1945 following the atomic bomb-ings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Since adopting its re-vised constitution in 1947, Japan hasmaintained a unitary

constitutional monarchy with an Emperor and an electedlegislature called the National Diet.Japan is a member of the UN, the G7, the G8, and theG20. Japan is a great power.*[11]*[12]*[13]*[14] Thecountry has the world's third-largest economy by nomi-nal GDP and the world's fourth-largest economy by pur-chasing power parity. It is also the world's fifth-largestexporter and fifth-largest importer. Although Japan hasofficially renounced its right to declare war, it maintainsa modern military with the world's eighth largest mili-tary budget,*[15] used for self-defense and peacekeepingroles. Japan is a developed country with a high standardof living, and the country is ranked high in the HumanDevelopment Index. The Japanese population enjoys thehighest life expectancy of any country in the world and thethird lowest infant mortality rate.*[16]*[17]*[18] Japanranked first in the Country Brand Index.*[19] Japan isthe highest ranked Asian country in the Global Peace In-dex.*[20]

1 Etymology

Main article: Names of Japan

The English word Japan possibly derives from the earlyMandarin Chinese or Wu Chinese pronunciation of theJapanese name, ⽇本, which in Japanese is pronouncedNippon listen orNihon listen . Japanese people referto themselves as Nihonjin (⽇本⼈) and to their languageas Nihongo (⽇本語).From the Meiji Restoration until the end of World WarII, the full title of Japan was Dai Nippon Teikoku (⼤⽇本帝國), meaning“the Empire of Great Japan". Todaythe name Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku (⽇本国) is usedas a formal modern-day equivalent; countries like Japanwhose long form does not contain a descriptive designa-tion are generally given a name appended by the characterkoku (国), meaning“country”,“nation”or“state”.The character nichi (⽇) means “sun”or “day"; hon(本) means“base”or“origin”. The compound means“origin of the sun”or“sunrise”(from a Chinese pointof view, the sun rises from Japan); it is a source for thepopular Western description of Japan as the “Land ofthe Rising Sun”. Before Nihon came into official use,Japan was known asWa (倭) orWakoku (倭国).*[21]The English word for Japan came to the West via earlytrade routes. The Old Mandarin or possibly early Wu

1

2 2 HISTORY

Chinese ( 語) pronunciation of Japan was recorded byMarco Polo as Cipangu. In modern Shanghainese, a Wudialect, the pronunciation of characters ⽇本 'Japan' isZeppen [zəʔpən]. The old Malay word for Japan, Jepang,was borrowed from a southern coastal Chinese dialect,probably Fukienese or Ningpo,*[22] and this Malay wordwas encountered by Portuguese traders in Malacca in the16th century. Portuguese traders were the first to bringthe word to Europe.*[23] An early record of the word inEnglish is in a 1565 letter, spelled Giapan.*[24]

2 History

Main article: History of Japan

2.1 Prehistory and ancient history

The Golden Hall and five-storey pagoda of Hōryū-ji, among theoldest wooden buildings in the world, National Treasures, and aUNESCO World Heritage Site

A Paleolithic culture around 30,000 BC constitutes thefirst known habitation of the Japanese archipelago. Thiswas followed from around 14,000 BC (the start ofthe Jōmon period) by a Mesolithic to Neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer culture, who include ancestorsof both the contemporary Ainu people and Yamato peo-ple,*[25]*[26] characterized by pit dwelling and rudi-mentary agriculture.*[27] Decorated clay vessels fromthis period are some of the oldest surviving examples ofpottery in the world. Around 300 BC, the Yayoi peoplebegan to enter the Japanese islands, intermingling withthe Jōmon.*[28] The Yayoi period, starting around 500BC, saw the introduction of practices like wet-rice farm-ing,*[29] a new style of pottery,*[30] and metallurgy, in-troduced from China and Korea.*[31]Japan first appears in written history in the Chinese Bookof Han.*[32] According to the Records of the Three King-doms, themost powerful kingdom on the archipelago dur-ing the 3rd century was called Yamataikoku. Buddhismwas first introduced to Japan from Baekje of Korea, butthe subsequent development of Japanese Buddhism was

primarily influenced by China.*[33] Despite early resis-tance, Buddhism was promoted by the ruling class andgained widespread acceptance beginning in the Asuka pe-riod (592–710).*[34]The Nara period (710–784) of the 8th century markedthe emergence of a strong Japanese state, centered on animperial court in Heijō-kyō (modern Nara). The Naraperiod is characterized by the appearance of a nascentliterature as well as the development of Buddhist-inspiredart and architecture.*[35] The smallpox epidemic of 735–737 is believed to have killed as much as one-third ofJapan's population.*[36] In 784, Emperor Kammumovedthe capital from Nara to Nagaoka-kyō before relocatingit to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto) in 794.

Samurai warriors face Mongols, during the Mongol invasions ofJapan. The Kamikaze, two storms, are said to have saved Japanfrom Mongol fleets.

This marked the beginning of the Heian period (794–1185), during which a distinctly indigenous Japaneseculture emerged, noted for its art, poetry and prose.Murasaki Shikibu's The Tale of Genji and the lyrics ofJapan's national anthem Kimigayo were written duringthis time.*[37]Buddhism began to spread during the Heian era chieflythrough two major sects, Tendai by Saichō, and Shingonby Kūkai. Pure Land Buddhism (Jōdo-shū, Jōdo Shin-shū) greatly becomes popular in the latter half of the 11thcentury.

2.2 Feudal era

Japan's feudal era was characterized by the emergenceand dominance of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai.In 1185, following the defeat of the Taira clan in theGenpei War, sung in the epic Tale of Heike, samuraiMinamoto no Yoritomo was appointed shogun and es-tablished a base of power in Kamakura. After his death,the Hōjō clan came to power as regents for the shoguns.The Zen school of Buddhism was introduced from Chinain the Kamakura period (1185–1333) and became popu-lar among the samurai class.*[38] The Kamakura shogu-nate repelledMongol invasions in 1274 and 1281, but waseventually overthrown by Emperor Go-Daigo. Go-Daigowas himself defeated by Ashikaga Takauji in 1336.Ashikaga Takauji established the shogunate in Muro-machi, Kyoto. This was the start of the Muromachi Pe-

2.3 Modern era 3

Samurai could kill a commoner for the slightest insult and werewidely feared by the Japanese population. Edo period, 1798

riod (1336–1573). The Ashikaga shogunate achievedglory in the age of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, and the cul-ture based on Zen Buddhism (art of Miyabi) prospered.This evolved to Higashiyama Culture, and prospered un-til the 16th century. On the other hand, the succeed-ing Ashikaga shogunate failed to control the feudal war-lords (daimyo), and a civil war (the Ōnin War) began in1467, opening the century-long Sengoku period (“War-ring States”).*[39]During the 16th century, traders and Jesuit missionariesfrom Portugal reached Japan for the first time, initiatingdirect commercial and cultural exchange between Japanand the West. This allowed Oda Nobunaga to obtain Eu-ropean technology and firearms, which he used to con-quer many other daimyo. His consolidation of power be-gan what was known as the Azuchi–Momoyama period(1573-1603). After he was assassinated in 1582, his suc-cessor Toyotomi Hideyoshi unified the nation in 1590 andlaunched two unsuccessful invasions of Korea in 1592and 1597.Tokugawa Ieyasu served as regent for Hideyoshi's sonand used his position to gain political and military sup-port. When open war broke out, he defeated rival clansin the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Ieyasu was appointedshogun in 1603 and established the Tokugawa shogunateat Edo (modern Tokyo).*[40] The Tokugawa shogunateenacted measures including buke shohatto, as a code ofconduct to control the autonomous daimyo;*[41] and in1639, the isolationist sakoku (“closed country”) pol-icy that spanned the two and a half centuries of ten-uous political unity known as the Edo period (1603–1868).*[42] The study of Western sciences, known asrangaku, continued through contact with the Dutch en-clave at Dejima in Nagasaki. The Edo period also gaverise to kokugaku (“national studies”), the study of Japanby the Japanese.*[43]

Re-engraved map of Japan

2.3 Modern era

OnMarch 31, 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry and the"Black Ships" of the United States Navy forced the open-ing of Japan to the outside world with the Conventionof Kanagawa. Subsequent similar treaties with Westerncountries in the Bakumatsu period brought economic andpolitical crises. The resignation of the shogun led to theBoshin War and the establishment of a centralized statenominally unified under the Emperor (the Meiji Restora-tion).*[44]Adopting Western political, judicial and military insti-tutions, the Cabinet organized the Privy Council, intro-duced theMeiji Constitution, and assembled the ImperialDiet. The Meiji Restoration transformed the Empireof Japan into an industrialized world power that pur-sued military conflict to expand its sphere of influence.After victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), Japangained control of Taiwan, Korea, and the southern half ofSakhalin.*[45] Japan's population grew from 35 millionin 1873 to 70 million in 1935.*[46]The early 20th century saw a brief period of "Taishōdemocracy" overshadowed by increasing expansionismand militarization. World War I enabled Japan, on theside of the victorious Allies, to widen its influence andterritorial holdings. It continued its expansionist policy byoccupying Manchuria in 1931; as a result of internationalcondemnation of this occupation, Japan resigned fromthe League of Nations two years later. In 1936, Japansigned the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany, andthe 1940 Tripartite Pact made it one of the Axis Pow-ers.*[47] In 1941, Japan negotiated the Soviet–JapaneseNeutrality Pact.*[48]The Empire of Japan invaded other parts of China

4 3 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

Emperor Meiji (1868–1912), in whose name imperial rule wasrestored at the end of the Tokugawa shogunate

Chinese generals surrendering to the Japanese in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895

in 1937, precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War(1937–1945). The Imperial Japanese Army swiftly cap-tured the capital Nanjing and conducted the NankingMassacre.*[49] In 1940, the Empire then invaded FrenchIndochina, after which the United States placed an oil em-bargo on Japan.*[50] On December 7–8, 1941, Japaneseforces carried out surprise attacks on Pearl Harbor, at-tacks on British forces in Malaya, Singapore, and HongKong and declared war, bringing the US and the UKinto World War II in the Pacific.*[51]*[52] After theSoviet invasion of Manchuria and the atomic bombingsof Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan agreed to anunconditional surrender on August 15.*[53] The war costJapan and the rest of the Greater East Asia Co-ProsperitySphere millions of lives and left much of the nation'sindustry and infrastructure destroyed. The Allies (ledby the US) repatriated millions of ethnic Japanese from

Japanese officials surrendering to the Allies on September 2, 1945in Tokyo Bay, ending World War II

colonies and military camps throughout Asia, largelyeliminating the Japanese empire and restoring the inde-pendence of its conquered territories.*[54] The Alliesalso convened the International Military Tribunal for theFar East on May 3, 1946 to prosecute some Japaneseleaders for war crimes. However, the bacteriological re-search units and members of the imperial family involvedin the war were exonerated from criminal prosecutions bythe Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers despitecalls for trials for both groups.*[55]In 1947, Japan adopted a new constitution emphasiz-ing liberal democratic practices. The Allied occupationended with the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952*[56] andJapan was granted membership in the United Nations in1956. Japan later achieved rapid growth to become thesecond-largest economy in the world, until surpassed byChina in 2010. This ended in the mid-1990s when Japansuffered a major recession. In the beginning of the 21stcentury, positive growth has signaled a gradual economicrecovery.*[57] On March 11, 2011, Japan suffered thestrongest earthquake in its recorded history; this triggeredthe Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, one of the worstdisasters in the history of nuclear power.*[58]

3 Government and politics

Main article: Government of JapanJapan is a constitutional monarchy whereby the powerof the Emperor is very limited. As a ceremonial figure-head, he is defined by the constitution as“the symbol ofthe State and of the unity of the people.”Power is heldchiefly by the Prime Minister and other elected membersof the Diet, while sovereignty is vested in the Japanese

5

Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko

people.*[59] Akihito is the current Emperor of Japan;Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan, stands as next in lineto the Chrysanthemum Throne.Japan's legislative organ is the National Diet, seated inChiyoda, Tokyo. The Diet is a bicameral body, consist-ing of a House of Representatives with 480 seats, electedby popular vote every four years or when dissolved, anda House of Councillors of 242 seats, whose popularlyelected members serve six-year terms. There is universalsuffrage for adults over 20 years of age,*[2] with a secretballot for all elected offices.*[59] The Diet is dominatedby the social liberal Democratic Party of Japan and theconservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP). The LDPhas enjoyed near continuous electoral success since 1955,except for a brief 11-month period between 1993 and1994, and from 2009 to 2012. It holds 294 seats in thelower house and 83 seats in the upper house.The Prime Minister of Japan is the head of governmentand is appointed by the Emperor after being designatedby the Diet from among its members. The PrimeMinisteris the head of the Cabinet, and he appoints and dismissestheMinisters of State. Following the LDP's landslide vic-tory in the 2012 general election, Shinzō Abe replacedYoshihiko Noda as the Prime Minister on December 26,2012*[60] and became the country's sixth prime ministerto be sworn in 6 years. Although the Prime Minister isformally appointed by the Emperor, the Constitution ofJapan explicitly requires the Emperor to appoint whoeveris designated by the Diet.*[59]Historically influenced by Chinese law, the Japanese le-gal system developed independently during the Edo pe-riod through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki.*[61]However, since the late 19th century the judicial systemhas been largely based on the civil law of Europe, no-tably Germany. For example, in 1896, the Japanese gov-ernment established a civil code based on a draft of theGerman Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch; with the code remain-ing in effect with post–World War II modifications.*[62]Statutory law originates in Japan's legislature and has the

rubber stamp of the Emperor. The Constitution requiresthat the Emperor promulgate legislation passed by theDiet, without specifically giving him the power to opposelegislation.*[59] Japan's court system is divided into fourbasic tiers: the Supreme Court and three levels of lowercourts.*[63] The main body of Japanese statutory law iscalled the Six Codes.*[64]

4 Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Japan and Japan Self-Defense ForcesJapan is a member of the G8, APEC, and "ASEAN

JDS Kongō (DDG-173), a guided missile destroyer, launching aStandard Missile 3 anti-ballistic missile in 2007.

Plus Three", and is a participant in the East Asia Sum-mit. Japan signed a security pact with Australia in March2007*[65] and with India in October 2008.*[66] It isthe world's third largest donor of official developmentassistance after the United States and France, donatingUS$9.48 billion in 2009.*[67]Japan has close economic and military relations with theUnited States; the US-Japan security alliance acts as thecornerstone of the nation's foreign policy.*[68] A mem-ber state of the United Nations since 1956, Japan hasserved as a non-permanent Security Council member fora total of 20 years, most recently for 2009 and 2010. It isone of the G4 nations seeking permanent membership inthe Security Council.*[69]Japan is engaged in several territorial disputes with itsneighbors: with Russia over the South Kuril Islands, with

6 6 GEOGRAPHY

South Korea over the Liancourt Rocks, with China andTaiwan over the Senkaku Islands, and with China overthe EEZ around Okinotorishima.*[70] Japan also facesan ongoing dispute with North Korea over the latter'sabduction of Japanese citizens and its nuclear weaponsand missile program (see also Six-party talks).*[71]Japan maintains one of the largest military budgets ofany country in the world.*[72] Japan contributed non-combatant troops to the Iraq War but subsequently with-drew its forces.*[73] The Japan Maritime Self-DefenseForce (JMSDF) is a regular participant in RIMPACmar-itime exercises.*[74]Japan's military (the Japan Self-Defense Forces) is re-stricted by Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, whichrenounces Japan's right to declare war or use militaryforce in international disputes. Accordingly, Japan's Self-Defence force is a usual military that has never firedshots outside Japan.*[75] It is governed by the Ministryof Defense, and primarily consists of the Japan GroundSelf-Defense Force (JGSDF), the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) and the Japan Air Self-DefenseForce (JASDF). The forces have been recently used inpeacekeeping operations; the deployment of troops toIraqmarked the first overseas use of Japan's military sinceWorld War II.*[73] Japan Business Federation has calledon the government to lift the ban on arms exports so thatJapan can join multinational projects such as the JointStrike Fighter.*[76]In May 2014 Prime Minister Shinzō Abe said Japanwanted to shed the passiveness it has maintained sincethe end of World War II and take more responsibility forregional security. He said Japan wanted to play a key roleand offered neighboring countries Japan's support.*[77]

5 Administrative divisions

Further information: Administrative divisions of Japan

Japan consists of forty-seven prefectures, each overseenby an elected governor, legislature and administrative bu-reaucracy. Each prefecture is further divided into cities,towns and villages.*[78] The nation is currently undergo-ing administrative reorganization by merging many of thecities, towns and villages with each other. This processwill reduce the number of sub-prefecture administrativeregions and is expected to cut administrative costs.*[79]

6 Geography

Main articles: Geography of Japan and Geology of JapanJapan has a total of 6,852 islands extending along thePacific coast of East Asia. The country, including allof the islands it controls, lies between latitudes 24° and46°N, and longitudes 122° and 146°E. The main islands,

Topographic map of the Japanese archipelago

from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku andKyushu. The Ryukyu Islands, which includes Okinawa,are a chain to the south of Kyushu. Together they areoften known as the Japanese Archipelago.*[80]About 73 percent of Japan is forested, mountainous,and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residentialuse.*[2]*[81] As a result, the habitable zones, mainly lo-cated in coastal areas, have extremely high populationdensities. Japan is one of the most densely populatedcountries in the world.*[82]The islands of Japan are located in a volcanic zone onthe Pacific Ring of Fire. They are primarily the result oflarge oceanic movements occurring over hundreds of mil-lions of years from the mid-Silurian to the Pleistocene asa result of the subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate be-neath the continental Amurian Plate and Okinawa Plateto the south, and subduction of the Pacific Plate under theOkhotsk Plate to the north. Japan was originally attachedto the eastern coast of the Eurasian continent. The sub-ducting plates pulled Japan eastward, opening the Sea ofJapan around 15 million years ago.*[83]Japan has 108 active volcanoes. During the twenti-eth century several new volcanoes emerged, includingShōwa-shinzan on Hokkaido and Myōjin-shō off theBayonnaise Rocks in the Pacific. Destructive earth-quakes, often resulting in tsunami, occur several timeseach century.*[84] The 1923 Tokyo earthquake killedover 140,000 people.*[85] More recent major quakes arethe 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake and the 2011 Tōhokuearthquake, a 9.0-magnitude*[86] quake which hit Japanon March 11, 2011, and triggered a large tsunami.*[58]Due to its location in the Pacific Ring of Fire, Japanis substantially prone to earthquakes and tsunami, hav-ing the highest natural disaster risk in the developed

6.2 Biodiversity 7

world.*[87]

6.1 Climate

Main article: Climate of Japan

Cherry blossoms of Mount Yoshino has been the subjectof many plays and waka poetry

Autumn maple leaves (momiji) at Kongōbu-ji on MountKōya, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate, butvaries greatly from north to south. Japan's geographi-cal features divide it into six principal climatic zones:Hokkaido, Sea of Japan, Central Highland, Seto InlandSea, Pacific Ocean, and Ryūkyū Islands. The northern-most zone, Hokkaido, has a humid continental climatewith long, cold winters and very warm to cool summers.Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually developdeep snowbanks in the winter.*[88]In the Sea of Japan zone on Honshu's west coast, north-west winter winds bring heavy snowfall. In the summer,the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it some-times experiences extremely hot temperatures because ofthe foehn wind. The Central Highland has a typical inlandhumid continental climate, with large temperature dif-ferences between summer and winter, and between dayand night; precipitation is light, though winters are usu-ally snowy. The mountains of the Chūgoku and Shikokuregions shelter the Seto Inland Sea from seasonal winds,bringing mild weather year-round.*[88]The Pacific coast features a humid subtropical climatethat experiences milder winters with occasional snowfalland hot, humid summers because of the southeast sea-

sonal wind. The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical cli-mate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitationis very heavy, especially during the rainy season.*[88]The average winter temperature in Japan is 5.1 °C (41.2°F) and the average summer temperature is 25.2 °C(77.4 °F).*[89] The highest temperature ever measuredin Japan̶40.9 °C (105.6 °F)̶was recorded on August16, 2007.*[90] Themain rainy season begins in earlyMayin Okinawa, and the rain front gradually moves north un-til reaching Hokkaido in late July. In most of Honshu,the rainy season begins before the middle of June andlasts about six weeks. In late summer and early autumn,typhoons often bring heavy rain.*[91]

6.2 Biodiversity

The Japanese macaques at Jigokudani hot spring are notable forvisiting the spa in the winter.

Japan has nine forest ecoregions which reflect the cli-mate and geography of the islands. They range fromsubtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū andBonin Islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forestsin the mild climate regions of the main islands, totemperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter por-tions of the northern islands.*[92] Japan has over 90,000species of wildlife, including the brown bear, theJapanese macaque, the Japanese raccoon dog, and theJapanese giant salamander.*[93] A large network ofnational parks has been established to protect importantareas of flora and fauna as well as thirty-seven Ramsarwetland sites.*[94]*[95] Four sites have been inscribedon the UNESCO World Heritage List for their outstand-ing natural value.*[96]

6.3 Environment

Main article: Environmental issues in Japan

In the period of rapid economic growth after WorldWar II, environmental policies were downplayed by

8 7 ECONOMY

the government and industrial corporations; as a result,environmental pollution was widespread in the 1950s and1960s. Responding to rising concern about the problem,the government introduced several environmental protec-tion laws in 1970.*[97] The oil crisis in 1973 also en-couraged the efficient use of energy because of Japan'slack of natural resources.*[98] Current environmental is-sues include urban air pollution (NOx, suspended par-ticulate matter, and toxics), waste management, wa-ter eutrophication, nature conservation, climate change,chemical management and international co-operation forconservation.*[99]As of June 2015, more than 40 coal-fired power plantsare planned or under construction in Japan. The NGOClimate Action Network announced Japan as the winnerof its“Fossil of the Day”award for“doing the most toblock progress on climate action.”*[100]Japan ranks 26th in the 2014 Environmental PerformanceIndex, whichmeasures a nation's commitment to environ-mental sustainability.*[101] As a signatory of the KyotoProtocol, and host of the 1997 conference that createdit, Japan is under treaty obligation to reduce its carbondioxide emissions and to take other steps to curb climatechange.*[102]

7 Economy

Main article: Economy of Japan

The Tokyo Stock Exchange, the largest stock exchange inAsia*[103]

7.1 Economic history

Some of the structural features of Japan's economicgrowth developed in the Edo period, such as the net-work of transport routes, by road and water, and thefutures contracts, banking and insurance of the Osakarice brokers.*[104] During the Meiji period from 1868,Japan expanded economically with the embrace of themarket economy.*[105]Many of today's enterprises werefounded at the time, and Japan emerged as the most de-veloped nation in Asia.*[106] The period of overall realeconomic growth from the 1960s to the 1980s has beencalled the Japanese post-war economic miracle: it aver-aged 7.5 percent in the 1960s and 1970s, and 3.2 percentin the 1980s and early 1990s.*[107]Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s during what theJapanese call the Lost Decade, largely because of theafter-effects of the Japanese asset price bubble and do-mestic policies intended to wring speculative excessesfrom the stock and real estate markets. Government ef-forts to revive economic growth met with little successand were further hampered by the global slowdown in2000.*[2] The economy showed strong signs of recov-ery after 2005; GDP growth for that year was 2.8 per-cent, surpassing the growth rates of the US and EuropeanUnion during the same period.*[108]As of 2012, Japan is the third largest national economy inthe world, after the United States and China, in terms ofnominal GDP,*[109] and the fourth largest national econ-omy in the world, after the United States, China and In-dia, in terms of purchasing power parity.*[7] As of 2014,Japan's public debt was estimated at more than 200 per-cent of its annual gross domestic product, the largest ofany nation in the world.*[110] In August 2011, Moody'srating has cut Japan's long-term sovereign debt rating onenotch from Aa3 to Aa2 inline with the size of the coun-try's deficit and borrowing level. The large budget deficitsand government debt since the 2009 global recession andfollowed by earthquake and tsunami inMarch 2011 madethe rating downgrade.*[111] The service sector accountsfor three quarters of the gross domestic product.*[112]

7.2 Exports

Japan has a large industrial capacity, and is home to someof the largest and most technologically advanced produc-ers of motor vehicles, electronics, machine tools, steeland nonferrous metals, ships, chemical substances, tex-tiles, and processed foods. Agricultural businesses inJapan cultivate 13 percent of Japan's land, and Japan ac-counts for nearly 15 percent of the global fish catch, sec-ond only to China.*[2] As of 2010, Japan's labor forceconsisted of some 65.9 million workers.*[114] Japan hasa low unemployment rate of around four percent. Some20 million people, around 17 per cent of the population,were below the poverty line in 2007.*[115] Housing inJapan is characterized by limited land supply in urban ar-

7.4 Science and technology 9

A plug-in hybrid car manufactured by Toyota, one of the world'slargest carmakers. Japan is the second-largest producer of auto-mobiles in the world.*[113]

eas.*[116]Japan's exports amounted to US$4,210 per capita in2005. As of 2012, Japan's main export markets wereChina (18.1 percent), the United States (17.8 percent),South Korea (7.7 percent), Thailand (5.5 percent) andHong Kong (5.1 percent). Its main exports are trans-portation equipment, motor vehicles, iron and steel prod-ucts, semiconductors and auto parts.*[117] Japan's mainimport markets as of 2012 were China (21.3 percent), theUS (8.8 percent), Australia (6.4 percent), Saudi Arabia(6.2 percent), United Arab Emirates (5.0 percent), SouthKorea (4.6 percent) and Qatar (4.0 percent).*[2]

7.3 Imports

Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment,fossil fuels, foodstuffs (in particular beef), chemicals, tex-tiles and raw materials for its industries. By market sharemeasures, domestic markets are the least open of anyOECD country.*[118] Junichiro Koizumi's administra-tion began some pro-competition reforms, and foreign in-vestment in Japan has soared.*[119]Japan ranks 27th of 189 countries in the 2014 Ease ofdoing business index and has one of the smallest tax rev-enues of the developed world. The Japanese variant ofcapitalism has many distinct features: keiretsu enterprisesare influential, and lifetime employment and seniority-based career advancement are relatively common in theJapanese work environment.*[118]*[120] Japanese com-panies are known for management methods like "TheToyota Way", and shareholder activism is rare.*[121]Some of the largest enterprises in Japan include Toyota,Nintendo, NTT DoCoMo, Canon, Honda, Takeda Phar-maceutical, Sony, Panasonic, Toshiba, Sharp, NipponSteel, Nippon Oil, and Seven & I Holdings Co..*[122]It has some of the world's largest banks, and the TokyoStock Exchange (known for its Nikkei 225 and TOPIXindices) stands as the second largest in the world bymarket capitalization.*[123] As of 2006, Japan was hometo 326 companies from the Forbes Global 2000 or 16.3percent.*[124] In 2013, it was announced that Japan

would be importing shale natural gas.*[125]

7.4 Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in JapanJapan is a leading nation in scientific research, partic-

The Japanese Experiment Module (Kibo) at the InternationalSpace Station

ularly technology, machinery and biomedical research.Nearly 700,000 researchers share a US$130 billionresearch and development budget, the third largest inthe world.*[126] Japan is a world leader in fundamentalscientific research, having produced nineteen Nobel lau-reates in either physics, chemistry or medicine,*[127]three Fields medalists,*[128] and one Gauss Prize laure-ate.*[129] Some of Japan's more prominent technolog-ical contributions are in the fields of electronics, auto-mobiles, machinery, earthquake engineering, industrialrobotics, optics, chemicals, semiconductors and metals.Japan leads the world in robotics production and use, pos-sessing more than 20% (300,000 of 1.3 million) of theworld's industrial robots as of 2013*[130]̶though theirshare was historically even higher, representing one-halfof all industrial robots worldwide in 2000.*[131]The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) isJapan's space agency; it conducts space, planetary, andaviation research, and leads development of rockets andsatellites. It is a participant in the International Space Sta-tion: the Japanese Experiment Module (Kibo) was addedto the station during Space Shuttle assembly flights in2008.*[132] Japan's plans in space exploration include:launching a space probe to Venus, Akatsuki;*[133]*[134]developing the Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter to belaunched in 2016;*[135] and building a moon base by2030.*[136]On September 14, 2007, it launched lunar explorer"SELENE" (Selenological and Engineering Explorer)on an H-IIA (Model H2A2022) carrier rocket fromTanegashima Space Center. SELENE is also known asKaguya, after the lunar princess of The Tale of the Bam-boo Cutter.*[137] Kaguya is the largest lunar missionsince the Apollo program. Its purpose is to gather data on

10 8 DEMOGRAPHICS

the moon's origin and evolution. It entered a lunar orbiton October 4,*[138]*[139] flying at an altitude of about100 km (62 mi).*[140] The probe's mission was endedwhen it was deliberately crashed by JAXA into the Moonon June 11, 2009.*[141]

7.5 Infrastructure

Main articles: Energy in Japan and Transport in JapanAs of 2011, 46.1 percent of energy in Japan was pro-

A high-speed Shinkansen“Bullet train”

duced from petroleum, 21.3 percent from coal, 21.4 per-cent from natural gas, 4.0 percent from nuclear power,and 3.3 percent from hydropower. Nuclear power pro-duced 9.2 percent of Japan's electricity, as of 2011, downfrom 24.9 percent the previous year.*[142] However, byMay 2012 all of the country's nuclear power plants hadbeen taken offline because of ongoing public opposi-tion following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster inMarch 2011, though government officials continued totry to sway public opinion in favor of returning at leastsome of Japan's 50 nuclear reactors to service.*[143] Asof November 2014, two reactors at Sendai are likely torestart in early 2015.*[144] Given its heavy dependenceon imported energy,*[145] Japan has aimed to diver-sify its sources and maintain high levels of energy effi-ciency.*[146]Japan's road spending has been extensive.*[147] Its 1.2million kilometers of paved road are the main means oftransportation.*[148] A single network of high-speed, di-vided, limited-access toll roads connects major cities andis operated by toll-collecting enterprises. New and usedcars are inexpensive; car ownership fees and fuel leviesare used to promote energy efficiency. However, at just50 percent of all distance traveled, car usage is the lowestof all G8 countries.*[149]Dozens of Japanese railway companies compete in re-gional and local passenger transportation markets; majorcompanies include seven JR enterprises, Kintetsu Corpo-ration, Seibu Railway and Keio Corporation. Some 250high-speed Shinkansen trains connect major cities and

Japanese trains are known for their safety and punctu-ality.*[150]*[151] Proposals for a new Maglev route be-tween Tokyo and Osaka are at an advanced stage.*[152]There are 175 airports in Japan;*[2] the largest domes-tic airport, Haneda Airport, is Asia's second-busiest air-port.*[153] The largest international gateways are NaritaInternational Airport, Kansai International Airport andChūbu Centrair International Airport.*[154] Nagoya Portis the country's largest and busiest port, accounting for 10percent of Japan's trade value.*[155]

8 Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Japan, Japanese peopleand Ethnic issues in JapanJapan's population is estimated at around 127.1

Ainu, an ethnic minority people from Japan

A Japanese wedding at the Meiji Shrine

million,*[2] with 80% of the population living onHonshū. Japanese society is linguistically and cultur-ally homogeneous,*[156] composed of 98.5% ethnicJapanese,*[2] with small populations of foreign work-ers.*[156] Zainichi Koreans,*[157] Zainichi Chinese,Filipinos, Brazilians mostly of Japanese descent,*[158]and Peruvians mostly of Japanese descent are among thesmall minority groups in Japan.*[159] In 2003, therewere about 134,700 non-Latin American Western and345,500 Latin American expatriates, 274,700 of whom

8.1 Religion 11

were Brazilians (said to be primarily Japanese descen-dants, or nikkeijin, along with their spouses),*[158] thelargest community of Westerners.*[160]The most dominant native ethnic group is the Yamatopeople; primary minority groups include the indigenousAinu*[161] and Ryukyuan peoples, as well as social mi-nority groups like the burakumin.*[162] There are per-sons of mixed ancestry incorporated among the Yam-ato, such as those from Ogasawara Archipelago.*[163] Inspite of the widespread belief that Japan is ethnically ho-mogeneous (in 2009, foreign-born non-naturalized work-ers made up only 1.7% of the total population),*[164]also because of the absence of ethnicity and/or racestatistics for Japanese nationals, at least one analysis de-scribes Japan as a multiethnic society, for example, JohnLie.*[165] However, this statement is refused by manysectors of Japanese society, who still tend to preserve theidea of Japan being a monocultural society and with thisideology of homogeneity, has traditionally rejected anyneed to recognize ethnic differences in Japan, even assuch claims have been rejected by such ethnic minori-ties as the Ainu and Ryukyuan people. Former JapanesePrimeMinister Tarō Asō has once described Japan as be-ing a nation of“one race, one civilization, one languageand one culture”.*[166]Japan has the second longest overall life expectancy atbirth of any country in the world: 83.5 years for personsborn in the period 2010–2015.*[17]*[18] The Japanesepopulation is rapidly aging as a result of a post–WorldWar II baby boom followed by a decrease in birth rates.In 2012, about 24.1 percent of the population was over65, and the proportion is projected to rise to almost 40percent by 2050.*[167]The changes in demographic structure have created anumber of social issues, particularly a potential declinein workforce population and increase in the cost of so-cial security benefits like the public pension plan.*[168]A growing number of younger Japanese are not marry-ing or remain childless.*[169] In 2011, Japan's popula-tion dropped for a fifth year, falling by 204,000 people to126.24million people. This was the greatest decline sinceat least 1947, when comparable figures were first com-piled.*[170] This decline was made worse by the March11 earthquake and tsunami, which killed nearly 16,000people with approximately another 2,600 still listed asmissing as of 2014.*[171]Japan's population is expected to drop to 95 millionby 2050;*[167]*[172] demographers and governmentplanners are currently in a heated debate over how tocope with this problem.*[169] Immigration and birthincentives are sometimes suggested as a solution toprovide younger workers to support the nation's agingpopulation.*[173]*[174] Japan accepts a steady flow of15,000 new Japanese citizens by naturalization (帰化) peryear.*[175] According to the UNHCR, in 2012 Japan ac-cepted just 18 refugees for resettlement,*[176] while the

US took in 76,000.*[177]Japan suffers from a high suicide rate.*[178]*[179] In2009, the number of suicides exceeded 30,000 for thetwelfth straight year.*[180] Suicide is the leading causeof death for people under 30.*[181]

8.1 Religion

Main article: Religion in JapanJapan has full religious freedom based on Article 20 of

The torii of Itsukushima Shrine near Hiroshima, one of the ThreeViews of Japan and a UNESCO World Heritage Site

its Constitution. Upper estimates suggest that 84–96 per-cent of the Japanese population subscribe to Buddhismor Shinto, including a large number of followers of asyncretism of both religions.*[2]*[182] However, theseestimates are based on people affiliated with a temple,rather than the number of true believers. Other stud-ies have suggested that only 30 percent of the populationidentify themselves as belonging to a religion.*[183] Ac-cording to Edwin Reischauer and Marius Jansen, some70–80% of the Japanese do not consider themselves be-lievers in any religion.*[184]Nevertheless, the level of participation remains high, es-pecially during festivals and occasions such as the firstshrine visit of the New Year. Taoism and ConfucianismfromChina have also influenced Japanese beliefs and cus-toms.*[185] Japanese streets are decorated on Tanabata,Obon and Christmas. Fewer than one percent of Japaneseare Christian.*[186] Other minority religions includeIslam, Hinduism, Sikhism, and Judaism, and since themid-19th century numerous new religious movementshave emerged in Japan.*[187]

8.2 Languages

Main articles: Languages of Japan and Japanese language

More than 99 percent of the population speaks Japaneseas their first language.*[2] Japanese is an agglutinative

12 9 CULTURE

language distinguished by a system of honorifics reflect-ing the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verbforms and particular vocabulary indicating the relativestatus of speaker and listener. Japanese writing uses kanji(Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabariesbased on cursive script and radical of kanji), as well asthe Latin alphabet and Arabic numerals.*[188]Besides Japanese, the Ryukyuan languages (Amami,Kunigami, Okinawan, Miyako, Yaeyama, Yonaguni),also part of the Japonic language family, are spoken inthe Ryukyu Islands chain. Few children learn these lan-guages,*[189] but in recent years the local governmentshave sought to increase awareness of the traditional lan-guages. The Okinawan Japanese dialect is also spoken inthe region. The Ainu language, which has no proven rela-tionship to Japanese or any other language, is moribund,with only a few elderly native speakers remaining inHokkaido.*[190] Public and private schools generally re-quire students to take Japanese language classes as wellas English language courses.*[191]*[192]

8.3 Education

Main article: Education in JapanPrimary schools, secondary schools and universities were

Announcement of the results of the entrance examinations to theUniversity of Tokyo

introduced in 1872 as a result of the Meiji Restora-tion.*[193] Since 1947, compulsory education in Japancomprises elementary and middle school, which togetherlast for nine years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all chil-dren continue their education at a three-year senior highschool, and, according to the MEXT, as of 2005 about75.9 percent of high school graduates attended a univer-sity, junior college, trade school, or other higher educa-tion institution.*[194]The two top-ranking universities in Japan are theUniversity of Tokyo and Kyoto University.*[195]*[196]The Programme for International Student Assessmentcoordinated by the OECD currently ranks the overallknowledge and skills of Japanese 15-year-olds as sixth

best in the world.*[197]

8.4 Health

Main articles: Health in Japan and Health care system inJapan

In Japan, health care is provided by national and localgovernments. Payment for personal medical services isoffered through a universal health insurance system thatprovides relative equality of access, with fees set by a gov-ernment committee. People without insurance throughemployers can participate in a national health insuranceprogram administered by local governments. Since 1973,all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance.*[198] Patients are free to select thephysicians or facilities of their choice.*[199]

9 Culture

Main article: Culture of JapanSee also: Japanese popular cultureJapanese culture has evolved greatly from its origins.

Kinkaku-ji or 'The Temple of the Golden Pavilion' in Kyoto,Special Historic Site, Special Place of Scenic Beauty, and UN-ESCO World Heritage Site; its torching by a monk in 1950 is thesubject of a novel by Mishima.

Contemporary culture combines influences from Asia,Europe and North America. Traditional Japanese artsinclude crafts such as ceramics, textiles, lacquerware,swords and dolls; performances of bunraku, kabuki, noh,dance, and rakugo; and other practices, the tea cere-mony, ikebana, martial arts, calligraphy, origami, onsen,Geisha and games. Japan has a developed system forthe protection and promotion of both tangible and intan-gible Cultural Properties and National Treasures.*[200]Nineteen sites have been inscribed on the UNESCOWorld Heritage List, fifteen of which are of cultural sig-nificance.*[96]

9.3 Literature 13

9.1 Art

19th-century Ukiyo-e woodblock printing The Great Wave offKanagawa, one of the best recognized works of Japanese art inthe world.

Further information: Japanese art, Japanese architecture,Japanese garden and Japanese aesthetics

The Shrines of Ise have been celebrated as the proto-type of Japanese architecture.*[201] Largely of wood,traditional housing and many temple buildings see theuse of tatami mats and sliding doors that break downthe distinction between rooms and indoor and outdoorspace.*[202] Japanese sculpture, largely of wood, andJapanese painting are among the oldest of the Japanesearts, with early figurative paintings dating back to at least300 BC. The history of Japanese painting exhibits syn-thesis and competition between native Japanese aesthet-ics and adaptation of imported ideas.*[203]The interaction between Japanese and European art hasbeen significant: for example ukiyo-e prints, which be-gan to be exported in the 19th century in the movementknown as Japonism, had a significant influence on thedevelopment of modern art in the West, most notablyon post-Impressionism.*[203] Famous ukiyo-e artists in-clude Hokusai and Hiroshige. The fusion of traditionalwoodblock printing and Western art led to the creationof manga, a comic book format that is now popularwithin and outside Japan.*[204] Manga-influenced ani-mation for television and film is called anime. Japanese-made video game consoles have been popular since the1980s.*[205]

9.2 Music

Main article: Music of Japan

Japanese music is eclectic and diverse. Manyinstruments, such as the koto, were introduced inthe 9th and 10th centuries. The accompanied recitativeof the Noh drama dates from the 14th century and thepopular folk music, with the guitar-like shamisen, from

the sixteenth.*[206] Western classical music, introducedin the late 19th century, now forms an integral part ofJapanese culture. The imperial court ensemble Gagakuhas influenced the work of some modern Westerncomposers.*[207]Notable classical composers from Japan include ToruTakemitsu and Rentarō Taki. Popular music in post-warJapan has been heavily influenced by American and Eu-ropean trends, which has led to the evolution of J-pop,or Japanese popular music.*[208] Karaoke is the mostwidely practiced cultural activity in Japan. A 1993 surveyby the Cultural Affairs Agency found that more Japanesehad sung karaoke that year than had participated in tra-ditional pursuits such as flower arranging (ikebana) or teaceremonies.*[209]

9.3 Literature

Main articles: Japanese literature and Japanese poetryThe earliest works of Japanese literature include the

12th-century illustrated handscroll of The Tale of Genji, aNational Treasure

Kojiki and Nihon Shoki chronicles and the Man'yōshūpoetry anthology, all from the 8th century and written inChinese characters.*[210]*[211] In the early Heian pe-riod, the system of phonograms known as kana (Hiraganaand Katakana) was developed. The Tale of the BambooCutter is considered the oldest Japanese narrative.*[212]An account of Heian court life is given in The Pil-low Book by Sei Shōnagon, while The Tale of Genji byMurasaki Shikibu is often described as the world's firstnovel.*[213]*[214]During the Edo period, the chōnin (“townspeople”) over-took the samurai aristocracy as producers and consumersof literature. The popularity of the works of Saikaku, forexample, reveals this change in readership and author-ship, while Bashō revivified the poetic tradition of theKokinshū with his haikai (haiku) and wrote the poetictravelogue Oku no Hosomichi.*[215] The Meiji era sawthe decline of traditional literary forms as Japanese liter-ature integratedWestern influences. Natsume Sōseki andMori Ōgai were the first“modern”novelists of Japan,followed by Ryūnosuke Akutagawa, Jun'ichirō Tanizaki,Yukio Mishima and, more recently, Haruki Murakami.Japan has two Nobel Prize-winning authors̶YasunariKawabata (1968) and Kenzaburō Ōe (1994).*[212]

14 11 REFERENCES

9.4 Cuisine

Breakfast at a ryokan or inn

Main article: Japanese cuisine

Japanese cuisine is based on combining staple foods, typ-ically Japanese rice or noodles, with a soup and okazu̶dishes made from fish, vegetable, tofu and the like – toadd flavor to the staple food. In the early modern era in-gredients such as red meats that had previously not beenwidely used in Japan were introduced. Japanese cuisineis known for its emphasis on seasonality of food,*[216]quality of ingredients and presentation. Japanese cuisineoffers a vast array of regional specialties that use tradi-tional recipes and local ingredients. The Michelin Guidehas awarded restaurants in JapanmoreMichelin stars thanthe rest of the world combined.*[217]

9.5 Sports

Main article: Sport in JapanTraditionally, sumo is considered Japan's national

Sumo wrestlers form around the referee during the ring-enteringceremony

sport.*[218] Japanese martial arts such as judo, karateand kendo are also widely practiced and enjoyed by spec-tators in the country. After the Meiji Restoration, manyWestern sports were introduced in Japan and began to

spread through the education system.*[219] Japan hostedthe Summer Olympics in Tokyo in 1964. Japan hashosted the Winter Olympics twice: Sapporo in 1972 andNagano in 1998.*[220] Tokyo will host the 2020 Sum-mer Olympics, making Tokyo the first Asian city to hostthe Olympics twice.*[221] Japan is the most successfulAsian Rugby Union country, winning the Asian Five Na-tions a record 6 times and winning the newly formed IRBPacific Nations Cup in 2011. Japan will host the 2019IRB Rugby World Cup.*[222]Baseball is currently the most popular spectator sportin the country. Japan's top professional league, nowknown as Nippon Professional Baseball, was establishedin 1936.*[223] Since the establishment of the Japan Pro-fessional Football League in 1992, association footballhas also gained a wide following.*[224] Japan was avenue of the Intercontinental Cup from 1981 to 2004and co-hosted the 2002 FIFAWorld Cup with South Ko-rea.*[225] Japan has one of the most successful footballteams in Asia, winning the Asian Cup four times.*[226]Also, Japan recently won the FIFA Women's World Cupin 2011.*[227] Golf is also popular in Japan,*[228] asare forms of auto racing like the Super GT series andFormula Nippon.*[229] The country has produced oneNBA player, Yuta Tabuse.*[230]

10 See also

• Tourism in Japan

• Outline of Japan

• Index of Japan-related articles

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20 12 FURTHER READING

[202] Kazuo, Nishi; Kazuo, Hozumi (1995). What is JapaneseArchitecture?: A Survey of Traditional Japanese Architec-ture with a List of Sites and a Map. Kodansha. ISBN 978-4-7700-1992-9.

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[204] “A History of Manga”. NMP International. RetrievedMarch 2, 2014.

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[215] Keene, Donald (1999). World Within Walls: JapaneseLiterature of the Pre-Modern Era, 1600–1867. ColumbiaUniversity Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11467-7.

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12 Further reading

Main article: Bibliography of Japanese history

• Flath (2000). The Japanese Economy. Oxford Uni-versity Press. ISBN 0-19-877503-2.

• Henshall (2001). A History of Japan. PalgraveMacmillan. ISBN 0-312-23370-1.

• Iwabuchi (2002). Recentering Globalization: Popu-lar Culture and Japanese Transnationalism. DukeUniversity Press. ISBN 0-8223-2891-7.

• Jansen (2000). TheMaking of Modern Japan. Belk-nap. ISBN 0-674-00334-9.

• Kato et al. (1997). A History of Japanese Litera-ture: From the Man'Yoshu to Modern Times. JapanLibrary. ISBN 1-873410-48-4.

21

• Pilling, David (2014). Bending Adversity: Japanand the Art of Survival. London: Allen Lane. ISBN978-1-846-14546-9.

• Samuels (2008). Securing Japan: Tokyo's GrandStrategy and the Future of East Asia. Cornell Uni-versity Press. ISBN 0-8014-7490-6.

• Silverberg (2007). Erotic Grotesque Nonsense: TheMass Culture of Japanese Modern Times. Universityof California Press. ISBN 0-520-22273-3.

• Sugimoto et al. (2003). An Introduction to JapaneseSociety. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52925-5.

• Taggart Murphy, R. (2014). Japan and the Shack-les of the Past. Oxford and New York, NY: OxfordUniversity Press. ISBN 978-0-199-84598-9.

• Varley (2000). Japanese Culture. University ofHawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-2152-1.

13 External linksGovernment

• Kantei.go.jp, official site of the Prime Minister ofJapan and His Cabinet

• Kunaicho.go.jp, official site of the Imperial House

• National Diet Library

• Public Relations Office

Tourism

• Japan National Tourist Organization

• Japan travel guide from Wikivoyage

General information

• Japan entry at The World Factbook

• Japan from UCB Libraries GovPubs

• Japan at DMOZ

• Japan profile from BBC News

• Energy Profile for Japan from the US Energy Infor-mation Administration

• Japan from the OECD

• Key Development Forecasts for the Japan fromInternational Futures

22 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

14 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

14.1 Text• Japan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan?oldid=677518604 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Brion VIBBER, Eloquence, Mav,

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14.1 Text 23

Jaxl, Johann Wolfgang, Snkcube, Virek, Stompbox, Rjensen, Howcheng, Piratesswoop, Journalist, Dogcow, Irishguy, Esthurin, Gun-metal, Banes, Cholmes75, DAJF, CaliforniaAliBaba, Larry laptop, Number 57, Mikeblas, 93JC, AdiJapan, Scs, Snagglepuss, Wombat007,Ospalh, Bucketsofg, Sir Edgar, Aaron Schulz, Mkill, Neptuneam, AdamProcter, Lockesdonkey, RedForge, Gadget850, Helvete~enwiki,Bota47, Geoi, Caspian, Kewp, Everyguy, Jpeob, Dan Austin, Martinwilke1980, Siyavash, Closet geek, Robertbyrne, Nlu, Oy Maatsulu,Neonexis, Wknight94, Searchme, Crisco 1492, Kmusser, Intershark, FF2010, Sadistik, Cursive, Bdell555, Calaschysm, Numba1xclusive,Druff, Zzuuzz, Homagetocatalonia, Lt-wiki-bot, Chesnok, Nipplemaster5000, Bayerischermann, Barryob, Nikkimaria, Chase me ladies,I'm the Cavalry, Theda, Mechajedi, Closedmouth, Chery, Arthur Rubin, Fang Aili, Chanheigeorge, Bamse, BorgQueen, GraemeL, Jecowa,Aeon1006, JoanneB, TBadger, Shawnc, Daiju~enwiki, Dannychoo, Peter, SndrAndrss, Scoutersig, Thelb4, Kevin, Spliffy, Wikipedian-inthehouse, Garion96, Staxringold, Che829, Ryoske, PMHauge, Kungfuadam, Ief, RG2, Bernd in Japan, A.Nath, Asterion, Matsuhito,Jasongetsdown, Rb345, Kirby of Doom, Appleby, 2t56, Indiana Fats, Sam Chen, DVD R W, CIreland, One, Kf4bdy, SaveTheWhales,JusticeLaw, Neier, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, Promsan, Johnny1988, David Kernow, Bobet, TheFloppyOne, Nihonjoe, Mr Smiley, Hero-stratus, Tarret, Prodego, KnowledgeOfSelf, TestPilot, Royalguard11, DCGeist, Olorin28, Kundun yintian, K-UNIT, McGeddon, Kohhei,Lagalag, Nihilism, CastAStone, Pgk, Saimdusan, Deiaemeth, Lawrencekhoo, Gnuwho, Jacek Kendysz, Kilo-Lima, Yuyudevil, Rb234,KocjoBot~enwiki, Thunderboltz, Yume149~enwiki, Chairman S., Scifiintel, Maxima m, Bwithh, EncycloPetey, Jrockley, Delldot, Fry-master, MattSJ, AnOddName, Nudimmud, Wakuran, Fnfd, Kintetsubuffalo, Brob, Squall01, Edgar181, Wittylama, HalfShadow, Msujd,Gaff, Commander Keane bot, Xaosflux, Aksi great, PeterSymonds, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Steverich, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Betacom-mand, Oscarthecat, Skizzik, Polaron, Cs-wolves, Daysleeper47, Andy M. 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24 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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14.2 Images 25

Ellsworth, Klobis, Gufido, Chronus, Tobby72, Csiew88, Seibun, Norville Rogers, Firekraag, CepterX, Bambuway, Roakr, Louperibot,Kuzmaxster, Leeinipoh, Overclax, Citation bot 1, Neyagawa, AstaBOTh15, Pinethicket, Kim-Zhang-Hong, Oxana879, Elockid, Dar-renmule, Azips, Rahlgd, Fat&Happy, Leewsb, EllieTea, MastiBot, Jaguar, SpaceFlight89, Nomi149, Phoenix7777, Columbia clipper,Rlawldn94, Tbagger69, Jenifarhszsz, Mitt313, Ibugcutie, Nirinsanity, Nd24, Celyndel, Ouyuecheng, Lightlowemon, Brandonshim184,FoxBot, Dsz4, TobeBot, PiRSquared17, Vinay84, DriveMySol, Lotje,何邦 , RoadTrain, Nobita.TW.Luo, Extra999, Begoon, Tadashie,Canuckian89, Diannaa, Underlying lk, Trikemike, Horsemeister, Tbhotch, NederlandsNederlands, Helpspoke, Stephreef, M3chung, TheUtahraptor, RjwilmsiBot, Anycent, Chipmunkdavis, Generalboss3, Bento00, Vellidragon, Korpio8, NerdyScienceDude, Jimtaip, Polylep-sis, Carsf, DASHBot, Tradartrd, Mevlüt Kılıç, Kaiserble, EmausBot, Straatmeester, SuperDuy, Nima1024, WikitanvirBot, Swcfer, Ashton29, Desertroad, Filipdr, JarredTheYoutuber2, Taurrem, Creatureinthesky, Distal24, Blizzardstep0, Britannic124, RA0808, Mesgul82,Halfd, Bull Market, BaseballPie, Sp33dyphil, Slightsmile, Michaeltobbylee, P. S. F. Freitas, Yattum, The Blade of the Northern Lights,Tanner Swett, Eurasiatic, Kkm010, HiW-Bot, ZéroBot, Illegitimate Barrister, Jack solomon, MithrandirAgain, Houseorbehoused, Correc-tus2kX, Hereforhomework2, Kevz1140, Greatpowers, AvicAWB, Idh0854, Everard Proudfoot, DrZygote214, H3llBot, Wiooiw, SporkBot,Raiolu, Zhenhaili000286, Luisfrois, Enopy, Bridgetansel, Futongrab, Calvin Lourdes He, Tyhlerb, Morgan Hauser, Kanon und wikipedia,Gray eyes, Brandmeister, Kirothereaper, L Kensington, Icct Hedrix, Divaygoel, Jarjarbinks10, MAN3212, Japonfa, Hephatsheput, Er-get2005, Gsarwa, Irrypride, 11evansj, Quite vivid blur, Heralder, Xiaoyu of Yuxi, MakmoudHassan, Lacobrigo, Martin david brown,Rackas321, Kris159, Anonimski, Vzomg, ElockidAlternate, Khlee560~enwiki, Sheepy124, GermanJoe, Italiano111, Cefisher, Ang15,Australian cowboy, Hylian Auree, Czeror, Senator2029, Lguipontes, Newtrend19, كلثوم بن ,عمرو Estheroliver, Will Beback Auto,ClueBot NG, ZambiblasianOgre, 2move2, Michaelmas1957, Gilderien, Bulldog73, Movses-bot, Kman665, Jokeroler, Iritakamas, Mu-sicGeek101, Frietjes, Delusion23, Elvonudinium, Twillisjr, Hazhk, NyuclearTrigger, Househelps, AritaMoonlight81, Hiroshi Okimura,Rats-Pasngeld Rennab, Jrobin08, Helpful Pixie Bot, Ek132, Maculosae tegmine lyncis, Tokyoship, Ephert, BG19bot, Joshtheeditor,Keivan.f, Wahtung, M0rphzone, 00small, Rainbowzom, HIDECCHI001, Interchangeable, Tjl1128, Calvin Marquess, Cold Season, Mid-night Green, Earth'sbuddy, SugarRat, FutureTrillionaire, Cadiomals, Yerevantsi, Altaïr, Death4, Earth Wikipedian, Ollieinc, Sovereign8,Mythic Writerlord, Risingstar12, Ernio48, Mitchitara, Polmandc, Isokiho, Scuppers1, AntanO, Nerotaso, Lieutenant of Melkor, Slow-likemolasses, Tangled nest spider, Shredder2012, Horai 551, Nicdb, BattyBot, Factsearch, TheInfernoX, Rwenonah, Arizonatsunami,JoshuSasori, Deadmarsh20, ChrisGualtieri, SkyTree90, Adnan bogi, EnzaiBot, Enemyusuar, Logographicthings, Atakuzier, BrightStarSky,Onepebble, Dexbot, Mr. Guye, Mogism, MarioZelda128, Hto9950, Hoshigaki, Harishrawat11, Athomeinkobe, WiHkibew, Faisal 1918,Seqqis, CsDix, The Awesome 10, Melonkelon, Joey.atienza, Lssrn, EvergreenFir, Dustin V. S., Supersaiyen312, Tresmegistus, LindenhurstLiberty, Transphasic, Mr. Lama, BBio-Wiki, MJ Soquerata, Meepsterbanana, Hoggardhigh, ,1عراقي Gixce93, Japa3, Othello95, Kind Ten-nis Fan, LuiYo9362, Gokul.gk7, Szekszter, Blondeguynative, Liz, OccultZone, Rtedb, Allen2, Esquin, Stufroguk, Stopedits11, Knsn57,G S Palmer, Lakun.patra, Spiritclaymore, Keijhae, Asiaten-Kenner, Massyparcer, Monkbot, ShawntheGod, Thibaut120094, Jef Ecker,Ryopus, Runawaysquash, Mikehistory, Monopoly31121993, Keiiri, YJAX, Cabanatueno, Xylocode, SoundArgument2, Onemakes100,Unocha.visual, ChamithN, Kyodaiteeter, Emanuelito martinez, 555nhs, Redfoxjump, YeOldeGentleman, Fimatic, DuckWaffle12, GildaV-erdi01, BlackRanger88, MoreTomorrow, Mdayasakii, Aldiazmo, Clerkletheq, KasparBot, TheRealSingapore, XFusionSGX, Ticktock01,Anentai, Icarus the Great and Anonymous: 2469

14.2 Images• File:American-MNNA-2007.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/American-MNNA-2007.svg License:

Public domain Contributors: Based on BlankMap-World6.svg Original artist: Ratatosk• File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_

projection%29.svg License: GFDL Contributors: Map by SsolbergjAquarius.geomar.deOriginal artist:Koyos + Ssolbergj (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Ssolbergj' title='User talk:Ssolbergj'>talk</a>)

• File:Bjs48_02_Ainu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Bjs48_02_Ainu.jpg License: Public domainContributors: http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027j/beato_people/fb_album_01.html Original artist: Felice Beato

• File:Breakfast_at_Tamahan_Ryokan,_Kyoto.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Breakfast_at_Tamahan_Ryokan%2C_Kyoto.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MichaelMaggs

• File:Cherry_blossoms_at_Yoshinoyama_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Cherry_blossoms_at_Yoshinoyama_01.jpg License: CC BY 2.1 jp Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tawashi2006

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Decrease2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Decrease2.svg License: Public domain Contributors:Own work Original artist: Sarang

• File:Emperor_Akihito_and_Empress_Michiko_cropped_Barack_Obama_Emperor_Akihito_and_Empress_Michiko_20140424_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Emperor_Akihito_and_Empress_Michiko_cropped_Barack_Obama_Emperor_Akihito_and_Empress_Michiko_20140424_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: President Obama atthe Welcome Ceremony in Japan | Flickr - Photo Sharing! Original artist: State Department photo by William Ng / Public domainEast Asia and Pacific Media Hub

• File:Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg License: CC0Contributors: http://openclipart.org/detail/24112/flag-of-afghanistan-by-anonymous-24112 Original artist:

• File:Flag_of_Argentina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Based on: http://manuelbelgrano.gov.ar/bandera/creacion-de-la-bandera-nacional/ Original artist: (Vector graphics byDbenbenn)

• File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Bahrain.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Flag_of_Bahrain.svg License: Public domainContributors: http://www.moci.gov.bh/en/KingdomofBahrain/BahrainFlag/ Original artist: Source: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten byUser:Zscout370

26 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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• File:Flag_of_Europe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg License: Public domainContributors: Original artist:User:Verdy p, User:-xfi-, User:Paddu, User:Nightstallion, User:Funakoshi, User:Jeltz, User:Dbenbenn, User:Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Orig-inal artist: ?

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• File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:? Original artist: ?

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Moroccan royal decree (17 November 1915)Original artist: Denelson83, Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_Myanmar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg License: CC0 Con-tributors: Open Clip Art Original artist: Unknown

• File:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg License:Public domain Contributors: http://www.mch.govt.nz/files/NZ%20Flag%20-%20proportions.JPG Original artist: Zscout370, Hugh Jassand many others

• File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from flagspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-nal artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg License:CC0 Contributors: the actual flag Original artist: Unknown

14.2 Images 27

• File:Flag_of_Singapore.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: The drawing was based from http://app.www.sg/who/42/National-Flag.aspx. Colors from the book: (2001). TheNational Symbols Kit. Singapore: Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts. pp. 5. ISBN 8880968010 Pantone 032 shade fromhttp://www.pantone.com/pages/pantone/colorfinder.aspx?c_id=13050 Original artist: Various

• File:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg License:Public domain Contributors: Per specifications in the Constitution of South Africa, Schedule 1 - National flag Original artist: Flag de-sign by Frederick Brownell, image by Wikimedia Commons users

• File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License:Public domain Contributors: Ordinance Act of the Law concerning the National Flag of the Republic of Korea, Construction and colorguidelines (Russian/English) ← This site is not exist now.(2012.06.05) Original artist: Various

• File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_Tunisia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg License: Public domainContributors: http://www.w3.org/ Original artist: entraîneur: BEN KHALIFA WISSAM

• File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public domainContributors: Turkish Flag Law (Türk Bayrağı Kanunu), Law nr. 2893 of 22 September 1983. Text (in Turkish) at the website of theTurkish Historical Society (Türk Tarih Kurumu) Original artist: David Benbennick (original author)

• File:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg License: Public domainContributors: ДСТУ 4512:2006 - Державний прапор України. Загальні технічні умови

SVG: 2010

Original artist: України• File:Flag_of_Vietnam.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg License: Public do-

main Contributors: http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/law/vi/1951_to_1960/1955/195511/195511300001 http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/Lists/Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=820 Original artist: Lưu Ly vẽ lại theo nguồn trên

• File:Flag_of_the_People'{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: The design was taken from [1] and the colors were also taken from a Government website Originalartist: User:Achim1999

• File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Li-cense: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License:PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Generals_Pyongyang_MigitaToshihide_October1894.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Generals_Pyongyang_MigitaToshihide_October1894.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/throwing_off_asia_01/2000_380_08_l.html Original artist: Migita Toshihide

• File:Genji_emaki_01003_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Genji_emaki_01003_001.jpg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: http://www.gotoh-museum.or.jp/collection/index.html Original artist: Imperial Palace Kyoto

• File:Goshichi_no_kiri.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Goshichi_no_kiri.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Own work Original artist: file created on Adobe Illustrator and Photoshop by: Zagyoso

• File:Horyu-ji11s3200.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Horyu-ji11s3200.jpg License: CC BY 2.5Contributors: 663highland Original artist: 663highland

• File:Icône_Ile.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Ic%C3%B4ne_Ile.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con-tributors: Original artist:Isla.svg: *Palm_tree_symbol.svg: DarkEvil

• File:Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg License:Public domain Contributors: Inspired by File:Japan coa kiku.png Original artist: User:Philip Nilsson

• File:Itsukushima_torii_distance.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Itsukushima_torii_distance.jpgLicense: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rdsmith4

• File:JR_west_N700series_N1_maibara.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/JR_west_N700series_N1_maibara.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: spaceaero2

• File:Japan_(orthographic_projection).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Japan_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Connormah

• File:Japan_map_1783.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Japan_map_1783.jpeg License: Public do-main Contributors: UBC Library Digital Collections Original artist: Nagakubo, Sekisui

• File:Japan_topo_en.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Japan_topo_en.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Jigokudani_hotspring_in_Nagano_Japan_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Jigokudani_hotspring_in_Nagano_Japan_001.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Yosemite

• File:Kibo_PM_and_ELM-PS.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Kibo_PM_and_ELM-PS.jpg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/shuttle/sts-124/html/s124e007090.html Original artist:NASA

28 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Kimi_ga_Yo_instrumental.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Kimi_ga_Yo_instrumental.ogg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: http://www.navyband.navy.mil/Anthems/national_anthems.htm (specifically http://www.navyband.navy.mil/Anthems/ANTHEMS/Japan.mp3). Original artist: Performance by US Navy Ceremonial Band [1]

• File:Kinkaku-ji_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Kinkaku-ji_01.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bernard Gagnon

• File:Kongobuji_Koyasan07n3200.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Kongobuji_Koyasan07n3200.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: 663highland Original artist: 663highland

• File:Loudspeaker.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg License: Public domain Contrib-utors: New version of Image:Loudspeaker.png, by AzaToth and compressed by Hautala Original artist: Nethac DIU, waves corrected byZoid

• File:Meiji-jingu_wedding_procession_-_P1000847.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Meiji-jingu_wedding_procession_-_P1000847.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Shinichi Sugiyama (chez_sugi) fromtokyo, japan

• File:Meiji_tenno1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Meiji_tenno1.jpg License: Public domain Con-tributors: (1999-November) 四 の (Tenno Yondai No Shozo), Tokyo, Japan: 毎⽇新聞社 (Mainichi Shinbun Sha)ISBN: 4620605549. Original artist: Artist: Eduardo Chiossone (1833–98); Photographer: Maruki Riyō (also misspelt as Maruki Toshi-aki)*[#cite_note-fujitani-3 [3]]

• File:Mōko_Shūrai_Ekotoba_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/M%C5%8Dko_Sh%C5%ABrai_Ekotoba_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 蒙古襲来絵詞 Original artist: ⽵崎季⻑

• File:Nagoya_dome_from_Midland_Square.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Nagoya_dome_from_Midland_Square.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Nihongo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Nihongo.svg License: Public domainContributors: Ownwork Original artist: Convert to SVG by OsamaK from Image:Nihongo.png. based on w:Image:Nihongo Bunpou b.200x200.png.

• File:Nuvola_apps_kpdf2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Nuvola_apps_kpdf2.png License: LGPLContributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:IngerAlHaosului using CommonsHelper. Original artist:Original uploader was Equazcion at en.wikipedia

• File:Osaka_Castle_03bs3200.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Osaka_Castle_03bs3200.jpg License:CC BY 2.5 Contributors: 663highland Original artist: 663highland

• File:Prius_Plug-in_Hybrid-11-09-04-iaa-by-RalfR-108.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Prius_Plug-in_Hybrid-11-09-04-iaa-by-RalfR-108.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:11-09-04-iaa-by-RalfR-108.jpg Original artist: Ralf Roletschek (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Ralf_Roletschek'title='User talk:Ralf Roletschek'>talk</a>) - Fahrradtechnik auf fahrradmonteur.de. Derivative work: trimmed by Mariordo

• File:Regions_and_Prefectures_of_Japan_2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Regions_and_Prefectures_of_Japan_2.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: El Cid

• File:SM3_from_JDS_Kongo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/SM3_from_JDS_Kongo.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: http://www.navy.mil/view_single.asp?id=53983 Original artist: U.S. Navy

• File:Skyscrapers_of_Shinjuku_2009_January_(revised).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Skyscrapers_of_Shinjuku_2009_January_%28revised%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Morio

• File:Sumo_ceremony.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Sumo_ceremony.jpg License: Public domainContributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:The_Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/The_Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: photo of the artwork Original artist: Katsushika Hokusai (葛飾北斎)

• File:Tokyo_University_Entrance_Exam_Results_6.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Tokyo_University_Entrance_Exam_Results_6.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Tokyo_stock_exchange.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Tokyo_stock_exchange.jpg License:CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Chris 73

• File:Umezu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Umezu.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Mredden at en.wikipedia

• File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.

• File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use official Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded bySimon.

• File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky

• File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs),based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

• File:Yokohama_MinatoMirai21.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Yokohama_MinatoMirai21.jpgLicense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File: Ｓａｍｕｒａｉ.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/%EF%BC%B3%EF%BD%81%EF%BD%8D%EF%BD%95%EF%BD%92%EF%BD%81%EF%BD%89.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 四時交加 Original artist: ⼭東京伝

14.3 Content license 29

14.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

• User:Zscout370• File based on the specification given at [1].• Isla.svg