jacob wright ezra nehemiah short commmentary w front matter
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Edited by
Beverly Roberts Gaventa and David Petersen
ABINGDON PRESS
Nashville
THENEWINTERPRETERS BIBLE
ONE
VOLUME
COMMENTARY
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THE NEW INTERPRETERS BIBLEONE-VOLUME COMMENTARY
Copyright 2010 by Abingdon Press
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form orby any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by anyinformation storage or retrieval system, except as may be expressly permitted by the 1976Copyright Act, the 1998 Digital Millennium Copyright Act, or in writing from the publisher.Requests for permission should be addressed to Abingdon Press, P.O. Box 801, 201 Eighth
Avenue South, Nashville, TN 372020801 or e-mailed to [email protected].
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
The New Interpreters One-Volume Commentary on the Bible / editorial board, David L. Pe-tersen, Beverly R. Gaventa.
p. cm.Includes index.ISBN: 978-0-687-33411-7 (hardback : alk. paper)1. BibleCommentaries. I. Petersen, David L. II. Gaventa, BeverlyRoberts.BS491.3.N48 2010220.7dc22
2010008235
Unless directly translated by a contributor, biblical quotations are from the NEW REVISEDSTANDARD VERSION of the Bible. Copyright 1989 by the Division of Christian Educationof the National Council of Churches of Christ in the USA. Used by permission. All rightsreserved.
Some biblical quotations are from the Holy Bible, NEW INTERNATIONAL VERSION.Copyright 1973, 1978, 1984 by International Bible Society. All rights reserved throughoutthe world. Used by permission of International Bible Society.
Some biblical quotations are from THE NEW JERSUALEM BIBLE. Copyright 1985 byDarton, Longman & Todd, Ltd. and Doubleday, a division of Random House, Inc. Used byPermission.
Some biblical quotations are from the Revised Standard Version of the Bible. Copyright 1952 [2nd edition, 1971] by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of theChurches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.
Some biblical quotations are from the Revised English Bible 1989 Oxford University Press
and Cambridge University Press.
10 11 12 13 148 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Manufactured in the United States of America
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v
PABLO R. ANDIACHISEDET, Instituto Universitario
ISEDET
DAVID L. BARTLETTColumbia Theological Seminary
SHANE A. BERGPrinceton Theological Seminary
ADELE BERLIN
University of Maryland, College Park
MARK EDWARD BIDDLEBaptist Theological Seminaryat Richmond
C. CLIFTON BLACKPrinceton Theological Seminary
M. EUGENE BORING
Brite Divinity School,Texas Christian University
ALEJANDRO F. BOTTABoston University
NANCY R. BOWENEarlham School of Religion
JOHN T. CARROLLUnion Theological Seminary
M. DANIEL CARROLL R.Denver Seminary
STEPHEN L. COOKVirginia Theological Seminary
CHARLES B. COUSAR
Columbia Theological Seminary
SIDNIE WHITE CRAWFORDUniversity of NebraskaLincoln
JEROME F. D. CREACHPittsburgh Theological Seminary
KATHARINE J. DELLUniversity of Cambridge
FRED W. DOBBS-ALLSOPPPrinceton Theological Seminary
CAROL J. DEMPSEYUniversity of Portland
DAVID DOWNSFuller Theological Seminary
THOMAS B. DOZEMANUnited Theological Seminary
SUSAN GROVE EASTMANDuke University
CASEY ELLEDGEGustavus Adolphus College
JOHN T. FITZGERALDUniversity of Miami
STEPHEN E. FOWL
Loyola College in Maryland
SUSAN R. GARRETTLouisville Presbyterian TheologicalSeminary
BEVERLY ROBERTS GAVENTAPrinceton Theological Seminary
MATTHEW GOFF
Florida State University
CONTRIBUTORS
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vi
CONTRIBUTORS
JOHN GOLDINGAYFuller Theological Seminary
BARBARA GREENDominican School ofPhilosophyand Theology
JOEL B. GREENFuller Theological Seminary
DANIEL J. HARRINGTONWeston Jesuit School of Theology
SUZANNE WATTS HENDERSON
Queens UniversityMATTHIAS HENZE
Rice University
RICHARD S. HESSDenver Seminary
CAMERON BROWN RICHARDSONHOWARD
The University of the South
JEREMY F. HULTINYale University
ROLF JACOBSONLuther Seminary
CRAIG S. KEENER
Palmer Theological Seminary ofEastern University
JAMES M. KENNEDYBaylor University
JUDITH L. KOVACSUniversity of Virginia
STEVEN KRAFTCHICK
Emory University
JACQUELINE E. LAPSLEYPrinceton Theological Seminary
DOROTHY ANN LEETrinity College Theological School
JOEL M. LeMONEmory University
AMY-JILL LEVINEVanderbilt University
TOD LINAFELTGeorgetown University
THOMAS G. LONGEmory University
BRUCE W. LONGENECKERSt. Marys College, South Street,University of St. Andrews
MARGARET Y. MACDONALDSt. Francis Xavier University
CARLEEN R. MANDOLFOColby College
STEVEN L. MCKENZIERhodes College
GORDON S. MIKOSKIPrinceton Theological Seminary
JOHN B. F. MILLERMcMurry University
CAROL NEWSOMEmory University
JAMES NOGALSKIBaylor University
DENNIS T. OLSON
Princeton Theological Seminary
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vii
CONTRIBUTORS
GEORGE L. PARSENIOSPrinceton Theological Seminary
GLENN D. PEMBERTONAbilene Christian University
DAVID L. PETERSENEmory University
EMERSON B. POWERYMessiah College
IAIN W. PROVANRegent College
KATHARINE DOOB SAKENFELDPrinceton Theological Seminary
EILEEN M. SCHULLERMcMaster University
BARUCH J. SCHWARTZHebrew University of Jerusalem
MATTHEW L. SKINNERLuther Seminary
BRENT A. STRAWNEmory University
LOREN STUCKENBRUCKPrinceton Theological Seminary
BETH LaNEEL TANNERNew Brunswick Theological Seminary
PATRICIA K. TULLLouisville Presbyterian TheologicalSeminary
RICHARD VALANTASIS
Emory University
J. ROSS WAGNERPrinceton Theological Seminary
ROBERT WALTER WALLSeattle Pacific University
SZE-KAR WANPerkins School of Theology
HAROLD C. WASHINGTONSaint Paul School of Theology
JAMES W. WATTSSyracuse University
STEPHEN WESTERHOLMMcMaster University
ROBERT R. WILSONYale University
WALTER T. WILSONEmory University
BENJAMIN G. WRIGHT, IIILehigh University
JACOB WRIGHTEmory University
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EDITORSPREFACE
Study of the Bible has experienced a sea change since the Interpreters One-Volume Commentary on the
Biblewas originally published in 1971. That is true in the arena of scholarly work, where the methodsof study have exploded in recent decades, and in the range and number of scholarly interpreters. Along-side historical critical analysis, scholars now draw on literary analysis, social scientific work, postcolo-nial studies, and feminist criticismto name only a few perspectives that inform contemporary biblicalstudies. Moreover, biblical scholars themselves are a more numerous and diverse group of people than
was the case forty plus years ago.
What is sometimes overlooked is that the world of Bible study has also changed significantly for pastorsand lay teachers of the Bible. In addition to the major shifts in the academy, serious readers of the Bibleconfront a vast array of resources, and sorting out the serious from the spurious is not always easy. Pub-lications that purport to be exposs of various elements of early Christian history can muddy the waters,and some immensely popular works of fiction complicate matters further by raising questions about what
actually is in the Bible and what is not.
Conscious of these developments, we offer this concise, one-volume commentary, confident that it pro-vides both beginning and experienced readers of the Bible with reliable and accessible guidance. The con-tributors to this volume, who reflect the aforementioned diversity, were invited because of our confidencein both their scholarly competence and their abilities as communicators. No attempt is made to bring their
various commentaries into a restrictive conformity, but we did ask all of them to avoid the jargon thattoo often mars scholarly work. In addition, we invited them to engage in theological reflection about thebiblical literature they were addressing.
We also include articles that should make the commentary especially useful for pastors and teachers. Inaddition to overviews of specific kinds of literature (e.g., the prophetic literature or letters) and introduc-
tions to the cultural locations of biblical texts, this volume contains articles on preaching the Bible,teaching the Bible, the creation of the Bible, and the place of the Bible in the church.
As scholars and teachers of the Bible, we ourselves find it an endlessly fascinating booksurprising, chal-lenging, sustaining. It is our hope that this volume will prove a genuinely valuable resource for others
who join us in that study.
Beverly Roberts GaventaNew Testament Editor
David L. PetersenOld Testament Editor
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ix
ABBREVIATIONS AND EXPLANATIONS
BCE Before the Common EraCE Common Erac. circa
cf. comparech(s). chapter(s)d. diedDtr Deuteronomistic historianesp. especiallyfem. feminineGk. GreekHeb. Hebrewl(l). line(s)LXX SeptuagintMS(S) manuscript(s)MT Masoretic Textn.(n.) note(s)NT New TestamentOL Old LatinOT Old Testament
par. parallel(s)pl(s). plate(s)sing. singular v(v). verse(s) Vg Vulgate
Names of Biblical Books (with the Apocrypha)
Names of Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Texts
Q Qumran1Q, 2Q, etc. Numbered caves of Qumran, yielding written material;
sometimes followed by abbreviation of biblical orapocryphal book
4Q385b Fragmentary remains of Pseudo-Jeremiah which impliesthat Jeremiah went into Babylonian exile. Also known asApocJercor 4Q385 16.
Mishnah, Talmud, and Related Literature
m. B.Bat. Bava Batra(Mishnah)b. B.Bat Bava Batra(Babylonian Talmud)y. Sheviit Sheviit(Jerusalem Talmud)
Other Rabbinic Works
Song of Songs Rab. Song of Songs Rabbah
Commonly Used Periodicals, Reference Works, and Serials
AB Anchor Bible ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary
AfOB Archiv fr Orientforschung: BeiheftANET Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the OT
BAR Biblical Archaeology Review
Bib Biblica
BibOr Biblica et orientaliaBKAT Biblischer Kommentar, Altes TestamentBSac Bibliotheca Sacra
BWANT Beitrge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten (und Neuen) Testa-
mentBZAW Beihefte zur ZAWCBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly
COS The Context of Scripture
CRAI Comptes rendus de lAcadmie des inscriptions et belles-
lettresFOTL Forms of Old Testament LiteratureHAR Hebrew Annual Review
HAT Handbuch zum Alten TestamentHBC Harper Bible CommentaryIB Interpreters BibleIBC Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and
PreachingICC International Critical Commentary
Int Interpretation JBL Journal of Biblical Literature
JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies
JNSL Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages
JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament
JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old TestamentSupplementSeries
KAT Kommentar zum Alten TestamentNIB New Interpreters BibleNICOT New International Commentary on the Old TestamentNIV New International Version
NRSV New Revised Standard VersionOTL Old Testament LibrarySBL Society of Biblical Literature
SBLDS SBL Dissertation SeriesSBLMS SBL Monograph SeriesSBLRBS Society of Biblical Literature Resources for Biblical Study
SBLSP Society of Biblical Literature Seminar PapersSBLSCS SBL Septuagint and Cognate StudiesSBLSS SBL Semeia StudiesSBLSymS Society of Biblical Literature Symposium SeriesSBT Studies in Biblical TheologyTNK Tanakh (Jewish Publicat ion Society Version)TSK Theologische Studien und KritikenTZ Theologische Zeitschrift
VT Vetus Testamentum
VTSup Vetus Testamentum, SupplementsWBC Word Biblical CommentaryZAW Zeitschrift fr die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
GenExodLevNumDeutJosh
JudgRuth1-2 Sam1-2 ChrEzraNehEsthJobPs/PssProvEcclSong
IsaJerLamEzekDanHos
JoelAmosObadJonahMicNahHabZephHagZechMalBar
Pr AzarBelSg ThreeSus1-2 EsdAdd Esth
Ep JerJdt1-2 Macc3-4 MaccPr ManPs 151SirTobWisMattMarkLuke
JohnActsRom1-2 CorGalEph
PhilCol1-2 Thess1-2 TimTitusPhlmHebJas1-2 Pet1-2-3 JohnJudeRev
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Contributors v
Editors Preface viiiAbbreviations ix
Table of Contents x
Commentary on the Books of the Old Testament
GENESIS Dennis T. Olson 1
EXODUS Brent A. Strawn 33
LEVITICUS Baruch J. Schwartz 57
NUMBERS Thomas B. Dozeman 83
DEUTERONOMY Mark Biddle 108
JOSHUA Richard Hess 143 JUDGES Jerome F. D. Creach 162
RUTH Katharine D. Sakenfeld 182
1 SAMUEL Steve McKenzie 188
2 SAMUEL Steve McKenzie 201
1 KINGS Iain W. Provan 215
2 KINGS Iain W. Provan 227
1 CHRONICLES Alejandro Botta 239
2 CHRONICLES Alejandro Botta 253
EZRA Jacob Wright 263
NEHEMIAH Jacob Wright 271
ESTHER Nancy Bowen 280
JOB Adele Berlin 288
PSALMS Rolf A. Jacobson 308
PROVERBS Glenn D. Pemberton 351
ECCLESIASTES Katherine J. Dell 368
SONG OF SONGS Fred W. Dobbs-Allsopp 375
ISAIAH John Goldingay 387
JEREMIAH James M. Kennedy 425
LAMENTATIONS Carleen R. Mandolfo 451EZEKIEL Jacqueline E. Lapsley 456
DANIEL Matthias Henze 482
HOSEA Beth L. Tanner 493
JOEL Pablo Andiach 500
AMOS M. Daniel Carroll R. 503
OBADIAH Carol J. Dempsey 508
JONAH Barbara Green 510
MICAH Carol J. Dempsey 513
NAHUM James D. Nogalski 518
HABAKKUK James D. Nogalski 521
CONTENTS
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xi
CONTENTS
ZEPHANIAH James D. Nogalski 526
HAGGAI Stephen L. Cook 529
ZECHARIAH Stephen L. Cook 531
MALACHI Stephen L. Cook 536
Commentary on the Books of the Apocrypha
TOBIT Loren Stuckenbruck 540
JUDITH Sidnie White Crawford 547
THE ADDITIONS TO ESTHER Nancy Bowen 555
THE WISDOM OF SOLOMON Walter T. Wilson 558
SIRACH Benjamin G. Wright, III 566
BARUCH Patricia K. Tull 580
THE LETTER OF JEREMIAH Patricia K. Tull 584
THE PRAYER OF AZARIAH Matthias Henze 586
SUSANNA Matthias Henze 589BEL AND THE DRAGON Matthias Henze 592
1 MACCABEES John B. F. Miller 595
2 MACCABEES Shane Berg 603
1 ESDRAS Cameron Howard 611
THE PRAYER OF MANASSEH Casey D. Elledge 613
PSALM 151 Matthew Goff 615
3 MACCABEES Jeremy F. Hultin 617
4 MACCABEES Jeremy F. Hultin 622
2 ESDRAS Bruce W. Longenecker 628
Commentary on the Books of the New Testament
MATTHEW Stephen Westerholm 630
MARK C. Clifton Black 658
LUKE John T. Carroll 679
JOHN Dorothy Ann Lee 709
ACTS Joel B. Green 735
ROMANS Charles Cousar 768
1 CORINTHIANS Suzanne Watts Henderson 788
2 CORINTHIANS Craig S. Keener 809GALATIANS Susan Eastman 825
EPHESIANS Margaret Y. MacDonald 833
PHILIPPIANS J. Ross Wagner 842
COLOSSIANS Stephen Fowl 851
1 THESSALONIANS Sze-kar Wan 857
2 THESSALONIANS Sze-kar Wan 863
12 TIMOTHY Matthew Skinner 868
TITUS Matthew Skinner 875
PHILEMON Emerson Powery 877
HEBREWS Daniel J.Harrington 881
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CONTENTS
JAMES Robert W. Wall 894
12 PETER M. Eugene Boring 900
1, 2, 3 JOHN George Parsenios 908
JUDE Steven Kraftchick 913
THE REVELATION TO JOHN Judith L. Kovacs 915
General Articles
HOW THE BIBLE WAS CREATED David L. Petersen 943
CANON OF THE OT Eileen M. Schuller 944
CANON OF THE NT Shane Berg 948
HEBREW NARRATIVE Tod Linafelt 951
LEGAL LITERATURE James W. Watts 953
PROPHETIC LITERATURE Robert R. Wilson 956
HEBREW POETRY Brent A. Strawn 959
WISDOM LITERATURE Harold C. Washington 961 APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE Carol A. Newsom 964
NARRATIVES OF THE NEW TESTAMENT Susan R. Garrett 967
LETTERS David Downs 970
CULTURES OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST Joel LeMon 973
CULTURE OF EARLY JUDAISM Amy-Jill Levine 979
CULTURES OF THE GRECO-ROMAN WORLD John T. Fitzgerald 983
BIBLE AND SPIRITUALITY Richard Valantasis 988
BIBLE IN THE LIFE OF THE CHURCH Beverly Roberts Gaventa 991
LECTIONARIES David L. Bartlett 992
PREACHING THE BIBLE Thomas G. Long 995TEACHING THE BIBLE Gordon S. Mikoski 998
Chronology 1000
Measures and Money Gordon B. Duncan 1004
Index of Subjects 1007
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EZRAJACOB WRIGHT
OVERVIEW
In many manuscripts of the LXX and in theMasoretic tradition, the books of Ezra and Nehe-
miah comprise a single book. Although the
Vulgate and some of the early church fathers sepa-
rate it into two distinct works, this book was likely
composed as a unity and should be appreciated as
such.
The book of EzraNehemiah recounts the
Judean reconstruction during Persian rule (539
430 BCE), after the devastation wrought by the
Babylonians (586 BCE). It may be divided into
three general sections: Whereas the first one (Ezra
16) relates primarily to a construction project
(the Temple) and the second one (Ezra 710) to
reforms for the community, the third (Neh 113)
integrates the two themes by addressing a con-
struction project and internal reforms.
Within these sections, there is room for a
wide range of subjects. Yet they all relate to the
fundamental question of Judahs identitywhich
institutions stand at its center and which practices
demarcate its boundaries. It is the question, notthe answers to it, that unifies the work. Yet the
authors have also created a sophisticated narrative
that aligns the physical with the spiritual: The
building of Jerusalems Temple and the municipal
Wall runs hand-in-hand with the construction of
the Judean community as whole. (Wall is capi-
talized since it represents in EzraNehemiah the
pendant to Temple and includes much more than
Jerusalems physical ramparts.)
Within the corpus of biblical literature, Ezra
Nehemiah is distinctive in its citation of manysources. The genre of these sources include lists
(Ezra 2; Neh 3; 7; 1112), official correspondence
and edicts written in Aramaic (Ezra 46, 7), and
first-person memoirs (Ezra 79; Neh 17, 13). The
sources have been subjected to heavy criticism
with respect to their authenticity, and this criti-
cism has provoked interest in the book as a work of
literature. EzraNehemiah reflects a new form of
historiography, which may be influenced by Greek
forms of history-writing. It also testifies to the
growing importance of texts as sources of author-
ity in a new post-monarchic age. Even the Persian
kings first consult their records before making an
imperial decision. They then supplement earlierdecrees with new edicts (=commentaries). In this
way, they model a hermeneuticalmethod of sur-
vival for the Judeans themselves, who find their
way by searching in their own texts.
As for the problems the sources pose for his-
torians, one should not confuse authenticity with
historical worth. That the Persian letters and
decrees in Ezra 17 may stem in large part from
Judean hands should neither dismay the biblical
reader nor lead to a wholesale dismissal of the
book. Rather, it should foster a greater apprecia-
tion for the ideals of the book expressed through
the writings of foreign kings and Judean heroes.
The completion of EzraNehemiah is usually
dated to the late Persian period (end of the fourth
centuryBCE). The Artaxerxes mentioned in Ezra
78 and Neh 2 is most likely Arxtaxerxes (d. 424
BCE). The identity of the Darius in Neh 12:22 is
difficult to determine, but he may be Darius III
(336330 BCE). Aside from these datable rulers, a
handful of evidence suggests that the compositionof the book (esp. the final chs. in Neh 812) con-
tinued in the early Hellenistic period, if not even
in the t imes of the Maccabees. If so, the combina-
tion of Torah piety and a well-fortified Jerusalem
in Neh 113 would have provided an important
model for polities at this time. Furthermore, the
book depicts an ideal history of relations between
Judah and a foreign empire, from its inception
(Ezra 1:1) until its end (Neh 12:22). This scope
likely presupposes the fall of that empire and the
need to reflect on past history in the face of suc-ceeding empires.
The title of the book commemorates two
figures who differ starkly from each other in their
(portrayed) personality and approach to problems.
Much contemporary homiletic literature devotes
a great deal of attention to this contrast, using
Ezra and Nehemiah as leadership case studies.
Such use of these figures is by no means unprec-
edented; it can be traced throughout the books
long reception history and probably informed the
composition of the book itself.
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EZRA
OUTLINE
I. First Movement: Rebuilding Altar and
Temple (1:16:22)
A. The Cyrus Edict (1:14)
B. Return of Yahwehs People and Vessels
(1:511)
C. The Plurality and Boundaries of the
Community (2:170)
D. Building the Altar (3:17)
E. Construction of the Temple (3:86:22)
3:813. Laying a Foundation
4:15. Interruptions to the
Building Project4:624. Seeking-and-Finding in the
Imperial Archives, Part I
5:12. The Role of the Prophets
5:36:12. Seeking-and-Finding in
the Imperial Archives, Part II
6:1322. The Completion of First
Phase of the Building Project
II. Second Movement: Ezra, the Temple, and
Community (7:110:44)
A. Ezra Is Sent to Jerusalem (7:18:36)7:110. Introducing Ezra
7:1126. The Artaxerxes Decree
7:278:36. Transporting the Vessels
B. Ezras Approach to a Communal Problem
(9:110:44)
9:115. Ezras Own Account
10:144. A Report about Ezras Actions
III. Third Movement: Nehemiah, the Wall,
and Community (Neh 1:113:31)(see
following chapter)
DETAILED ANALYSIS
I. First Movement: Rebuilding Altar and
Temple (1:16:22)
The first six chapters of Ezra treat the construc-
tion of the altar and Temple, and the problems
encountered during the course of the project. In
explaining the delay of the construction (from the
reign of Cyrus to Darius), this section also serves
as a kind of historical reflection on prophets, espe-
cially Haggai and Second Isaiah (see especially
5:12).
The section has its own distinctive character
and themes. Especially prominent is the motif ofseeking-and-finding in texts. Indeed, the narrative
is governed by the fate of Cyruss decree: Readers
are introduced to it at the outset (ch. 1). Yet in the
course of time, this document gets lost in the impe-
rial bureaucracy and archives, which results in a
lengthy delay of the project (chs. 45). When the
decree is finally found again (6:12), the Judeans
can finally complete the project. Rather than mere
narrative conceit, this motif of seeking-and-finding
expresses a fundamental message of the book: the
potential as well as the perils inherent in textualauthority.
A. The Cyrus Edict (1:14)
Because EN seems to represent one book, some
commentators read this paragraph as an introduc-
tion to the entire work. The house of the LORD
represents accordingly the city or community
rather than just the Temple. However, the book
lacks a grand conclusion and thus perhaps one
should not expect an introduction to the whole.
The deity is said to stir up the spirit of Cyrus.
In Hag 1:14 the same expression refers solely to
local Judeans who build in the t ime of Darius. The
author of our passage seems to have transferred
the inspirational moment to an earlier point and
to a foreign king (see, however, v. 5), constructing
thereby a much different historical account from
that in Haggai (and Zechariah). The notice that
the decree was also in writing is important for
the subsequent narrative (see esp. 6:12).
The decree responds to any doubt as to wherethis House should be built. The likely reason for the
stress on location is the existence of communities
who considered themselves equally to be the
people of Yahweh (v. 3) yet built temples in other
locations (e.g., Samaria). Cyruss words implic-
itly proscribe these competing temples. If a group
really belonged to Yahwehs people and heeded
imperial (as well as divine) orders, it would con-
tribute solely to the building project in Jerusalem.
The decree may be based in some way on a
historical edict. The Persian rulers followed a long-
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265
EZRA
established tradition of reversing earlier policies in
order to gain the loyalty of their subject peoples.
However, the formulation of these verses betrays
a Judean theological perspective that the histori-
cal Cyrus would have considered heretical, and it
differs from the quotation of the decree in 6:35
(see also 5:1315). By allowing Cyrus to proclaimthat Yahweh granted him all the kingdoms of the
earth (v. 2) and charged him to build his house
in Jerusalem (temple construction often followed
conquest in ancient Near Eastern royal ideology),
the author introduces a central message of the
book: The role of native Judean kings has been
assumed byforeignimperial rulers. The continu-
ity between native and foreign kingship is under-
scored by the use of vv. 13ain 2 Chr 36:2223.
B. Return of Yahwehs People and Vessels(1:511)
The people of Yahweh (v. 3) who heeded the
response are solely the former inhabitants of Judah
and Benjamin (v. 5). The remaining verses present
the return of this people in a direct relationship to
the return of the vessels (see esp. v. 11b), which
are mentioned throughout the book (5:1415;
6:5; 7:19; 8:2533; Neh 10:39[40];13:5, 9). The
cultic vessels represent the essential continuity
between the First and Second Temples inasmuch
as they are the same items that Nebuchadnez-zar had despoiled from the First Temple (v. 7).
(Despoliation of cultic inventory was widely prac-
ticed in the ancient world; cf. especially 1 Sam
47; 2 Sam 5:21; andwith respect specifically
to the vessels/peopleJer 2728.) The identity
of Sheshbazzar (Zerubbabel?) is a mystery. Here
he is called the prince of Judah, while according
to 5:1416 he was appointed governor by Cyrus
and later laid the Temple foundation (cf. however
3:810).
C. The Plurality and Boundaries of the
Community (2:170)
This chapter consists primarily of a list of
names and numbers of Judeans who could trace
their roots back to exilic origins. The list is inter-
rupted by a reference to groups who could not
prove their genealogies (2:5962). This attention
to ethnic continuity echoes the emphasis on cultic
continuity in 1:711 (compare Nebuchadnezzars
actions in 2:1 with 1:7). For a community in the
midst of upheaval and struggling to negotiate its
survival in a new imperial, multicultural environ-
ment, such concern with identity and tradition is
to be expected. In the absence of clearly demar-
cated political borders and a native Judean army
to defend those borders, the community notably
turns to texts (=written tradition), such as gene-
alogies and registers, imperial edicts, and the
Torahthe text par excellence (see, e.g., 3:2, 4).
By means of these texts and sophisticated methods
of interpretation, the community not only demar-
cates their social, ethnic, and relig ious boundaries
but also determines how they should proceed into
an unprecedented future.
The list probably represents an ideal vision
of Judah. For the narrative, it serves various pur-
poses: It fills the gap between chs. 1 and 3, and
may be compared to the voyage accounts in thesubsequent two movements (from Mesopotamia
to Judah: Ezra 8 and Neh 2). By the end of the
chapter, the author can report that the Judeans
(identified with all Israel!) were now residing
in their cities (v. 70). As a hybrid between clan
and territorial register, it also functions as a map
of Judah in compendium form. Finally, the list
serves, as in Neh 7, to express the plurality of the
community and to replace the otherwise anony-
mous, general designations (such as people of
Judah) with actual names.
The central role played by the kings of Judah
and Israel at an earlier time is now filled by numer-
ous names of clans and families, who are guided
by a lay leader (Zerubbabel) and a priest (Jeshua).
In this respect, the communitys leadership may
be compared to that of pre-monarchic Israel as
depicted in ExodusJoshua. Moreover, whereas
earlier only the king contributed to the building of
the Temple (1 Kgs 57; 1 Chr 22; 2 Chr 24), now
the people themselves assume this responsibility(vv. 6869), as the exodus generation did with
respect to the tabernacle (Exod 3536).
D. Building the Altar (3:17)
This passage, which seems to have been
created as a preface to 3:813, tells of the con-
struction of the altar. By virtue of this passage, the
book presents concentric spheres of sacrality, each
marked by the verb to build: altar, the House of
God, and the Wall of Jerusalem. The narrative wil l
progressively refocus attention from the center
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(altar and priesthood) to the periphery (the Wall
and entire community).
If the altar was built already in the seventh
month, the community had little time to make the
voyage back and settle in their new homes. Yet it
is important to re-inaugurate the festival calendaron the first day of the year (3:6). The community
also works quickly because of the terror of the
peoples of the lands1 (3:3), who later attempt to
disrupt their progress (4:15:5). It then takes mea-
sures to prepare for the second phase of construc-
tion (3:6b7, compare 1 Chr 22:2, 4, 15; 2 Chr
2:1516 as well as the prophecy in Isa 60:13).
These measures once again involve private dona-
tions in keeping with authorization from Cyrus
(3:7). The latter point is noticeably absent in 1:14
(but cf. 6:4). Its inclusion here further illustratesnot only the imperial support for the project but
also the communitys strict adherence to imperial
orders. It may be compared to the emphasis on
adherence to the Torah (3:2, 4, 5). The commu-
nity is ultimately governed by two texts: the Torah
and the Cyrus edict.
E. Construction of the Temple (3:86:22)
Up until this point the narrative has treated
important preliminary matters relating to prepa-
rations for the building of the Temple, which aredated to the first year of Cyrus. Beginning in 3:8,
which is dated to the second year, the account will
now focus on the construction of the Temple and
reasons why its completion was delayed until the
reign of Darius.
3:813. Laying a Foundation. The second phase
of building involves the appointment of Levites to
oversee the rest of the construction of the House
of Yahweh, the laying of the foundation of the
sanctuary proper (hekhal), and a festive ground-
breaking ceremony. That this event is dated tothe second month (of the second year) should be
read in connection with 2 Chr 3:2 relating to the
work on the First Temple. Here again the text
stresses historical continuity in this fledgling com-
munity (see also the reference to David in v. 10).
The antiphonal musical celebration is led by
the priests and Levites (v. 10) and consists of two
1 Unless otherwise indicated by NRSV, the
quotations from Ezra are direct translations by
the author.
types of song: praise (hallel) and thanksgiving
(hodot). The quoted psalm (v. 11) appears often
in the book of Chronicles in relation to the First
Temple (1 Chr 16:3; 2 Chr 5:13; 7:3). Its popular-
ity in the post-exilic period is likely related to its
affirmation of Yahweh as the source of the com-
munitys connection to a prior glorious period
of Israels history. The narrator notes that the
community was moved to praise, while some of
the elderly wept at the sight. The notice may be
responding to the same reaction that the prophet
Haggai addresses (Hag 2:3). If so, it declares that
the disappointment Haggai observed was counter-
balanced by joy.
4:15. Interruptions to the Building Project.
The concluding statement in ch. 3that the
sound of the celebration was heard far away(3:13)leads directly to ch. 4, which begins with
the enemies of Judah and Benjamin hearingabout
the construction project. These enemies identify
themselves as non-natives who began sacrificing
to your God after they had been settled in their
land by the Assyrians (4:2). Their petition to join
the project is briskly rebuffed by the leaders of
the community. The reason offered is strikingly
similar to that of Nehemiah in Neh 2:20. Yet in
contrast to Nehemiahs response, Zerubbabel et
al. can refer to a decree from Cyrus, which isaddressed solely to the people of Yahweh (1:3).
Although these enemies seek Yahweh and sacri-
fice to Yahweh, the authors do not consider them
to be the people of Yahweh (see however 6:21).
Spurned, the enemies adopt various machinations
to disrupt the project, which include both scare
tactics and bribing officials in the imperial bureau-
cracy. That this harassment continues from the
reign of Cyrus to the reign of Darius (4:5) reflects
the historical likelihood that the construction of
the Temple commenced in the reign of Dariusrather than the reign of Cyrus (see Hag 1).
4:624. Seeking-and-Finding in the Imperial
Archives, Part I. After referring to two letters
(4:67), the narrator cites the correspondence
between Artaxerxes and two of his officials in the
West, Rehum and Shimshai (4:823; the language
switches here to Aramaic). They write to the impe-
rial court with accusations against the Judeans.
Artaxerxes responds and commands the work be
brought to a halt. The narrator then reports that
the construction ceased until the second year of
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EZRA
Darius (cf. 4:5). Thus, the narrative jumps ahead
to the reign of Artaxerxes (d. 424 BCE) and then
back to Darius (d. 486 BCE). These letters also
refer to the work on the city walls rather than the
Temple.
How can one explain these incongruities?First, the letters illustrate and provide concrete
evidence for the claims made in 4:57. Second,
the possibility that the decree could be reversed
(4:21b) anticipates the permission this same king
later grants Nehemiah. But before this happens,
the narrator reports the completion (chs. 56) and
beautification (chs. 78) of the Temple. In this
way, the book illustrates how the imperial court
favors the Temple, whereas the Wall project (ini-
tially) jeopardizes the success of the Restoration.
Third, Artaxerxes seeksand findsin his recordsbefore making a decision (4:15, 19). His behavior
provides a model for the Judeans, who can seek
and find matters in their records (cf. 2:62; 7:10;
Neh 7:5, 64; 8:14; 13:1) at a time when they no
longer have a king of their own.
5:12. The Role of the Prophets. A new era
begins with the prophets, Haggai and Zechariah,
encouraging Zerubbabel and Jeshua to rise and
build (5:12). Although the community thereby
implicitly disobeys the orders of Artaxerxes (4:21),
the authors can, in this way, harmonize the books
of Haggai and Zechariah with the prophecy of
Second Isaiah. The reader now knows that Haggai
and Zechariah did indeed play an essential role in
initiating the construction of the Temple. But the
preface to this history provided in Ezra 14 shows
how the prophecy in Second Isaiah pertaining to
Cyrus and his declaration (e.g. Isa 44:28) was also
fulfilled. This sophisticated exegesis resolves the
tension between these books. However, in con-
trast to Hag 1, the authors of Ezra 16 present the work as merelyresuming in the second year of
Darius (instead of commencing) and the commu-
nity being concerned with this project since the
first year of Cyrus.
5:36:12. Seeking-and-Finding in the Imperial
Archives, Part II. Like ch. 4, this section pivots
on the kings activity of seeking-and-finding. This
time, however, the king does not search in a book
but rather in the imperial archives for a particular
document: the Cyrus edict. Because it had been
lost, enemies could interrupt the building project.
The plot of Ezra 16 is thus propelled by the Cyrus
edictboth its fate and its interpretation.
A brief narrative (5:35), consisting mainly
of an excerpt from 5:810, prefaces the letters
themselves (5:66:12). (For the eye of their
God, see Ps 33:18 and Job 36:7.) The lettersclosely resemble those in ch. 4 in both form and
content, yet they present a scenario that is more
historically tenable. Tattenai and Shetharbozenai
do not accuse the Judeans (in contrast to Rehum
and Shimshai; 4:1116) but merely report about
their inquiry. When asking the king to undertake
a search, they also employ more polite language
(cf. 5:17 with 4:15). Like Neh 1:14, the history
recounted by the Judean elders (5:1113) notably
lacks any reference to a collective return, as told in
Ezra 12. Sheshbazzar is the governor of the com-munity (in contrast to 3:15:2, but see 1:711).
Moreover, one hears nothing about opposition as
in 3:15:5.
The sense of identity and history mirrored
in the elders response is noteworthy. They are
the servants of the sovereign God (the God of
heaven and earth). Surprisingly, they do not say
anything about being Dariuss servants. Yet they
claim authorization from Cyrus, whose edict
they link historically to the work of a great king
of Israel (Solomon). What separates the two sidesof history is destruction and exileattributed
emphatically to the BabylonianChaldeanking
in direct response to their ancestors act ofanger-
ingthe deity.
Dariuss role as interpreter figures prominently
in this passage. The Persian king presents a new
reading of the Cyrus decree that focuses on the
dimensions/location of the Temple as well as
the return of the vessels. He also discovers that,
according to Cyrus, the royal treasury should bearthe costs of the building project (6:15; for kings
sponsoring the Temple construction, see com-
ments on 2:170). On the basis of what he finds
in the text, he then acts, issuing a new decree that
confirms and supplements what he found.
6:1322. The Completion of First Phase of the
Building Project. Once the new decree is issued
by Darius, the House of God is finally completed
after more than two decades. The agreement
between the divine command and the impe-
rial decrees is noteworthy (6:14). Moreover, this
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EZRA
passage emphasizes, in contrast to the letters, the
exilic origins of the community; they represent
the twelve tribes of Israel (6:17). After describing
the dedication, the narrator notes the celebration
of Passover (and Mazzoth) a month later (6:1922;
now reverting to Hebrew). The returning exiles
are joined in the festivities by those who had
separated themselves from the nations of the land
to seek Yahweh . . . (i.e., the non-exiled popula-
tion or, as Rashi claims, proselytes). Reference to
the Assyrian king (6:22) is anachronistic, but it
agrees with the emphasis on all Israel (the Assyr-
ians exiled the ten northern tribes/Israel).
II. Second Movement: Ezra, the Temple,
and Community (Ezra 7:110:44)
Ezra 7 marks the beginning of the secondmovement. It is once again (cf. ch. 4) set within
the reign of Artaxerxes. Yet it revolves around
the person of Ezra, who represents an ideal figure
of the new post-monarchic age. Chapters 78
recount his commission and voyage to Jerusalem;
its focus is primarily the Temple. In contrast, chs.
910 shift abruptly to recount his approach to a
communal crisis.
A. Ezra Is Sent to Jerusalem (7:18:36)
The preceding movement (chs. 16) presents
the community building the Temple with the help
of texts, in which they together with the Persian
kings seek-and-find. This section now focuses
attention on the activity itself of seeking-and-find-
ing by portraying an individual who had set his
heart to seekthe Torah of the LORD, and practice
and teach Israel laws and commandments (7:6,
10).
7:110. Introducing Ezra. The account begins
with Ezras priest ly genealogy (7:15). The geneal-ogy, however, is not complete; rather, it highlights
the most prominent names connecting him to
Aaron, the first/chief priest. Ezras later partner,
Nehemiah, identifies himself in his introductory
prayer as a servant of Yahweh like Moses (Neh
1:511).
Second, the narrator, like the king (7:12),
identifies Ezra as a proficient scribe of Torah (7:6,
1011). Ezras dual identity (priest-scribe) mirrors
the books ideals: birth supplemented by action/
merit. His genealogy establishes his personal con-
tinuity to earlier generations that inhabited the
land and, more specifically, his connection to the
first priest in Israels history. Yet the narrator also
shows how Ezra complemented his inheritance by
birth with meritorious performance in studying
the Torah.
Third, in 7:9 the narrator expresses the
beginning of the return in architectural terms
(yesud hamaalah), which are employed elsewhere
in the books for, respectively, thefoundationand
ascents/elevations in Jerusalem. Accordingly,
Ezras mission is presented as continuing the
project of building the House of God.
7:1126. The Artaxerxes Decree. Whether
Artaxerxes decree (in Aramaic) corresponds to
an authentic imperial document is a matter ofdebate among scholars. Whatever the case may
be, its presence in the book reiterates one of its
primary emphases, viz., that the Persian court
looked favorably upon the Temple, which served
as the conduit of imperial benefaction to Judah.
The heart of the decree (vv. 1524) parallels the
decrees in ch. 6 inasmuch as it prescribes dona-
tions for the Temple from the royal treasuries.
Here, however, the king (and his court) also make
freewill offerings (7:16; cf. 1:4; 2:68; 3:5); and
he also exempts Temple officials from taxes (7:24). Artaxerxes words leave no doubt that the king
acts out of fear and respect for Ezras God (see esp.
7:23). The framework of the decree grants Ezra
permission to go up to Jerusalem with anyone
who wishes to accompany him (7:13), to inquire
(lit. seek) in Judah according to the law/wisdom
of God (7:14, 25), and to appoint a government to
administer these laws, executing corporal punish-
ment if necessary (7:2526). It should be noted
that chs. 910 do not depict Ezra either appointing
judges or threatening corporal punishment.
7:278:36. Transporting the Vessels. After the
decree is cited, the narrative moves seamlessly
into a first-person account, which begins with
Ezras blessing (7:2728a). The attention devoted
to the Temple in the preceding decree underscores
the continuity between Ezras commission and
the larger building project. The same is reaffirmed
in Ezras blessing: God is praised as the one who
guides the heart of the foreign king to glorify
the Temple.
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EZRA
The actual narrative begins in 7:28b, where
Ezra tells his readers how he took immediate
action to fulfill his commission. His first move is
to assemble representative leaders. The account
here continues in 8:15 after being interrupted by a
list of clans that accompanied him from Babylon.
This list consists of three individuals followed
by twelve larger groups. (One may compare this
constellation to the three patriarchs and twelve
tribes, or three major and twelve minor prophets.)
Based on the number of males (1,513), the whole
congregation would have exceeded 5,000. Never-
theless, Ezra notices that the entire community
was not represented: The Levites were absent, and
hence he takes measures to remedy the situation
(8:1520). The passage resembles others in the
book that highlight the importance of the Levites
(see esp. Neh 13:1014, 22).
Second, Ezra proclaims a fast during which the
people petition their God for a safe journey (lit.
straight pathcf. Isa 40:3) for themselves, their
children, and their possessions (8:2123). The fast
replaces the imperial soldiers. After they had just
expressed their unequivocal trust in Gods provi-
dential care for those who seek him, Ezra says
that he was ashamed to ask the king for a military
escort to aid them (azar, a play on the name Ezra,
lit. [God is] aide). This verse (8:22) accentuates
the already implicit contrasts between Ezra and
Nehemiah. Nehemiahs trip is much more about
himself: He travels alone and is accompanied only
by an entourage of imperial soldiers (Neh 2:9). In
contrast, Ezra makes a concerted effort to bring a
large and representative group.
Third, Ezra identifies twelve priests to carry the
cultic vessels and offerings; both objects and their
bearers are declared holy. Ezras act and instruc-
tions to the group (8:2430) have ritual, symbolic
qualities communicating the significance of themove from Babylon to Jerusalem.
The rest of the chapter (8:3136) recounts the
voyage and arrival. The description of the journey
is reported in very few words, emphasizing the
deposition of the vessels in the Temple as well as
the concluding sacrifices and the delivery of the
kings edicts. The closing line expresses the happy
ending and overriding theme of this first episode
of the Ezra account: The Persian governors sup-
ported (lit. lifted up) the people and the House
of God.
B. Ezras Approach to a Communal Problem
(9:110:44)
After the happy ending in 8:36, the narra-
tive takes a sharp turn. Persian patronage for the
Temple now becomes the backdrop (9:9) against
which a communal crisis and Ezras responseare portrayed. These chapters have Nehemiahs
memoir in view: What is only one of several
abuses that Nehemiah confronts (Neh 13:2330)
is here presented as the fundamental problem
facing the communityone of existential propor-
tions (9:14). In this way, the authors of the book
provide a preface to Nehemiahs work, whose
Wall and reforms can now be read as a response to
the problem Ezra faced. The book also invites its
readers to compare and contrast Ezras and Nehe-
miahs approaches.
9:115. Ezras Own Account. The account is
extremely precise in both the narrative order
and word-choice. First, Ezra is confronted with
a problem; he does not notice it himself (cf. Neh
13:23). Second, the problem itself is presented in
historical terms: The Judeans (Israelites, priests,
and Levites) have failed to separate themselves
from the peoples of the lands, whose abominations
resemble the lands prior inhabitants and neigh-
bors (9:1). Third, the problem of non-separation
expresses itself in the activity of intermarriage.The holy race (lit. seed; see Isa 6:13) becomes
in this way mixed up. The statement may be
compared to Exod 19:6, in which the holiness that
defines priests is applied to the whole nation; yet
here the stress is not on the closeness of priests to
the deity but rather the distance that holy priests
must maintain from the profane. Fourth, the
leaders are identified as especially culpable.
In his mourning behavior, Ezra manifests
in his own body what is happening to the com-
munal body. By rending his clothes and pullingout his hair, he performs his message. In the end,
however, his dismay is beyond words and actions,
and thus he sits the entire day in silence (cf. Job
2:1213). The silence adds gravity to the moment
he speaks, so that his words provoke collective
action. But he does not address the community
directly; rather he turns to his God in prayer. The
contrast to Nehemiahs approach is pronounced
(Neh 13:2527).
Ezras prayer is not concerned with purity of
race but rather with issues that govern the books
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EZRA
account of post-exilic history: separation, soli-
darity, and survival. Without ethnic, social, and
religious boundaries, the community by definition
does not exist. But making a bold reductionist
move, Ezras prayer reveals the deeper theological
principle underlying this sociological truism: The
community is on the brink of destruction becauseit has failed to appreciate the divine favor (9:79)
and mercy (9:13) manifested in recent history in
that it has disregarded the commandments com-
municated through the prophets (9:1012). The
potential result is that they would be punished
to the point that now not even a remnant would
escape (9:1415). Intermarriage does not threaten
Judean cultural-ethnic superiority but rather its
very attempt to survive in a situation of foreign
bondage (9:89). In the words of the poet
Rainer Maria Rilke, Who is talking about greattriumph? It is all about simply survival!
10:144. A Report about Ezras Actions. After
his prayer, Ezras first-person account stops and a
third-person narrative begins. This switch reflects
how Ezra simply catalyzes a movement that is
really propelled by others: The shift from first- to
third-person account corresponds to the shift from
Ezra to community.
Chapter 10, like the preceding accounts,
focuses on the approach to the problem. Ezrasprayer elicits a collective response (10:1). One
leader, Shecaniah ben Jehiel, proposes to make a
communal pact to put away all the wives and
their children. This proposal, which is disturbing
for modern readers and was probably for many
ancient ones as well, is then adopted by Ezra
(10:24).
Significantly, the narrative never reports the
execution of the proposal. Instead one reads at
length about an assembly in Jerusalem (10:616).
Everyone (man) who did not appear is subject to
loss of property and membership in the exilic
congregation (10:8). Here one encounters a sec-
tarian or communal polity that differs starkly f rom
the authority over territory and body granted by
Artaxerxes in ch. 7. Accordingly, Ezra does not
call for the expulsion of women and children from
Judah in 10:11 but rather a separation from the
congregation (cf. 10:8). Elsewhere the word for
separation bears predominantly a ritual associa-
tion or refers to formal status (see esp. 8:2429).
The particulars of this legal ritual are not spelled
out (10:14). Yet it is unlikely, contrary to the insis-
tence of many commentators, that 10:644 (in
contrast to 10:25) refers to a mass divorce and
banishment of women and children. Only the
priests, in keeping with ancient law, are said to
have pledged to divorce their wives (10:1819).
The interpretation adopted here explains why
the account seems to taper off without a conclu-
sion (KJV/JPS 10:44; the RSV/NRSV translates a
later Greek version). It concludes in this manner
because it does not have the actual expulsion of
women and children in view. Rather the author
points the finger at the numerous men(10:2043)
who were culpable yet had been faithful to appear
before the council in order to undergo the separa-
tion, whatever it entailed.
Although the immediate narrative concludeshere, the story of rebuilding identity told by this
book continues in Neh 1.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Blenkinsopp. EzraNehemiah: A Commen-
tary. OTL (Philadelphia: Westminster John Knox,
1988); M. J. Boda and P. L. Redditt, eds. Unity
and Disunity in EzraNehemiah: Redaction,
Rhetoric and Reader. Hebrew Bible Monographs
17 (Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix, 2008); D. J. A.
Clines. Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther. NCB (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984); T. C. Eskenazi. In an Age
of Prose: A Literary Approach to EzraNehemiah.
SBLMS 36 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988);
R. W. Klein. Ezra, Nehemiah. NIB (Nashville:
Abingdon, 1999) 3:661851; Y. Rabinowitz. The
Book of Ezra: A New Translation with a Commen-
tary Anthologized from Talmudic, Midrashic
and Rabbinic Sources. ArtScroll Tanach Series
(Brooklyn: Mesorah, 1984); H. G. M. Williamson.
Ezra, Nehemiah. WBC 14 (Waco: Word, 1985);J. L. Wright. Rebuilding Identity: The Nehemiah-
Memoir and Its Earliest Readers. BZAW 348
(Berlin: De Gruyter, 2004).
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NEHEMIAHJACOB WRIGHT
OVERVIEW
Nehemiah comprises together with Ezra onebook, and an overview of this work is provided in
the preceding chapter. The problems posed spe-
cifically by Neh 113 will be treated in the course
of the commentary. One issue, however, must be
addressed at the outset: the relationship between
the narrative in Neh 810 and the rest of the book.
Nehemiah 810 stand out within Neh 113 for
a number of reasons. Rather than being narrated
by Nehemiah, these chapters are formulated about
him. Moreover, not only does Neh 8 focus on the
figure of Ezra, but also much of the narrative inthis chapter represents the continuation of Ezra 10
in the Greek version of 1 Esdras. These and other
observations have led many scholars to conclude
that Neh 8 was originally formulated as part of
the Ezra account. According to this position, the
chapter was formerly positioned, along with por-
tions of Neh 9, either between Ezra 8 and 9 or
after Ezra 10. The communal pact in ch. 10 is said
to represent an independent document found in
the Temple archives and included by the editor of
the book.
While this position deserves consideration, it
creates more problems than it solves. The mention
of Nehemiah in 8:9 would have to be attributed
to a gloss in order to attribute the narrative to the
Ezra account. Furthermore, the mention of Ezra
at key points elsewhere in Neh 113 suggests that
the original formulation of Neh 8 could have also
presented these two figures cooperating. That
1 Esdras removes the reference to Nehemiah from
Neh 8 is not surprising: This late book is character-
ized by an almost complete erasure of Nehemiahs
memory from this history (presumably because his
account criticizes the high-priestly line). Based on
undeniable lexical and stylistic parallels between
Neh 78 and Ezra 23, it is much more likely that
Neh 810 was composed from the beginning for
its present literary setting.
OUTLINEI. First Movement: Rebuilding Altar and
Temple (Ezra 16)
II. Second Movement: Ezra, the Temple, and
Community (Ezra 710)
III. Third Movement: Nehemiah, the Wall,
and Community (Neh 1:113:31)
A. Rebuilding the Wall (1:16:19)
1:111a. First Pivotal Conversation
1:11b2:9. Second Pivotal Conversation
2:1020. Initiation of the Project
3:132. An Account of Building the Wall
4:123 (Heb 3:334:17).
Animosity Intensifies
5:113. The Fraternity of the Judeansand Socio-Economic Reforms
5:1419. Nehemiahs Munificence
6:114. Attempts to Assassinate
Nehemiah or His Character
6:1519. The Climactic Statement
of Completion
B. Repopulation and Dedication of Jerusalem
(7:113:3)
7:173 (Heb 72). Fortif ying and
Repopulating Jerusalem
8:112. Reading Torah
8:1318. Celebrating
9:137 (Heb 38). Confessing
and Petitioning
9:3810:39 (Heb 10:140).
Covenanting Together
11:112:26. The Commemoration
of Leaders
12:2713:3. The Day of Dedication
C. Enforcing the Communal Pledge
(13:431)
DETAILED ANALYSIS
III. Third Movement: Nehemiah, the
Wall, and Community (Neh 1:113:31)
Within the third movement of the book, one
can likewise distinguish three sections: The first
allows Nehemiah to recount the building of the
Wall (1:16:19), the second section is toldwith
few exceptionsin the third-person and involves
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NEHEMIAH
important events leading up to the dedication of
the Wall (7:113:3), and in the third small section
Nehemiah resumes the narration to complete the
book (13:431).
A. Rebuilding the Wall (1:16:19)
These first six chapters consist almost exclu-
sively of first-person passages ascribed to the
Nehemiah Memoir (see however 3:132). As
such, the section has its own dist inctive character:
it depicts the construction of the Wall in various
building stages, beginning with the prehistory
of the project (chs. 12). Each stage is demar-
cated by a response from Judahs enemies when
they hear of the progress: 1:12:10; 2:1120;
3:14:5; 4:615; 4:1623; 6:119 (the account of
the reforms in ch. 5 interrupts this schema). More-
over, each stage corresponds to a specific problem
facing the community and progress in the project
of rebuilding identity.
1:111a. First Pivotal Conversation. The narra-
tive begins with a conversation through which
Nehemiah learns about the problem he will later
address. The condition of Jerusalems wall and
gates, although representing the focus of Nehe-
miahs project, is identified by Hanani and the
Judeans as a part of a larger socialproblem facing
the entire province of Judah: great trouble andshame. Throughout Nehemiahs memoir, these
terms bridge the building report (e.g. 3:3335/
4:13) and the accounts of social reforms (e.g. 5:9;
6:13; 13:7, 17, 27).
The passage refers to the Judeans who escaped
the deportations and remained in Judah, but
surprisingly ignores the numbers of those who,
according to Ezra 110, had recently returned
from exile. Only a late addition to the first-person
Nehemiah account (7:473) is cognizant of the
Babylonian/exilic origins of the Judeans. Thisreveals the historical problems posed by the refer-
ences to massive returns.
Nehemiahs reaction to the newsmourning,
fasting, and praying (1:4)may be understood
as performed theology. It affirms that the solu-
tion to Judahs distress ultimately lies with divine
hands rather than in Nehemiahs clever tactics
and leadership, which are depicted throughout
the memoir. The prayer itself (1:511a) pauses nar-
rative time and allows the protagonist to reveal
his theological motivations. It is framed by peti-
tions that past prayers be heard (1:6, 11). Situated
between these petitions are (1) an affirmation that
sin had caused the present calamities, (2) a refer-
ence to a divine promise, and (3) a reminder of the
communitys special identity.
Most of this passage (1:1b11a) is not presup-posed in the following scene. The expansion of
Nehemiahs building report with accounts of
reforms (esp. chs. 5 and 13) would have necessi-
tated a new introduction, which 1:24 provides.
Likewise, the insertion of the narratives in chs.
810, which emphasize Torah-piety, seems to cor-
respond to the insertion of the prayer in 1:511a
(see esp. 1:7).
1:11b2:9. Second Pivotal Conversation. This
paragraph describes a (second) pivotal conversa-
tion, now between Nehemiah and Artaxerxes. It
takes place in the first month, perhaps during a
New Years celebration. As the royal cupbearer,
Nehemiah is serving wine to the king. Because
Nehemiah enjoyed the kings favor, he is granted
a request. Yet by telling his readers that he prayed
right before responding (2:4), Nehemiah ascribes
ultimate responsibility for the positive outcome to
divine providence (see 1:411).
Nehemiah is granted only a leave of absence;
he is not appointed governor, which seems to con-tradict 5:14. He must also ask for letters granting
him safe passage and providing him lumber for the
project. In contrast, Artaxerxes grants Ezra gener-
ous gifts and makes the royal treasuries available
to him. Stil l, Artaxerxes provides Nehemiah with
a retinue of soldiers and cavalry, which Ezra does
not receive (see Ezra 8:22 and comments there).
The disparities between Ezras and Nehemiahs
account may be related to tensions between Nehe-
miah and the Temple circles, which seem to have
had a hand in the composition of Ezra 78.2:1020. Initiation of the Project. Opposition
to Nehemiah is presented already in 2:10. Similar
notices, which begin with as heard, punc-
tuate the building narrative and create discrete
building phases (2:1920; 4:15; 4:79; 6:114);
they conclude in 6:16 after the statement of com-
pletion. The three figures that are the subject of
these notices are Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem/
Gashmu. Sanballat was probably the governor in
Samaria; he is attested in extra-biblical sources.
Tobiah likely oversaw the administration in the
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Transjordanian/Ammonite region. There is also
independent evidence for Geshem as a sheikh in
the southern Arabian/Edomite region.
The first notice (2:10) presents Nehemiahs
agenda in broad terms, i.e., to seek the welfare of
the people. It is also more radical than the subse-quent notices inasmuch as it identifies Sanballat
and Tobiah as opposed to the people of Israel.
Both figures would have most probably worshiped
Yahweh and have identified themselves as belong-
ing to the people of Israel. In comparison, the
second notice (2:1920) is much tamer: All three
now accuse the Judeans of rebuilding the Wall in
order to rebel against the empire.
In between these two notices is an account
of Nehemiahs arrival in Jerusalem, his night
ride during which he inspects the ruins, and hisaddress to the community leaders that convinces
them to embrace his building program (2:1118).
As elsewhere, the narrative attributes success at
critical junctures to Nehemiahs savvy approach.
Here the account emphasizes his decision to wait
to reveal his plan (2:12, 16) and the way he goes
about presenting it (2:1718).
3:132. An Account of Building the Wall. This
passage poses a problem: It not only recounts the
completion of the work but it also lacks references
to interruptions or opposition that characterize
Nehemiahs account elsewhere. Due to simi-
larities in expression between 3:1 and 2:18 (and
2:20), the passage was likely created for its present
context rather than orig inating as an independent
archival document. It was probably inserted at
a relatively early point in the composition of the
memoir and, if so, testifies to the originally brief
and un-polemical nature of the building report.
The passage both describes the topography of
the Wall and memorializes the donorsall theguilds, groups, and regions that contributed to
the project. They are the servants of the God of
heaven who have share, claim and right in Jeru-
salem (2:20). The Wall is formed literally by the
names of the builders, who work collectively and
in collaboration.
The passage mentions no fewer than 10 gates.
This unusually large number, rendering it vulner-
able to penetration, corresponds to the way the
construction of the Wall symbolizes the demar-
cation of Judahite identity: Although a barrier to
the outside, the Wall does not hermetical ly seal off
Jerusalem but rather offers many points of access.
4:123 (Heb 3:334:17). Animosity Intensifies.
The present arrangement of the building account
alternates between passages reporting progress
on the Wall and passages reporting attempts tothwart this progress. This back-and-forth is espe-
cially apparent in the present section. In the first
paragraph (3:3337/4:15), Sanballat and Tobiah
taunt the Judeans, and Nehemiah responds with
an imprecation.
Sanballats insult expresses one of the main
messages of the account itself: the correspondence
between the restoration of the ruins and the reviv-
ification of the community. Similarly the joining
of the Wall (3:38/4:6) corresponds to the enemies
joining together in a military coalition (4:2/4: 8).
The account highlights, and depicts at length,
the leadership skills Nehemiah displays during
this crisis. He mobilizes the builders in prepara-
tion for the impending attack by arranging them
into armed militia companies and rallying them
with stirring speeches (4:8, 1314/4:14, 1920).
These speeches resemble the great addresses
delivered at the time of the first Conquest (e.g.,
Josh 10:25).
The present section contains the image that ismost widely associated with Nehemiah: working
with one hand and wielding a weapon with the
other. Building becomes a means of fighting. This
image also marks the great conceptual disparity
with the preceding narrative in Ezra 110: The
Judeans do not wait patiently for the empire to
protect their interests, nor are they focused on
the Temple as the conduit of imperial benefaction.
Rather, they create a larger space (symbolized by
the Wall) in which they can flourish; and they are
prepared to fight their neighbors who attempt vio-lently to disrupt this project.
5:113. The Fraternity of the Judeans and Socio-
Economic Reforms. This passage evinces many
parallels with the three reform accounts in ch. 13:
Nehemiah witnesses an abuse, indicts the offend-
ers, takes various corrective measures, and then
utters a concluding prayer of remembrance (see
5:19).
The first paragraph (5:15) delineates the
formal complaints of the people and their wives
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against their Judean kin (5:1). At issue is a situ-
ation of increasing economic disparities: some
families are becoming wealthier at the expense of
others, who are losing possession of both property
and children. The female children in particular
are being abused. Due to these financial injustices
and loss of familial property rights, the fabric of
the Judean community is being torn apart. If the
problem is not addressed, the Wallboth in the
physical and larger social sensewould not be
built. The solution is a complete restoration of all
property and interest (5:1112), a major imposi-
tion on any economy.
As an ideal leader, Nehemiah hears this com-
plaint and responds effectively (5:613). He calls
for the wealthy to walk in the fear of God
(=ethically) in order to prevent the reproach ofthe surrounding nations. Earlier, he refers to this
reproach in order to convince the Judeans to
rebuild the Wall (2:17); hence the reform and the
building project address a common problem.
Yet Nehemiah is not satisfied with mere preach-
ing and promises. Rather he institutionalizes the
change through legal actions, which include a
formal oath and a curse; readers are told that such
measures proved to be effective (5:13b).
5:1419. Nehemiahs Munificence. This para-
graph, which continues the theme of 5:113,
describes Nehemiah fiscal policies as governor.
This is the first time he is described this way. It is
quite possible that later authors identified him as
a governor in order to present a model of behavior
foror polemics againstlater governors.
Nehemiah claims that, because of his fear of
God (5:15), he did not place any extra burdens on
the people in order to pay his own salary. In addi-
tion he displays generosity by hosting many guests
each day at his table. Such commensality wouldhave helped consolidate political and social bonds.
Uniting this paragraph with the preceding one
is a petition that his God not forget (or erase,
13:14) everything he had done for this people
(5:19). This prayer presumes that the deity keeps a
written record of human deeds. Because the prayer
is addressed directly to God (as in 3:3637/4:45;
6:14; 13:14, 22, 29, 31 and in contrast to 1:511
and 2:4), the memoir (or a version of it) may be
meant primarily for a divine readership and only
secondarily for a human audience.
6:114. Attempts to Assassinate Nehemiah or
His Character. After the interlude in ch. 5, the
theme of building and opposition from chs. 24
resumes. The first three episodes (6:24, 59,
1014) of this section are dated to the final phase
of the project (6:1). They all concern the person
and work of Nehemiah, mirroring an emphasis of
5:1419. The texts allow one of Judahs found-
ing fathers to address important questions facing
later generations of readers. Thus, the first para-
graph (6:24) presents Nehemiah focusing on the
great work and refusing to be distracted (see
5:16). The second paragraph (6:59) allows Nehe-
miah to affirm that his intention in building was
not to establish a monarchy or rebel against the
empire. The author alludes here to the corrupt-
ibility of prophetsand the danger it poses for
Judean rulers (6:7); this point becomes central to
the message of the following paragraph (6:1014).
6:1519. The Climactic Statement of Comple-
tion. Now, finally, the Wall was finishedin just
52 days (6:15). Responsibility for such quick work
is attributed to divine assistance (6:16; see Ps
118:23). Here also one reads for the last time that
the enemies heard the news, yet now they must
admit their defeat (6:16). What necessitated the
project (disgrace and reproach, see 1:3 and 2:17)
has now finally been alleviated.The twenty-fifth of Elul marks a great rever-
sal of fortune, for not only had the ramparts been
restored but the community had also undergone
a major social and spiritual transformation. To
underscore this point, all the reforms are dated
to the period of construction. This is not only the
case for ch. 5 but also for the reforms reported
in ch. 13. Nehemiah 13:1522 and 13:2330
begin with expression in those days, which also
introduces 6:1719, and the days in 6:17 clearly
refers to the 52 days in 6:15. Moreover, 6:1719most likely originally continued, before the inser-
tion of the largely third-person narrative mate-
rial in 7:113:3, in the account of 13:49(1014).
Tobiah had to send letters to his Judean alliance
partners (6:1719) because when Nehemiah came
to town, he removed Tobiah from his apartment
in Jerusalem (13:49; on the date in 13:6, see ad
loc.). Accordingly, the reforms recounted in ch. 13
are presented as taking place during the construc-
tion, so that the twenty-fifth of Elul becomes truly
climactic. Support for this reading is provided by
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structural observations: Five consecutive accounts
beginning in ch. 5 conclude with prayers for
remembrance (5:119; 6:114; 6:1719 + 13:414;
13:1522; 13:2331), and the final three of these
accounts begin with the phrase in those days,
referring to the 52 days in 6:1516.
B. Repopulation and Dedication of Jerusalem
(7:113:3)
Whereas 13:431 seems to have been origi-
nally connected to 6:1719, a large block of mate-
rial in 7:113:4 now severs the earlier narrative.
This block appears to have gradually grown to
its present proportions. The first insertions are
probably the texts relating to the fortification and
repopulation of Jerusalem in chs. 7 and 11 as well
as the account of the dedication ceremonies in
12:2743. By citing the list of Ezra 2, the author of
Neh 7 provoked the composition of Neh 810 (cf.
Ezra 23); these important chapters expand on
the theme of the internal reforms in Neh 5 and 13.
Nehemiah 810 were composed with the climatic
celebration at the dedication of the Wall in view.
The reader should understand that the people
studied Torah, confessed their sins, and made a
pact before celebrating that momentous day.
7:173 (Heb 72). Fortifying and Repopulating
Jerusalem. After finishing the building project,the people appoint gatekeepers, a commander of
the city, as well as a militia to protect the city and
their homes. Jerusalem is now fortified and rests
fully within Judean hands. The martial elements
of the account, which are introduced in ch. 4,
continue in ch. 11. That singers and Levites also
are appointed (7:1) has to do with the fact that the
gates, as thresholds, are also religiously precarious
places (see 3:1 and 12:2743).
In the process of fortif ying Jerusalem, Nehemi-
ah repopulates the city (7:572/73). This themetoo continues in ch. 11. God is said to place this
idea in [his] heart (7:5). This expression, which
is used first in 2:12 with reference to the building
project, appears here to introduce a new project,
one that relates specifically to the people.
Significantly the method Nehemiah employs
for repopulating the city is seeking-and-finding
(see commentary on Ezra 47). The text he
finds is the book of the genealogy of those who
were the first to come back (7:5). This may be
the authors description of Ezra 16, since the
passage he finds in it, and then quotes at length
(7:672(73)), parallels closely Ezra 2. This discov-
ery results in a new understanding of the Judeans
identity, since up until now Nehemiah had never
acknowledged any collective return from Babylon
(see esp. 1:23).
This harmonization of Nehemiahs account
with the historical conceptions in Ezra 110 has
likely been provoked by the mention of mixed
marriages and alliances in 6:1719. The need for
internal social-religious reforms is answered with
the composition of Neh 810.
As to why the author listed all the names again
(after Ezra 2), one should note that the numbers
in ch. 11 are precisely 10 percent of those in ch.
7, corresponding to the tithe in 11:1. From the
perspective of ch. 8, the repetition of Ezra 2 also
grants names and identity to the otherwise anony-
mous mass of people in ch. 8.
Finally we may appreciate an element of real-
ized eschatology here: Only those whose names
were found written in this book are permitted
to inhabit the new(ly built) Jerusalem.
8:112. Reading Torah. This passage takes its
point of departure from the repetition of Ezra 2 in
Neh 7. In contrast to the account of the rebuilding
of the altar and the numerous sacrifices in Ezra 3,this description of the seventh month (the central
month in the cultic calendar) noticeably lacks any
reference to the Temple or the High Priest Eliashib.
Herewith the narrative shifts the perspective
from the center (priests sacrificing on the altar) to
the periphery (the people beckoning Ezra to read
the Torah to them). In the course of the month,
the leaders (8:13) and then people (9:1) learn to
read for themselves. In keeping with his portrayal
in Ezra 910, Ezra responds to communal petitionand only then becomes a catalyst for collective
action. When he ascends the platform to read, he
takes with him a group of leaders, symbolically
demonstrating that he cannot lead alone. Later the
Levites are involved in interpreting the text to the
congregation (8:8).
The activities are performed ceremoniously in
keeping with the reverence for the Torah; many of
these features anticipate later rituals of reading in
the synagogue. Yet the account also underscores
general comprehension (8:812). Earlier we
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are told that not only men but also women and
all who could understand were present. After
the loss of territorial statehood and living in the
context of imperial rule, broad participation and
education have become critical to the formation
and survival of the community. In keeping with
the festive nature of the day (later known asRosh Hashanah), the people celebrate with feast-
ing, drinking and merrymakingbecause they
had understood the words that words that were
declared to them (8:12).
8:1318. Celebrating. The second part of ch. 8
is about not just the celebration of the Feast of
Booths (Sukkoth) but also an ideal form of com-
munal action. The lay leaders, priests, and Levites
gather around the scribe Ezra in order to study
the words of the Torah. Through their seeking inthe scriptures, they find (see on seeking-and-
finding in Ezra 47 and Neh 7) a particular com-
mandment. However, what is said to be written
is not found word-for-word in the Pentateuch.
Rather it represents a product of constructive exe-
gesis called midrash (derived from the word to
seek). By means of this sophisticated technique
of interpretation, ancient law and the sacred writ-
ings as a whole are applied to new circumstances.
The innovative way the festival is celebrated
by making booths throughout Jerusalem anddwelling in themcorresponds to the building
theme in the surrounding narrative, but it also
expresses a theological message: the festival cel-
ebrates divine providence and commemorates
a time when Israel did not yet possess its land
(see Lev 23:4243). The reference to the days
of Jeshua son of Nun is probably to be explained
by the fact that this epoch marks the zenith in
the biblical memorywhen Israel successfully
occupied the land and followed their leader Joshua
in observing Torah. Not surprisingly the narratornotes that he or they read Torah each day of
the weeklong festival.
9:137 (Heb 38). Confessing and Petitioning.
After celebrating throughout the month, the
people reassemble in Jerusalem, now in a much
more somber mood: fasting and wearing sackcloth
with dust on their heads. They first ritually sepa-
rate themselves from foreigners (see comments on
Ezra 10), and thereafter engage in confession and
Torah readingnow significantly on their own
and without the help of Ezra.
The brief narrative is followed by a lengthy
prayer uttered by a group of Levites. The complex
text deserves attention not least because of its dis-
tinctive reading of biblical history. The paramount
concern of the prayer is the land. After praising the
deitys creative and sustaining acts, it begins with
the election of Abraham and the fulfilled promise
to give his descendants a land possessed by other
peoples (9:8). The prayer alternates between enu-
merations of divine benevolent acts (9:915 and
1925) and descriptions of Israels stubbornness
and disobedience (9:1618 and 2631) that result
in the loss of sovereignty. The cyclical judgment-
restoration schema that characterizes the period
of Judges has been applied to all of Israels subse-
quent history, so that the catastrophe of 586 BCE is
no longer central (9:2631). In fact, the construc-
tion and destruction of the Temple are passed over
in silence, in keeping with distinctive emphases of
the preceding chapter and of Nehemiahs account.
The final section (9:3237/38) consists of
a petition that the deity once again regard the
peoples plight. In what way God should respond
is not spelled out. Nevertheless, the problem is
clearly stated: We are slaves in our own land.
As recompense for past sins, foreign kings possess
power over our bodies and livestock. This note
of protest stands out in the context of the book, which presents foreign rule otherwise in ulti-
mately favorable terms. While the yearning for
Judean territorial sovereignty also deviates from
many passages in the book, it dovetails with the
emphases in Nehemiahs account.
9:3810:39 (Heb 10:140). Covenanting
Together. Proceeding from the close interdepen-
dence between Torah-obedience and land-tenure
affirmed by the prayer, the community responds
to all this (the great distress in 9:37) with a
communal pact. The word here for pact is con-structed from the same root as that for Abrahams
faithful heart. God rewarded it with a covenant
that was likewise upheld (9:8). Mirroring the
importance assigned to texts in the book, the pact
is explicitly said to have been put in writing and
sealed with names of communal leaders (Nehe-
miah sets the example; 10:1/2). The list of names
is followed by a general declaration of intent: to
walk in the Torah of God (10:2829/2930).
What such obedience entails is spelled out in the
subsequent stipulations.
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Most of these stipulations relate specifically
to contributions for the Temple and cultic officers
(10:3239/3340). Yet the wording of the final
line as well as the first two stipulations (10:30
31/3233) are drawn from Nehemiahs indict-
ments in ch.13. This citation necessarily affects
the reading of the final chapter of Nehemiahs
account: Instead of introducing new reforms,
Nehemiah must now be understood to be enforc-
ing prior communal resolutions. Yet the authors
aim was likely not to diminish the importance
of Nehemiahs actions. The intention is probably
rather to demonstrate the importance of a strong
leader: The community ultimately fails in its com-
mitment to uphold the pact. Hence they require
someone like Nehemiah who, through his preach-
ing, identifies abuses, reaffirms the communitys
earlier pledge, and institutes proactive measures
that ensure its fulfil lment. A similar compositional
history and reading strategy inform the relation-
ship of pentateuchal law to the preaching of the
prophets.
11:112:26. The Commemoration of Leaders.
The narrative continues here with a brief note
regarding the repopulation of Jerusalem, followed
by several lists. Thematically the account resumes
the thread in ch. 7 regarding both Jerusalems
repopulation and fortification (see the referencesto warriors in 11:6, 14). The difference is that in
ch. 7 Nehemiah is the subject of the action; here
the people act on their own, in keeping with the
transition depicted in chs. 810.
One may wonder why the closely related chs.
7 and 11 are so widely separated. In addition to
the initial compositional move to create a parallel
to Ezra 23, the larger motivation was likely to
show t