Jacobs, Truth, and Harper: Jacobs, Truth, and Harper: Slavery and SentimentalitySlavery and Sentimentality

“‘“‘The bill of sale!’ Those words struck me like a The bill of sale!’ Those words struck me like a blow. So I was blow. So I was soldsold at last! A human being at last! A human being soldsold in the free city of New York! The bill of in the free city of New York! The bill of

sale is on record, and future generations will sale is on record, and future generations will learn from it that women were articles of learn from it that women were articles of traffic in New York, late in the nineteenth traffic in New York, late in the nineteenth century of the Christian religion. It may century of the Christian religion. It may hereafter prove a useful document to hereafter prove a useful document to

antiquaries, who are seeking to measure the antiquaries, who are seeking to measure the progress of civilization in the United States” progress of civilization in the United States”

(Jacobs 2209, emphasis original).(Jacobs 2209, emphasis original).

Slave NarrativeSlave Narrative Connotation of “narrative” (esp. re: slave narrative and Connotation of “narrative” (esp. re: slave narrative and

captivity narrative): A true story of someone’s life, usually captivity narrative): A true story of someone’s life, usually written or dictated by him/herself. written or dictated by him/herself.

A Narrative of the Most Remarkable Particulars in the Life of A Narrative of the Most Remarkable Particulars in the Life of James Albert Ukawsaw Gronniosaw, an African Prince James Albert Ukawsaw Gronniosaw, an African Prince (1770)(1770)

Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: An American Slave, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: An American Slave, Written by HimselfWritten by Himself (1845) (1845)

Narratives of the Sufferings of Lewis and Milton Clarke, Sons of Narratives of the Sufferings of Lewis and Milton Clarke, Sons of a Soldier of the Revolution, During a Captivity of More than a Soldier of the Revolution, During a Captivity of More than Twenty Years Among the Slaveholders of Kentucky, One of Twenty Years Among the Slaveholders of Kentucky, One of the So Called Christian States of North Americathe So Called Christian States of North America (1846) (1846)

Running a Thousand Miles for Freedom: Or the Escape of Running a Thousand Miles for Freedom: Or the Escape of William and Ellen Craft from SlaveryWilliam and Ellen Craft from Slavery (1860) (1860)

A different title with a different rhetorical purpose:A different title with a different rhetorical purpose:The Confessions of Nat Turner, the Leader of the Late The Confessions of Nat Turner, the Leader of the Late

Insurrection in Southampton, Va. Insurrection in Southampton, Va. (1831)(1831)

*See the *See the Documenting the American SouthDocumenting the American South (UNC) webpage for lots of (UNC) webpage for lots of narratives.narratives.

Harriet JacobsHarriet JacobsIncidents in the Life of a Slave Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written By Herself Girl, Written By Herself (1861)(1861)

Some Key IssuesSome Key Issues

AuthenticityAuthenticity Framing one’s genealogyFraming one’s genealogy Appeals to Christian faithAppeals to Christian faith GenderGender Flight/EscapeFlight/Escape

AuthenticityAuthenticity What have been the issues/controversies What have been the issues/controversies

regarding the authenticity of Jacobs’s regarding the authenticity of Jacobs’s narrative? narrative?

How/Why must former slaves add a How/Why must former slaves add a sense of authenticity to what they sense of authenticity to what they publish?publish?

The Flints/NorcomsThe Flints/Norcoms The Flint/Norcom house The Flint/Norcom house c.1966c.1966

AuthenticityAuthenticity– Who is Linda Brent? Could anyone really survive in a crawl-Who is Linda Brent? Could anyone really survive in a crawl-

space for seven years?space for seven years?

– Suppositions that Lydia Maria Child wrote the Suppositions that Lydia Maria Child wrote the text instead of just editing it.text instead of just editing it.

– Need white abolitionists to authenticate these Need white abolitionists to authenticate these narratives. Before narratives. Before IncidentsIncidents was published, was published, Jacobs had to solicit white authors/abolitionistsJacobs had to solicit white authors/abolitioniststo write prefaces for her. Some appear at the to write prefaces for her. Some appear at the ChildChild

beginnings of narratives, some at the end, and some in both beginnings of narratives, some at the end, and some in both places or even throughout (note the voice of the narrator of places or even throughout (note the voice of the narrator of Truth’s speech, Frances D. Gage: authorizes Truth to speak at Truth’s speech, Frances D. Gage: authorizes Truth to speak at the meeting and frames the message for readers).the meeting and frames the message for readers).

– Vivid details regarding slavery could aid the abolitionist cause, Vivid details regarding slavery could aid the abolitionist cause, esp. if pro-slavery individuals couldn’t disprove them as false or esp. if pro-slavery individuals couldn’t disprove them as false or exaggerated (supposedly making slavery look worse than it is). exaggerated (supposedly making slavery look worse than it is). Note how Jacobs argues she was relatively well-treated, so Note how Jacobs argues she was relatively well-treated, so she’s not even representing the worst-case scenarios (similar to she’s not even representing the worst-case scenarios (similar to Stowe’s claim in Stowe’s claim in UTCUTC).).

Harriet Jacobs: A Life. The Harriet Jacobs: A Life. The Remarkable Adventures of the Remarkable Adventures of the Woman Who Wrote Woman Who Wrote Incidents in Incidents in

the Life of a Slave Girlthe Life of a Slave Girl

A sketch of Jacobs’s position in the garret of A sketch of Jacobs’s position in the garret of her grandmother’s house (from Yellin’s her grandmother’s house (from Yellin’s

book) book)

Framing one’s genealogyFraming one’s genealogy

What do you notice/know about how What do you notice/know about how slaves try to trace their life stories in slaves try to trace their life stories in these narratives?these narratives?

Framing one’s genealogyFraming one’s genealogy

– Trying to pin down an origin, which is difficult if you Trying to pin down an origin, which is difficult if you were taken from Africa or born on a plantation were taken from Africa or born on a plantation (perhaps with a white father), often separated (perhaps with a white father), often separated from parents and siblings and with no birthdate from parents and siblings and with no birthdate recorded.recorded.– These autobiographies are often compared These autobiographies are often compared

against perhaps the most famous US auto-against perhaps the most famous US auto-biography, Benjamin Franklin’s. However, biography, Benjamin Franklin’s. However, there’s an obvious rupture—he can trace there’s an obvious rupture—he can trace his family’s lineage back to the 1500s.his family’s lineage back to the 1500s.

– The importance of naming and renaming—The importance of naming and renaming—Equiano is given many names; Douglass Equiano is given many names; Douglass refashions his; Isabella Baumfree/Van Wagener refashions his; Isabella Baumfree/Van Wagener

changed her name to Sojourner Truth. changed her name to Sojourner Truth. Self-fashioning.Self-fashioning.

Appeals to Christian faithAppeals to Christian faith

What does Jacobs say about/to What does Jacobs say about/to Christians?Christians?

Jacobs’s appeals:Jacobs’s appeals: ““My mistress had taught me the precepts of My mistress had taught me the precepts of

God’s Word: ‘Thou shalt love they [sic] neighbor God’s Word: ‘Thou shalt love they [sic] neighbor as thyself.’ ‘Whatsoever ye would that men as thyself.’ ‘Whatsoever ye would that men should do unto you, do ye even so unto them.’ should do unto you, do ye even so unto them.’ But I was her slave, and I suppose she did not But I was her slave, and I suppose she did not recognize me as her neighbor” (2189).recognize me as her neighbor” (2189).

Grandmother’s letter to Jacobs in NY: “Grandmother’s letter to Jacobs in NY: “I cannot I cannot hope to see you again on earth; but I pray to God hope to see you again on earth; but I pray to God to unite us above, where pain will no more rack to unite us above, where pain will no more rack this feeble body of mine; where sorrow and this feeble body of mine; where sorrow and parting from my children will be no more. God parting from my children will be no more. God has promised these things if we are faithful unto has promised these things if we are faithful unto the end. My age and feeble health deprive me of the end. My age and feeble health deprive me of going to church now; but God is with me here at going to church now; but God is with me here at homehome” (2206, emphasis original).” (2206, emphasis original).

Jacobs, Chapter XIII: Jacobs, Chapter XIII: “The Church and Slavery”“The Church and Slavery”

““After the alarm caused by Nat Turner’s insurrection had After the alarm caused by Nat Turner’s insurrection had subsided, the slaveholders came to the conclusion that it would be subsided, the slaveholders came to the conclusion that it would be well to give the slaves enough of religious instruction to keep well to give the slaves enough of religious instruction to keep them from murdering their masters” (Norton Ed., 57).them from murdering their masters” (Norton Ed., 57).

Minister: “Instead of serving your masters faithfully, which is Minister: “Instead of serving your masters faithfully, which is pleasing in the sight of your heavenly Master, you are idle, and pleasing in the sight of your heavenly Master, you are idle, and shirk your work. God sees you. You tell lies. God hears you” shirk your work. God sees you. You tell lies. God hears you” (Norton Ed., 58).(Norton Ed., 58).

““When I was told that Dr. Flint had joined the Episcopal church, I When I was told that Dr. Flint had joined the Episcopal church, I was much surprised. I supposed that religion had a purifying effect was much surprised. I supposed that religion had a purifying effect on the character of men; but the worst persecutions I endured on the character of men; but the worst persecutions I endured from him were after he was a communicant. The conversation of from him were after he was a communicant. The conversation of the doctor, the day after he had been confirmed, certainly gave the doctor, the day after he had been confirmed, certainly gave meme no indication that he had ‘renounced the devil and all his no indication that he had ‘renounced the devil and all his works.’ In answer to some of his usual talk, I reminded him that he works.’ In answer to some of his usual talk, I reminded him that he had just joined the church. ‘Yes, Linda,’ said he. ‘It was proper for had just joined the church. ‘Yes, Linda,’ said he. ‘It was proper for me to do so’” (Norton Ed., 63).me to do so’” (Norton Ed., 63).

Dr. Flint: “How dare you preach to me about your infernal Bible!” Dr. Flint: “How dare you preach to me about your infernal Bible!” (Norton Ed., 63).(Norton Ed., 63).

Slave song: “Ole Satan’s church is here below; / Up to God’s free Slave song: “Ole Satan’s church is here below; / Up to God’s free church I hope to go” (Norton Ed., 63).church I hope to go” (Norton Ed., 63).

Appeals to Christian faithAppeals to Christian faith– As part of sentimentalism, appeal to white readers who As part of sentimentalism, appeal to white readers who

profess to be Christians. profess to be Christians. – Slaves become proselytizers who are better Christians Slaves become proselytizers who are better Christians

than whites are (accuse whites of twisting the Bible to than whites are (accuse whites of twisting the Bible to their own ends). True vs. slaveholders’ Christianity (the their own ends). True vs. slaveholders’ Christianity (the power of pointing out hypocrisy). See William Apess for a power of pointing out hypocrisy). See William Apess for a Native American counterpart.Native American counterpart.

Sojourner Truth monument, Michigan—teacher/proselytizerSojourner Truth monument, Michigan—teacher/proselytizer

GenderGender

How does Jacobs use gender to How does Jacobs use gender to appeal to sentiment in her text, appeal to sentiment in her text, relying on issues like relying on issues like home/domesticity?home/domesticity?

GenderGender– Appeal to sentiment by showing women (especially Appeal to sentiment by showing women (especially

mothers) in distress—threats of rape and having mothers) in distress—threats of rape and having

their children taken from them. Douglass also their children taken from them. Douglass also

appeals to independent appeals to independent masculinitymasculinity in his narrative. in his narrative.– ““cult of true womanhood”: idealizing Christian cult of true womanhood”: idealizing Christian

womanhood (domestic, pious). Tension with these womanhood (domestic, pious). Tension with these

ideal notions for non-white women, poor women, etc.ideal notions for non-white women, poor women, etc.

Thomas Noble’s 1867 Thomas Noble’s 1867 The Modern MedeaThe Modern Medea, ,

based on Margaret Garner’s story based on Margaret Garner’s story Eliza, Eliza, Uncle Tom’s CabinUncle Tom’s Cabin

Truth, “Ain’t I A Woman?”—p. 2251Truth, “Ain’t I A Woman?”—p. 2251Addresses audience as “chilern.”Addresses audience as “chilern.”

““Dat man ober dar say dat womin needs to be helped into carriages, Dat man ober dar say dat womin needs to be helped into carriages, and lifted ober ditches, and to hab de best place everywhar. Nobody and lifted ober ditches, and to hab de best place everywhar. Nobody eber helps me into carriages, or ober mud-puddles, or gibs me any eber helps me into carriages, or ober mud-puddles, or gibs me any best place!”best place!”

She has been made to work like a man, and her masters have beaten She has been made to work like a man, and her masters have beaten her like they would beat a man—and she wants to be seen as strong. her like they would beat a man—and she wants to be seen as strong. However, she says, “I have borne thirteen chilern, and seen ’em mos’ However, she says, “I have borne thirteen chilern, and seen ’em mos’ all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother’s grief, none but Jesus heard all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother’s grief, none but Jesus heard me! And a’n’t I a woman?”me! And a’n’t I a woman?”

On intellect—”If my cup won’t hold but a pint, and yourn holds a quart, wouldn’t ye be On intellect—”If my cup won’t hold but a pint, and yourn holds a quart, wouldn’t ye be mean not to let mean not to let

me have my little half-measure full?” Rhetorical purpose?me have my little half-measure full?” Rhetorical purpose?

“‘“‘Den dat little man in black dar, he say women can’t have as much rights as men, ‘cause Den dat little man in black dar, he say women can’t have as much rights as men, ‘cause Christ wasn’t a woman! Whar did your Christ come from? . . . From God and a woman! Christ wasn’t a woman! Whar did your Christ come from? . . . From God and a woman! Man had nothin’ to do wid Him.’ Oh, what a rebuke that was to that little man.”Man had nothin’ to do wid Him.’ Oh, what a rebuke that was to that little man.”

““If de fust woman God ever made was strong enough to turn de world upside down all If de fust woman God ever made was strong enough to turn de world upside down all alone, dese women togedder (and she glanced her eye over the platform) ought to be able alone, dese women togedder (and she glanced her eye over the platform) ought to be able to turn it back, and get it right side up again! And now dey is asking to do it, de men better to turn it back, and get it right side up again! And now dey is asking to do it, de men better let ‘em.” (Note: 4 paragraphs up, she says “white men will be in a fix pretty soon” between let ‘em.” (Note: 4 paragraphs up, she says “white men will be in a fix pretty soon” between slaves demanding freedom in the South and women in the North demanding equal rights.)slaves demanding freedom in the South and women in the North demanding equal rights.)

Harper, “The Slave Mother”—pp. Harper, “The Slave Mother”—pp. 2155-562155-56

““Heard you” and “Saw you”?—address to audienceHeard you” and “Saw you”?—address to audience““He is not hers” repeated—condition of chattelHe is not hers” repeated—condition of chattel““She is a mother” repeated; son seems to be her only happiness (like She is a mother” repeated; son seems to be her only happiness (like

Jacobs)Jacobs)““Oh, Father! must they part?”—potential double meaningOh, Father! must they part?”—potential double meaning------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

She is a mother, pale with fearShe is a mother, pale with fear Her boy clings to her side,Her boy clings to her side,

And in her kirtle vainly triesAnd in her kirtle vainly tries His trembling form to hide.His trembling form to hide.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .They tear him from her circling arms,They tear him from her circling arms,

Her last and fond embrace.Her last and fond embrace.Oh! never more may her sad eyesOh! never more may her sad eyes

Gaze on his mournful face.Gaze on his mournful face.

No marvel, then, these bitter shrieksNo marvel, then, these bitter shrieks Disturb the listening air:Disturb the listening air:

She is a mother, and her heartShe is a mother, and her heart Is breaking in despair.Is breaking in despair.

Flight/EscapeFlight/Escape– Stories of escaping and/or buying one’s freedom, usually fleeing Stories of escaping and/or buying one’s freedom, usually fleeing

northward (e.g., New York or Canada). northward (e.g., New York or Canada). – Problematized by the 1850 Fugitive Slave Act. See JacobsProblematized by the 1850 Fugitive Slave Act. See Jacobs

—”northerners consent to act the part of bloodhounds” (2193).—”northerners consent to act the part of bloodhounds” (2193).– Some stories (and white and black authors/activists) advocate Some stories (and white and black authors/activists) advocate

the “Back to Africa Movement” as well as fleeing to Canada or the “Back to Africa Movement” as well as fleeing to Canada or elsewhere in the Americas since the North is complicit elsewhere in the Americas since the North is complicit regarding slavery and guilty of racism. For some, this is also a regarding slavery and guilty of racism. For some, this is also a (problematic) solution to fears about miscegenation before and (problematic) solution to fears about miscegenation before and after the Civil War.after the Civil War.

– ““Passing” was another important theme for many slaves Passing” was another important theme for many slaves who escaped, in fiction and reality: who escaped, in fiction and reality:

Jacobs—at one point paints her face darker and Jacobs—at one point paints her face darker and pretends to be a sailor to get to a ship. pretends to be a sailor to get to a ship. Uncle Tom’s CabinUncle Tom’s Cabin—Eliza’s husband passes as a —Eliza’s husband passes as a Spaniard. Spaniard. Ellen and William Craft—Ellen passes as a white man Ellen and William Craft—Ellen passes as a white man with her husband as her black attendant/slave.with her husband as her black attendant/slave.

Ellen CraftEllen Craft

Panopticism—Challenging EscapePanopticism—Challenging EscapeJeremy Bentham’s 1785 prison design re: surveillance; Michel Foucault Discipline and Punish (1975).

Applies to the plantation and space surrounding it—patrols, overseers, slave “snitches,” owners playing tricks to catch slaves when they’re unawares. Extended through the Fugitive Slave Act and fed by fears of revolt (Haitian Revolution 1791, Nat Turner Rebellion 1831 [Virginia], Amistad ship rebellion 1839, Creole ship rebellion 1841, John Brown’s Raid on Harper’s Ferry 1859 [Virginia]).

•Jacobs on “young and innocent” slaves in the eyes of Mrs. Flint: “They were the objects of [Mrs. Flint’s] constant suspicion and malevolence” (2190). Mrs. Flint even watches her husband with an eagle eye and stands over Jacobs/Brent while she sleeps: “Sometimes I woke up, and found her bending over me. At other times she whispered in my ear, as though it was her husband who was speaking to me, and listened to hear what I would answer” (2192).

•“he was going to build a small house for me, in a secluded place, four miles away from the town” (2194).

•Has to avoid the “patrols” (2198).

•“Dr. Flint was suspicious, and determined not to loosen his grasp upon us” (2199).

•Closing down meeting houses after Nat Turner’s rebellion so slaves are easier to monitor (2200).

Panoptic Surveillance Cont.Panoptic Surveillance Cont.EVEN FROM HER FAMILY (POTENTIALLY POSITIVE AND

NEGATIVE): “The mother of slaves is very watchful. She knows there is no

security for her children” (2196).

EVEN IN THE NORTH: “I could never go out to breathe God’s free air without

trepidation in my heart. This seemed hard; and I could not think it was a right state of things in any civilized country” (2206).

“It was impossible to tell how near the enemy was. He [Mr. Dodge] might have passed and repassed the house while we were sleeping. He might at that moment be waiting to pounce upon me if I ventured out of doors. I had never seen the husband of my young mistress, and therefore I could not distinguish him from any other stranger” (2207).

“[T]here I sat, an oppressed American, not daring to show my face” (2208).

Positive surveillance: “How often did I rejoice that I lived in a town where

all the inhabitants knew each other!” (Dr. Flint resists beating her so he won’t be criticized) (2192).

In the “loophole of retreat,” she gets to see/hear without being seen/heard (see chapter XXI). Darkness light when she bores holes for herself.– “I peeped at him [Dr. Flint] as he passed on his way to the

steamboat” (2204).– “Southerners have the habit of stopping and talking in the

streets, and I heard many conversations not intended to meet my ears. I heard slave-hunters planning how to catch some poor fugitive. Several times I heard allusions to Dr. Flint, myself, and the history of my children” (2205).

Change: When free: “When I rode home in the cars I was no When free: “When I rode home in the cars I was no

longer afraid to unveil my face and look at people longer afraid to unveil my face and look at people as they passed. I should have been glad to have as they passed. I should have been glad to have met Daniel Dodge himself; to have had him seen met Daniel Dodge himself; to have had him seen me and known me” (2209).me and known me” (2209).

““Reader, my story ends with freedom; Reader, my story ends with freedom;

not in the usual way, with marriage” not in the usual way, with marriage”

(Jacobs 2210).(Jacobs 2210).