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Taxonomy and evolution Distribution and habitat Jaguar reproduction and life cycles Jaguar diet and prey Jaguar predators and threats Jaguar conservation and status life Jaguar behaviour and lifestyle Jaguar relationships with humans Bibliography

Jaguar

Thejaguaris abig cat, afelinein thePantheragenus, and is the onlyextantPantheraspecies native to the Americas. The jaguar is the third-largest feline after thetigerand thelion, and the largest in theWestern Hemisphere. The jaguar's present range extends fromSouthwestern United StatesandMexicoacross much ofCentral Americaand south toParaguayand northernArgentina. Apart from a known and possibly breeding population inArizona(southeast ofTucson), the cat has largely beenextirpatedfrom the United States since the early 20th century.This spotted cat most closely resembles theleopardphysically, although it is usually larger and of sturdier build and its behavioral andhabitatcharacteristics are closer to those of the tiger. While denserainforestis its preferred habitat, the jaguar will range across a variety of forested and open terrains. It is strongly associated with the presence of water and is notable, along with the tiger, as a feline that enjoys swimming. The jaguar is largely asolitary, opportunistic, stalk-and-ambushpredatorat the top of the food chain (anapex predator). It is akeystone species, playing an important role in stabilizingecosystemsand regulating the populations of the animals it hunts. The jaguar has an exceptionally powerful bite, even relative to the other big cats.This allows it to pierce the shells of armored reptilesand to employ an unusual killing method: it bites directly through theskullof prey between the ears to deliver a fatal bite to the brain. The jaguar is anear threatenedspecies and its numbers are declining. Threats include loss andfragmentation of habitat. While international trade in jaguars or their parts is prohibited, the cat is still frequently killed by humans, particularly in conflicts with ranchers and farmers in South America. Although reduced, its range remains large. Given its historical distribution, the jaguar has featured prominently in the mythology of numerousindigenous American cultures, including those of theMayaandAztec. Taxonomy and EvolutionThe jaguar,Panthera onca, is the only extant New World member of thePantheragenus.DNAevidence shows the lion, tiger,leopard, jaguar, snow leopard, andclouded leopardshare a common ancestor, and that this group is between six and ten million years old; the fossil record points to the emergence ofPantherajust two to 3.8 million years ago.Phylogeneticstudies generally have shown the clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) isbasalto this group.The position of the remaining species varies between studies and is effectively unresolved.Based on morphological evidence, BritishzoologistReginald Pocockconcluded the jaguar is most closely related to the leopard.However, DNA evidence is inconclusive and the position of the jaguar relative to the other species varies between studies.Fossils of extinctPantheraspecies, such as theEuropean jaguar(Panthera gombaszoegensis) and theAmerican lion(Panthera atrox), show characteristics of both the lion and the jaguar.Analysis of jaguarmitochondrial DNAhas dated the species' lineage to between 280,000 and 510,000 years ago, later than suggested by fossil records.Asian ancestryWhile jaguars now live only in the Americas, they are descended from Old World cats. Two million years ago, scientists believe, the jaguar and its closest relative, the similarly spotted leopard, shared a common ancestor in Asia.[20]In the earlyPleistocene, the forerunners of modern jaguars crossedBeringia, the land bridge that once spanned the Bering Strait and connected Asia and North America. These jaguar ancestors then moved south intoCentralandSouth America, feeding on the deer and other grazing animals that once covered the landscape in huge herds.Geographical variationThe last taxonomic delineation of the jaguarsubspecieswas performed by Pocock in 1939. Based on geographic origins and skullmorphology, he recognized eight subspecies. However, he did not have access to sufficient specimens to critically evaluate all subspecies, and he expressed doubt about the status of several. Later consideration of his work suggested only three subspecies should be recognized. Recent studies have also failed to find evidence for well-defined subspecies, which are no longer recognized.Larson (1997) studied the morphological variation in the jaguar and showed there isclinalnorthsouth variation, but also the differentiation within the supposed subspecies is larger than that between them, and thus does not warrant subspecies subdivision.A genetic study by Eizirik and coworkers in 2001 confirmed the absence of a clear geographical subspecies structure, although they found that major geographical barriers, such as theAmazon River, limited the exchange of genes between the different populations. A subsequent, more detailed study confirmed the predicted population structure within theColombianjaguars. Pocock's subspecies divisions are still regularly listed in general descriptions of the cat.]Seymour grouped these in three subspecies. 1. Panthera onca onca:Venezuelathrough theAmazon, including P. o. peruviana(Peruvian jaguar): CoastalPeru2. P. o. hernandesii(Mexican jaguar'): Western Mexico including P. o. centralis(Central American jaguar):El SalvadortoColombia P. o. arizonensis(Arizonan jaguar): SouthernArizonatoSonora, Mexico P. o. veraecrucis: Central Texas to southeastern Mexico P.o.goldmani(Goldman'sjaguar):Yucatn PeninsulatoBelizeandGuatemala3. P. o. palustris(the largest subspecies, weighing more than 135kg or 300lb):ThePantanalregions ofMato GrossoandMato Grosso do Sul, Brazil, along theParaguay RiverintoParaguayand northeasternArgentina.TheMammal Species of the Worldcontinues to recognize nine subspecies, the eight subspecies above and additionallyP. o. paraguensis.Distribution and habitatThe jaguar has been an American cat since crossing theBering Land Bridgeduring thePleistoceneepoch; the immediate ancestor of modern animals isPanthera onca augusta, which was larger than the contemporary cat.Its present range extends from Mexico, through Central America and into South America, including much of Amazonian Brazil.The countries included in this range areArgentina, Belize,Bolivia, Brazil,Colombia, Costa Rica (particularly on theOsa Peninsula),Ecuador,French Guiana, Guatemala,Guyana, Honduras,Mexico, Nicaragua,Panama, Paraguay,Peru, Suriname, theUnited StatesandVenezuela. The jaguar is now extinct in El Salvador andUruguay.It occurs in the 400kmCockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuaryin Belize, the 5,300kmSian Ka'anBiosphereReserve in M exico, the approximately 15,000km2Man National Parkin Peru, the approximately 26,000km2Xingu National Parkin Brazil, and numerous other reserves throughout its range.The inclusion of the United States in the list is based on occasional sightings in the southwest, particularly inArizona,New Mexicoand Texas. In the early 20th century, the jaguar's range extended as far north as theGrand Canyon, and as far west asSouthern California.The jaguar is a protected species in the United States under theEndangered Species Act, which has stopped the shooting of the animal for its pelt.The habitat of the cat includes therain forestsofSouthandCentral America, open, seasonally flooded wetlands, and dry grassland terrain. Of these habitats, the jaguar much prefers dense forest;the cat has lost range most rapidly in regions of drier habitat, such as the Argentinianpampas, the arid grasslands of Mexico, and the southwestern United States.The cat will range across tropical, subtropical, and dry deciduous forests (including, historically, oak forests in the United States). The jaguar is strongly associated with water, and it often prefers to live by rivers, swamps, and in dense rainforest with thick cover for stalking prey. Jaguars have been found at elevations as high as 3,800m, but they typically avoid montane forest and are not found in the highplateauof central Mexico or in theAndes.Substantial evidence exists for a colony of nonnative, melanistic leopards or jaguars inhabiting the rainforests around Sydney, Australia. A local report compiled statements from over 450 individuals recounting their stories of sighting large black cats in the area, and confidentialNSW Governmentdocuments regarding the matter proved wildlife authorities were so concerned about the big cats and the danger to humans, they commissioned an expert to catch one. The three-day hunt later failed, but ecologist Johannes J. Bauer warned: "Difficult as it seems to accept, the most likely explanation is the presence of a large, feline predator. In this area, [it is] most likely a leopard, less likely a jaguar.

Reproduction and life cycleJaguar females reachsexual maturityat about two years of age, and males at three or four. The cat is believed to mate throughout the year in the wild, although births may increase when prey is plentiful.Research on captive male jaguars supports the year-roundmating hypothesis, with no seasonal variation in semen traits and ejaculatory quality; low reproductive success has also been observed in captivity.Femaleestrusis 617 days out of a full 37-day cycle, and females will advertise fertility withurinary scent marksand increased vocalization.Both sexes will range more widely than usual during courtship.Pairsseparate after mating, and females provide all parenting. The gestation period lasts 93105 days; females give birth to up to four cubs, and most commonly to two. The mother will not tolerate the presence of males after the birth of cubs, given a risk ofinfanticide; this behavior is also found in the tiger. The young are born blind, gaining sight after two weeks. Cubs are weaned at three months, but remain in the birth den for six months before leaving to accompany their mother on hunts.They will continue in their mother's company for one to two years before leaving to establish aterritoryfor themselves. Young males are at first nomadic, jostling with their older counterparts until they succeed in claiming a territory. Typical lifespan in the wild is estimated at around 1215 years; in captivity, the jaguar lives up to 23 years, placing it among the longest-livedcats

Jaguar Diet and Prey

Like all cats, the jaguar is an obligatecarnivore, feeding only on meat. It is an opportunistic hunter and its diet encompasses at least 87 species.The jaguar can take virtually anyterrestrialorriparianvertebratefound in Central or South America, with a preference for large prey. The jaguar is more of a dietary generalist than its Old World cousins: the American tropics have a high diversity of small animals but relatively low populations and diversity of the largeungulateswhich this genus favors.They regularly take adult caimans,deer,capybaras,tapirs,peccaries, dogs,zorros, and sometimes evenanacondas. However, the cat will eat any small species that can be caught, includingfrogs,mice,birds(mainly ground-based species such ascracids),fish,sloths,monkeys, andturtles; a study conducted inCockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuaryin Belize, for example, revealed that the diets of jaguars there consisted primarily ofarmadillosandpacas.Some jaguars will also take domestic livestock, including adultcattleandhorses.While the jaguar often employs the deep throat-bite and suffocation technique typical amongPanthera, it sometimes uses a killing method unique amongst cats: it pierces directly through thetemporal bonesof theskullbetween the ears of prey (especially thecapybara) with its canine teeth, piercing the brain.This may be an adaptation to "cracking open" turtle shells; following the late Pleistocene extinctions, armored reptiles such as turtles would have formed an abundant prey base for the jaguar.The skull bite is employed with mammals in particular; with reptiles such as the caiman, the jaguar may leap onto the back of the prey and sever thecervical vertebrae, immobilizing the target. While capable of cracking turtle shells, the jaguar may simply smash into the shell with its paw and scoop out the flesh.When attackingsea turtles, including the hugeLeatherback sea turtlewhich weighs about 385kg (849lb) on average, as they try to nest on beaches, the jaguar will bite at the head, often beheading the prey, before dragging it off to eat.Reportedly, while hunting horses, a jaguar may leap onto their back, place one paw on the muzzle and another on the nape and then twist, dislocating the neck. Local people have anecdotally reported that when hunting a pair of horses bound together, the jaguar will kill one horse and then drag it while the other horse, still living, is dragged in their wake.With prey such as smaller dogs, a paw swipe to the skull may be sufficient to kill it.The jaguar is a stalk-and-ambush rather than a chase predator. The cat will walk slowly down forest paths, listening for and stalking prey before rushing or ambushing. The jaguar attacks from cover and usually from a target's blind spot with a quick pounce; the species' ambushing abilities are considered nearly peerless in the animal kingdom by both indigenous people and field researchers, and are probably a product of its role as anapex predatorin several different environments. The ambush may include leaping into water after prey, as a jaguar is quite capable of carrying a large kill while swimming; its strength is such that carcasses as large as a heifer can be hauled up a tree to avoid flood levels.

Jaguar Predators and ThreatsHabitat loss and overhunting have these rare cats on the run and listed as threatened or endangered nearly everywhere they call home. The situation is most dire in the U.S.-Mexico borderlands, where theyve been virtually wiped out in the United States, and only 70-100 animals are thought to survive in Sonora, Mexico. Habitat Loss - Farms, ranches, mines, roads, towns, residential subdivisions and border infrastructure are increasingly being built in areas important to jaguar survival, destroying jaguarhabitatand blocking migration routes.Human Intolerance - As humans continue to encroach on the jaguars home, these opportunistic eaters will occasionally prey on livestock, making them unpopular with ranchers. As a result, tolerance for these endangered cats is low, which can lead to additional killings. Poaching - Jaguars are also frequently killed by poachers, who prize them for their unique rosette-spotted coats. In 1997, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service added jaguars to the list of endangered species but didnt think the small, elusive population warranted critical habitat protections or a recovery plan. In 2003, Defenders of Wildlife filed its first of several lawsuits against the FWS, urging officials to reopen the jaguars case and reconsider a recovery plan to help increase numbers in the region. Despite the recurring presence of jaguars in Arizona and plenty of available habitat, the George W. Bush administration took the position that jaguars were a foreign species and never agreed to a recovery plan or habitat protections. It was not until 2010 that the Obama administration finally agreed to draw up a recovery plan and to consider designating critical habitat.

Jaguar Conservation Status and Life Today

Jaguar populations are rapidly declining. The animal is consideredNear Threatenedby theInternational Union for Conservation of Nature(IUCN), meaning it may be threatened with extinction in the near future. The loss of parts of its range, including its virtual elimination from its historic northern areas and the increasing fragmentation of the remaining range, have contributed to this status. The 1960s had particularly significant declines, with more than 15,000 jaguar skins brought out of theBrazilian Amazonyearly; theConvention on International Trade in Endangered Speciesof 1973 brought about a sharp decline in the pelt trade.Detailed work performed under the auspices of theWildlife Conservation Societyrevealed the animal has lost 37% of its historic range, with its status unknown in an additional 18%. More encouragingly, the probability of long-term survival was considered high in 70% of its remaining range, particularly in the Amazon basin and the adjoiningGran ChacoandPantal.In 1990 Belize created theCockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuaryas the world's first wilderness reserve for jaguar protection and study.The major risks to the jaguar includedeforestationacross its habitat, increasing competition for food with human beings,poaching,hurricanesin northern parts of its range, and the behavior of ranchers who will often kill the cat where it preys on livestock. When adapted to the prey, the jaguar has been shown to take cattle as a large portion of its diet; while land clearance for grazing is a problem for the species, the jaguar population may have increased when cattle were first introduced to South America, as the animals took advantage of the new prey base. This willingness to take livestock has induced ranch owners to hire full-time jaguar hunters, and the cat is often shot on sight.Current conservation efforts often focus on educating ranch owners and promotingecotourism. The jaguar is generally defined as anumbrella species its home range and habitat requirements are sufficiently broad that, if protected, numerous other species of smaller range will also be protected.Umbrella species serve as "mobile links" at the landscape scale, in the jaguar's case through predation. Conservation organizations may thus focus on providing viable, connected habitat for the jaguar, with the knowledge other species will also benefit.In the past, conservation of jaguars sometimes occurred through the protection of jaguar "hotspots". These hotspots, described as jaguar conservation units, were large areas populated by about 50 jaguars. However, some researchers recently determined, to maintain a robust sharing of the jaguar gene pool necessary for maintaining the species, it is important that the jaguars are interconnected. To facilitate this, a new project, thePaseo del Jaguar, has been established to connect several jaguar hotspots.

JaguarBehaviourand Lifestyle

Jaguars are territorial. Like most cats, the jaguar is solitary outside mother-cub groups. Adults generally meet only to court and mate and carve out large territories for themselves. Female territories, from 25 to 40 square kilometres in size, may overlap, but the animals generally avoid one another. Male ranges cover roughly twice as much area, varying in size with the availability of game and space and do not overlap. Scrape marks, urine and faeces are used to mark territory.Like the other big cats, the jaguar is capable of roaring (the male more powerfully) and does so to warn territorial and mating competitors away. Intensive bouts of counter-calling between individuals have been observed in the wild. Their roar often resembles a repetitive cough and they may also vocalize mews and grunts. Mating fights between males occur, but are rare. Conflict is typically over territory. A males range may include that of two or three females however he will not tolerate intrusions by other adult males.

Jaguar Relationship with Humans

Are they a problem for us ?Contrary to the rare, but well-documented, cases that have happened with lions, tigers, and leopards, jaguars don't eat people. There are cases of jaguars attacking people, but the majority has happened in hunting situations, in which the jaguar was cornered or shot at. Jaguars can also attack to defend their cubs or their prey.Inadequate ecotourism practices also can increase jaguar attack risks. The use of baits to attract jaguars to river mouths or beaches, and other open areas where they can be more easily observed by tourists, can habituate jaguars to human presence. That means that they lose their natural fear for humans. And worse, this practice can lead jaguars to associate the presence of people with food. This combination of loss of fear and association of people with food can provoke an attack on human spectators. Even when the encounter with a jaguar in the wild can be the best award for an eco-tourist, and the use of baits can increase the (typically remote) possibility of an encounter, this practice can result in disastrous consequences (for both parties), and has to be rejected and strongly prohibited.Before getting worried about a jaguar attack, consider the danger represented by some other species. Consider first that one of the animals that kills more people in the world is the apparently inoffensive mosquito. Even domestic dogs, deserve more worry than jaguars, since each year dozens of people are killed by them. Documented cases of humans killed by jaguars in Brazil in particular and in Latin America in general are very rare.There are more registered human attacks by pumas than by jaguars. There are more than 100 confirmed attacks on humans in North America since 1890. Fifty of those incidents happened since 1991. Twenty of those resulted in death of the victim. Of the twenty mortal victims, twelve were children 13 years of age or less. In Brazil, the only fatal attack registered, happened in Amazonia in 1992, and the victim was a child. Nevertheless, if we do the comparisons, even pumas represent an insignificant danger for man.Jaguars kill domestic animals. And where they do especially where there are chronic problems these areas are strongly associated with areas where natural prey has been diminished by deforestation, hunting and the advance of agriculture and introduced pastures. These activities increase the proximity between jaguars and domestic animals and decrease the potential for jaguars to encounter natural prey.Again, it is important to see things in their proper context. For a herd owner of 100 cattle, though the loss of one calf looks large, there are other general causes of mortality such as diseases, calving problems, snake bites, drowning, malnutrition (and in many countries we also have to include cattle rustling or theft), that cause much greater losses to cattle producers than jaguar predation. So, to enhance cattle productivity in general, it makes more sense to invest in improving management practices than to invest in eliminating jaguars We are the problem !Jaguars are disappearing. They already have been eliminated in large areas of many countries, and their distribution and abundance continues to diminish rapidly.One of the principal threats for jaguars is habitat loss; jaguars are losing the environment in which they prefer to live. The principal habitat of the jaguar is the forest. Latin American countries lose immense areas of tropical forests each year because of deforestation for agriculture and mining. Some countries, like El Salvador, have eliminated so much jaguar habitat that they have no significant populations left. Brazil, as another example, loses a larger area of tropical forests per year than any other country in the world. The largest portion of that loss occurs in the so called Arc of Deforestation, stretching from the state of Par to the state of Acre, passing through northern Mato Grosso and Rondonia. Regulating deforestation is an important factor in conserving jaguar populations, but the loss of habitat continues, as does the loss of jaguars with it.Another important threat for jaguars is the disappearance of their natural prey, by loss or modification of habitat, and also through over hunting. In many regions where jaguars still exist, people hunt peccaries, tapir, and deer, the preferred prey of jaguars. In some cases, because of the lack of natural prey, jaguars turn more commonly to cattle as a feeding alternative.The indiscriminate, direct killing of jaguars also hastens the disappearance of this felid. The persecution of jaguars is usually associated with the predation of domestic stock. Ranchers will kill or mandate the killing of jaguars that simply show up on their properties or are directly associated with losses in their cattle herds. However, the decision between killing the problem jaguar, taking management actions with the herd to solve the problem (see them in How can we live with jaguars), or simply tolerating the loss, depends on a series of socioeconomic and cultural reasons. In addition, jaguars are also killed even when they do not threaten cattle. The fear of these cats, the sport and entertainment of the hunt, and/or the demonstration of bravery by confronting a powerful animal, are also reasons why some people kill jaguars. Reasons to coexist with jaguarsEcological reasons. The jaguar is the largest terrestrial predator of Latin America and feeds on a diversity of other animals, including species that feed on leaves and seeds like deer, tapir, pacas and agoutis, and carnivores like foxes and coatis. Feeding on these species, jaguars control their populations; that is, they impede prey population increases to over abundance. Foxes and coatis in turn, control their prey populations, rats, crabs, and snails; in the same way, leave and seed eaters control the plant populations on which they feed on. Thus, through a cascade effect, jaguars have an ample influence over the forests where they live, imparting affects on natural communities, from the insects to the trees. Also, even when it has not been scientifically proven yet, it is possible that jaguars help to diminish the transmission of diseases between different animal species and also from these species to man, since they prey more easily on ill or weak individuals.Economical Reasons. The jaguar is one of the more beautiful and fascinating species of the Latin American wildlife. For this reason, its image is used for commercial purposes, especially by the tourism industry. For example, in the state of Mato Grosso (Brazil), in the posters and booklets of tourism advertisement, produced by the State Tourism Office and by tourism agencies, the jaguar is the animal most often shown (with the probable exception of the jabiru stork). In fact, jaguars can contribute to tourism, even when the chance of seeing them is remote. Commonly, a larger number of tourists is likely to pay more for the occasion of observing or hearing a jaguar, or simply for the experience of being in jaguar territory, or even for the opportunity of contributing to the conservation of this species through tourism. Some cattle ranches in the Pantanal (Brazil) are now receiving larger revenues from eco-tourism (with the jaguar as flagship species) than from their cattle operations.Legal Reasons. Killing jaguars is illegal, and killing a jaguar is a crime in jaguar range countries, as defined by their environmental laws (with the exception of Belize, if you are protecting your life or livelihood). For example, in Brazil, article 29 of the Brazilian Law for Environmental Crimes states, it is illegal to kill, persecute, hunt, capture, utilize native or migrating specimens of wildlife, without the proper licenses, permits or authorizations given by the competent authority or in disagreement to the one obtained: penalty of detention of six months to one year and fine.Cultural Reasons. The jaguar is an icon of Latin American culture. In practically all the indigenous Latin American cultures, the jaguar occupies a special position as another powerful human or as a messenger to the gods. Being a predator of extremely good hunting skills, like humans, he possesses a peculiarly human cunning and shows up in the myths of almost all of these cultures as the living symbol of the Gods and of their power and their strength. The jaguar symbolizes cunning, vigor, speed, and above all, this felid is used to express the power of nature. For the modern man, the jaguar contributes to cultural manifestations in their most varied forms, from local crafts to children tales; from paintings that portray the history of the country to the 50 Reais bank notes in Brazil. For capturing the attention and interest of children and grow-ups, the jaguar is the starting point of educational and communication activities for the conservation of nature.Emotional Reasons. Felids always have ignited a great fascination in people. Being the largest felid in the Western Hemisphere, and also because of their exceptional beauty, jaguars awaken emotions ranging from admiration to fear, from fascination to rage. No other wildlife species elicits such strong and contrasting feelings. In addition, it is a part of human nature to give value to diversity in all its dimensions, be it material, cultural, or natural. We are affectively attached to jaguars and, for the same reasons we restore our historical buildings and safeguard art pieces in museums, we want jaguars to continue to exist.Ethical Reasons. Killing jaguars is wrong. Push a species to extinction is immoral. More and more people are supporting these beliefs. Understanding the idea that it is not jaguars that are invading human space, but humans invading jaguar space, and understanding that jaguars don't cause damage on purpose or through malice, but they are simply following their predatory instincts, has helped bring about acceptance of the perception that killing jaguars is something wrong. In addition, and above all, the view that jaguars like people have an inalienable right to exist and persist in their natural ways would render immoral actions that counter that right and seek to drive jaguars toward extinction.

How to coexist with jaguarsPerhaps the most effective way to stem habitat loss is through the creation of protected areas. The creation of protected areas (where human development, use, and impact is minimized) has traditionally been the role of the state or federal government, but rural landowners also can play a very important role. For example, in the case of Brazil, rural landowners must follow Environmental Legislation that mandates Permanent Preservation Areas and Legal Reserves be established in any farm or rural property; this also applies in establishing Private Natural Heritage Reserves.

The following strategies can be applied for the prevention of jaguar (and puma) attacks on cattle and other domestic stock: Don't hunt and don't allow any hunting of the jaguar's natural prey.Don't hunt jaguars and don't allow the hunting of jaguars. Jaguar hunting produces individuals with physical limitations (such as broken teeth or mobility issues) that will diminish their capacity for capturing their natural prey, leading them to attack cattle.Build and locate fences to prevent cattle from forested areas.Create water sources (wells or lagoons) away from forested areas, if possible.Don't hold late-term cows or cows with young calves near forested areas. These animals should be grazing in open areas, preferably near farm buildings and human activity.Use electrical fences around the maternity paddocks . For the purpose of repelling felid attacks, the electrical fence final voltage has to stay over 4,500 to 5,000 volts, and the fence should have 3 strands of electrical wire at 20, 40 and 60 cm off the ground and one upper negative strand at 85 cm. This installation is easier to use in small paddocks or night enclosures (where the herds are penned at night). Large paddocks suffer problems of electricity supply. This is a technified system that functions well and is very effective, but requires attentive monitoring so maintenance issues can be resolved quickly. Maintain some horned, older, and experienced cows or steers in the herd; these older animals help instill grouping behavior in the herd that is effective in avoiding jaguar attacks. Bells can be hung from the necks of some tame animals as another helpful deterrent device. In extensive forested areas with high predation incidence, reunite the herds and pen them at night in a corral or enclosure near human habitations, in small paddocks, well fenced, or with an electrical fence (as described above). Despite a small increase in operation costs, this simple strategy is very helpful in reducing the impacts of predation (and, in addition, rustling, or cattle theft), and the animals easily adapt to this management; installation of lights in the night enclosures or corrals is also useful, as is the burning of some dry dung to keep away mosquitoes and biting insects, which tames and tranquilizes the enclosed herds. In properties with high predation incidence, replace cattle breeding operations with rearing or fattening operations. In this way, these areas will be utilized with animals above 1 to 2 years of age. Establish short breeding seasons of 3-4 months of length, instead of having breeding and calving year round. During the reduced calving season, it is very important to maintain intensive surveillance of the calving process and of the newborn calves. This managerial decision, will not only help manage and organize a productive cattle herd in an organized and predictable manner, but assist in predicting and managing all the important annual events (weaning, palpation, vaccinations, culling, sales, cattle selection, replacement quality, etc.) in a much more efficient way, enhancing the farm productivity. This action, combined with the calving paddocks with electrical fences and the night penning up of the herds, provide a very efficient strategy to reduce calf predation. During wet season, move cattle from low, flood-prone areas, to higher grounds so they don't stay isolated and weakened by the flooding, making them more vulnerable to jaguar attacks (This is especially important in floodplain areas, such as the Llanos, Pantanal, and Beni). Dispose of the carcasses of domestic animals that died due to other causes (such as snake bites, calving problems and diseases) so they cannot be devoured by cats and promote the tendency to consume cattle.In flooded areas with high incidence of predation problems, the introduction of small and well managed herds of milking water buffalo (of the Murrah breed), managed alone or in combination with cattle herds, has demonstrated to be an efficient way to reduce predation 3problems in many Venezuelan cattle farms . It is important to note that buffalo need constant and intensive human handling, to prevent them from becoming feral, and creating an environmental problem. This is easily solved with good management; it is not a species problem. Also, buffalo in flooded environments have demonstrated higher productivity than cattle.Be familiar with the appearance and signs of domestic animals depredated by felines, and know how to differentiate these from those losses caused by packs of wild or feral dogs, and by rustlers or cattle thieves.Keep detailed records on mortality and its causes in the ranch's cattle registries and check the real losses and their causes, and compare the information from each year in terms of the percentages or mortality and its causes.

Bibliography

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